.Aiilittfc.. 


E^xblBI^Ig 


jlarnr^  fl.  ^jJJf^lan 


Digitized. by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/footprintstimeOObancricli 


'/^ 


,    e 


•   THE 

rOOTPEINTS  OF  TIME:.     '  , 

AND'A  COMPLETE  '    V  %•  %\i  i  .', 

ANALYSIS 

OF  oubSamerican 

SYSTEM  OF. GOVERNMENT,. 

WITH   A 

CONCISE    HISTORY    OP   THE    ORIGIN    AND    PROGRESS    OF 

CIVILIZATION  ;  THE  RELATION  OF  THE  OLD  WORLD 

TO    THE    FREE    INSTITUTIONS   OF  THE  NEW  ; 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  AND  GROWTH  OF 

THE  ENGLISH  COLONIES  AND  OP 

THE    UNITED    STATES 

OF    AMERICA. 

FACTS  AND  STATISTICS  feom  OFFICIAL  SOURCES. 


By  CHARLES  BANCROFT.  ^'^^ 


R.    T.    ROOT     PUBLISHER. 

BURLINGTON,  IOWA. 

1879. 


■;0       .,::■:::  ifTr^  V^ 


77/j  f  / 


phela: 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874  I 

and  1875 

By  R  T.  EOOT, 

In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


PREFACE. 


It  is  the  obfect  of  this  book  to  supply  the  means  of  forming 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  American  government.  The  author 
has  adopted  the  proposition  that  the  highest  style  of  govern- 
ment is  one  "  of  the  people,  hy  the  people,  and/b/*  the  people," 
and  believes  that  a  constant  progress,  commencing  in  the  earli- 
•est  times,  has  reached  its  full  development  in  the  Great  Re- 
public. He  therefore  traces  The  Footprints  of  Time  through 
all  history;  notes  the  gradual  unfolding  of  institutions,  the 
rise  and  fall  of  empires,  the  causes  that  produced  and  des- 
troyed the  ancient  republics,  and  the  origin  of  the  forces  that 
give  so  much  more  strength  and  stability  to  modern  civiliza- 
tion. All  this  he  considers  essential  to  a  correct  appreciation 
•  of  the  wonderful  events  of  our  age  and  country. 

He  then  proceeds  to  a  close  and  clear  analysis  of  the  whole 
structure  of  the  government.  Each  general  division,  with  its 
sub-divisions,  is  examined  in  detail,  but  successively ;  so  that  a 
definite  picture  of  it,  with  all  its  branches,  operations,  and  re- 
lations to  other  parts,  stands  before  the  mind  as  a  sharply 
defined  whole.  The  Executive,  Legislative,  and  Judicial  divis- 
ions —  the  dependent  parts  of  each  kept  in  proper  place  — 
come  in  order,  one  after  the  other,  before  the  mind,  the  struct- 
ure, powers  and  working  of  each  being  fully  explained. 

The  book  is  indeed  a  compilation,  and  the  matter  in  large 
part  from  ofiicial  sources,  but  collected  from  an  astonishingly 
larflfe  number  of  books,  all  of  which  are  not  to  be  found  even 
in  the  largest  public  libraries;  but  the  labor  required  in  gath- 

(5) 


PREFACE. 


ering  so  mucli  from  all  directions  and  Dmpressing  a  library 
into  a  form  and  compass  so  convenient,  and  so  well  arranged, 
in  so  few  and  well  chosen  words,  has  been  great  indeed. 

All  the  works  heretofore  brought  before  the  public  proposing 
to  meet  this  want  have  been  fragmentary,  or  have  treated  at 
too  great  length  but  a  portion  of  the  subject.  A  complete 
summary,  or  Citizens'  Manual,  is  here  furnished,  that  includes 
a  sufficiently  detailed  Analysis  of  the  entire  structure  of  me 
government,  developing  in  a  clear  and  comprehensive  manner 
the  organization,  powers,  relations,  and  mode  qi  working  of 
each  department,  small  or  large,  the  principles  on  which  they 
rest  and  the  spirit  that  permeates  them  all.  It  lays  our  his- 
tory so  far  under  contribution  as  to  show  us  the  occasion  that 
produced  each  institution,  the  gradual  growth  of  the  grand 
edifice  and  the  causes  that  controlled  and  shaped  the  whole. 
In  short,  it  gives  us  an  adequate  reason  for  the  form  of  our 
institutions,  even  so  far  back  as  the  earlier  history  of  humanity, 
when  the  tendencies  that  have  borne  this  fruit  first  began  tG 
appear  in  human  history. 

The  Publisher. 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is  our  happiness  to  live  in  an  age  whose  master-pieces  of 
accomplishment,  in  science,  industry  and  commerce,  put  to 
shame  the  extravagant  fictions  of  Oriental  tales  and  the  wond- 
ers ascribed  to  the  gods  and  heroes  of  ancient  mythology. 
The  changes  produced  by  recent  investigations  and  discover- 
ies are  so  vast  and  so  rapid  that  it  is  difficult  to  follow  them 
or  comprehend  the  power  and  thoroughness  of  the  transforma- 
tions that  are  taking  place  in  the  world  around  us.  The  ap- 
plications of  steam  and  electricity  astonish  us  by  their  wide 
spread  influence  on  the  condition  and  relations  of  men;  the 
ease  and  speed  of  movement  and  intercourse,  constantly  in- 
creasing, are  ever  putting  us  in  new  and  unfamiliar  situations. 
We  have  hardly  accustomed  our  thoughts  and  habits  to  one 
before  we  are  hurried  on  into  another.  The  constantly  clearer 
and  more  abundant  light  shed  by  science  and  the  press  does 
not  suffice  to  keep  our  minds  fully  up  to  the  progress  that  goes 
on  in  all  departments  of  life. 

It  is  plain  that  we  have  entered  on  a  New  Era,  the  most 
extraordinary  and  momentous  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The 
old  and  imperfect  is  being  cleared  away  and  everything  thor- 
oughly reconstructed.  The  explanation  is  that  we  are  now 
setting  up  the  grand  Temple  of  Civilization,  the  separate 
stones  and  pillars  of  which  each  nation  and  age  was  commis- 
sioned to  hew  and  carve,  and,  so  to  speak,  left  in  the  quarry 
to  await  the  time  when,  all  the  material  being  ready,  the  Master 
Builder  should  collect  all   the  scattered   parts  and  raise  the 

(V 


8  INTBODUCnON. 

whole  edifice  at  once,  to  the  astonishment  and  joy  of  man- 
kind. 

All  the  institutions  and  civilizations  of  the  past  may  be 
considered  temporary,  erected  in  haste  from  the  materials  near- 
est at  hand,  not  for  permanence,  but  to  serve  the  present  turn 
while  the  special  task  of  the  nation  or  age  was  being  performed. 
The  races  and  ages  nearer  the  birth  of  mankind  worked  on 
rougher  parts  of  the  edifice,  that  entered  into  the  foundations; 
those  grand  races,  the  Greek  and  the  Roman,  furnished  the 
noble  outline  which  the  nations  of  modem  Europe  perfected 
while  they  supplied  what  was  still  lacking  for  use  and  adorn- 
ment. 

America  was  reserved,  designedly,  for  so  many  ages,  to 
furnish  a  suitable  and  unencumbered  location  for  the  central 
halls  and  mightiest  pillars  of  the  completed  structure.  Our 
fathers  cleared  the  ground  and  laid  the  foundation  deep  down 
on  the  living  rock,  that  is  to  say,  on  Human  Rights.  That 
they  seldom  failed  to  place  stone,  pillar  and  column  in  just 
position  the  work,  as  we  find  it,  proves,  and  we  have  little  to 
do  but  to  clear  away  the  rubbish,  beautify  the  grounds,  and 
put  the  whole  to  its  proper  use. 

We  begin  to  see  that  Time,  Thought  and  Experience  have 
not  wrought  in  vain,  that  Progress  is  not  a  phantom  of  the 
imagination,  that  the  human  race  is  essentially  a  Unit,  that  it 
has  been  growing  through  all  the  centuries  and  is  now  ap- 
proaching the  prime  of  its  manhood,  jnst  ready  to  enter  on  its 
special  career  with  its  grandest  work  still  to  do.  The  energies 
of  all  the  races  are  preparing  for  unheard  of  achievements. 
The  world  was  never  so  completely  and  so  wisely  busy  as  now, 
and  America  stands  between  modern  Europe  and  ancient  Asia, 
receiving  from,  and  giving  to,  both.  Her  institutions  are 
founded  on  principles  so  just  and  so  humane  that,  when  ad- 
ministered with  due  wisdom  and  skill,  they  will  embarrass  and 
restrain  the  proper  activities  of  men  at  no  point.  America 
stands  a  model  which  other  nations  will  carefully  copy,  in  due 
time,  as  they  can  adapt  themselves  and  change  their  institu- 


IKTRODUCnON.         •  9 

tions.  Tliere  may  be  no  literal  copy  or  close  formal  imitation; 
but  tliere  is  little  doubt  that  the  spirit  and  true  sense  of  our 
Declaration  of  Independence  will  finally  mould  the  structure 
and  control  the  workings  of  all  governments. 

It  is  the  Course  of  Human  Progress,  and  the  important  ele- 
ments that  were  successively  added  as  each  leading  phase  of 
civilization  appeared,  that  is  endeavored  to  be  traced  in  the 
Historical  Review  of  the  First  Part  of  this  book.  While  fol- 
lowing the  general  march  of  events  chronologically,  we  have 
stopped  here  and  there  to  take  a  general  survey,  in  order  the 
better  to  understand  the  significance  of  detached  facts,  or  to 
examine  a  new  infiuence  that  enters  among  the  forces  mould- 
ing the  future.  Our  space  did  not  allow  an  exhaustive  pro- 
cess; nor  was  it  desirable.  We  have  taken  note  of  only  the 
more  important  landmarks  of  Progress.  Too  much  detail 
would  confuse  the  mind  by  engaging  it  in  an  intricate  mas8 
of  facts.  It  is  the  thread  of  events,  that  joins  the  nations  and 
ages  together,  or  the  channel  by  which  they  sent  down  to  our 
day  —  from  Asia  to  Europe,  and  from  Europe  to  America — 
each  their  special  contribution  to  the  political  wisdom  and  the 
free  institutions  of  America,  that  we  have  endeavored  to  find. 

We  hope  we  have  not  underrated  any  people  or  any  time, 
and  that  we  have  not  overrated  the  value  and  glory  of  America. 
America  is  yet  young.  Its  founders,  the  authors  of  its  Con- 
stitution, were  unaware  of  the  singular  excellence  and  nobility 
of  their  work.  Like  all  other  people,  they  built  according  to 
their  genius  and  instincts.  Time  only  could  show  whether 
they  built  for  immortality.  They  feared  and  trembled  over 
their  work;  but  Time  has  set  on  it  his  seal  of  approval.  Our 
people  are  busy  using  their  liberties  and  energies,  each  for  his 
individual  benefit,  as  is  quite  right  and  proper;  since  the  wel- 
fare of  individuals  makes  the  prosperity  of  the  community. 
But  a  government  left  to  take  care  of  itself  is  prone  to  do  that 
work  only  too  well.  We  have  done  well  and  wisely  in  import- 
ant crises;   but  a  more  intelligent  and  constant  watchfulness 


10  INTEODUCnON. 

over  the  ordinary  course  of  public  affairs  would  have  been 
still  better. 

It  is  plain  that  the  general  mind  among  us  has  grown  clearer 
and  more  accurate  in  its  judgments  as  experience  has  accumu- 
lated, for  the  original  direction  toward  popular  freedom  has 
not  changed.  Various  incongruities  have  been  laid  aside  and 
oversights  corrected,  the  severe  strain  of  civil  war  and  an  un- 
heard of  rapidity  of  growth  have  not  shaken,  but  more  clearly 
revealed  the  strength  and  unity  of  the  nation.  Yet,  more  in- 
telligence and  more  care  would  have  saved  us  many  shocks 
and  made  our  success  more  pronounced  and  more  brilliant. 
"Knowledge  is  power,"  when  wisely  applied;  and  a  more 
accurate  acquaintance  with  their  government  and  its  history 
will  enable  American  Citizens  to  mould  it  more  wisely  still,, 
to  correct  all  defects  of  administration,  and  to  speedily  reach 
that  minimum  of  governmental  interference  with  the  efforts 
and  interests  of  the  citizens  which  shall  give  them  the  fullest 
liberty  consistent  with  security  and  surrender  the  whole  round 
of  human  life,  as  completely  as  possible,  to  the  beneficent 
action  of  natural  law. .  C.  B. 


OON-TEN^TS. 


PART  FIRST. 

THE  FOOTPEINTS  OP  TIME,  OE  HISTOEIOAL  PEOGEESS. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

HISTORICAL    PKOGRESS   IN   THE    OLD    WORLD 2& 

Section  I.  The  Dawn  of  History  —  Uncertainty  of  Tradition  — Aid 
afforded  by  recent  studies— Ethnology,  Philology,  etc. —  Primitive 
Home  of  Mankind  —  The  three  great  races  —  The  first  Migrations  — 
Commencement  of  Civilization  —  China  —  The  Euphrates  —  The  Ham- 
ites  in  Egypt. 

Section  II.  Direction  of  Pre-historic  Growth  —  Rudeness  of  early  racea 
—  Character  of  the  Primitive  Man  — Testimony  of  language  —  Imper- 
fection of  Turanian  Growth  —  Seen  in  China  —  Superiority  of  Indo- 
European  races. 

Section  III.  Gradual  Development — Condition  of  the  first  Men  —  Es- 
tablishment of  the  Family  —  Patriarchal  Authority — The  Growth  of 
Monarchy —  Origin  of  the  Priesthood  —  Development  of  both  in  Chal- 
dea  and  Egjj^pt  —  Influence  of  War  and  Commerce. 

Section  IV.  Ancient  Monarchies  —  Five  Monarchies  on  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris — The  Scythian,  the  two  Hamitic,  the  Assyrian  and  the 
Medo-Persian  Monarchies  —  Testimony  of  the  ruins  —  Mysterious  and 
Singular  character  of  Egypt  —  Moses  and  the  Jewish  State  —  Tyre 
and  its  Commerce. 

Section  V.  The  Grecian  States  —  Origin,  intelligence  and  vigor  of  the 
Greek  race  —  Their  Mythology  and  Heroic  History  —  Their  opposition 
to  the  dangerous  centralizing  tendencies  of  Monarchy  —  Greek  Repub- 
lics —  Colonization  —  Sparta  and  Athens  —  Commencement  of  Au- 
thentic Histoiy  —  Foundation  of  Rome  —  Chronological  review  during 
the  time  of  the  Roman  Kings. 

Section  VI.  The  Roman  Republic  —  Character  of  the  Romans  —  Greek* 
and  Romans  compared  —  Roman  constancy. 

Section  VII.  Greece  and  Rome  —  The  influence  of  each  on  the  future 
of  mankind  —  Chronological  history  from  B.  C.  500  to  B.  C.  133  — The 
pieiit  career  of  the  Roman  Republic. 

Section  VIII.  Decay  of  the  Republic  —  Unhappy  effects  of  conquest 
and  wealth  on  Roman  character  —  Death  of  the  Gracchi  —  The  Civil 

(11) 


12  CONTENTS. 

Wars  —  Marius,  Sylla,  Crassus,  Pompey,  Julius  Caesar  —  The  Senate 
Suspends  the  Constitution  and  ends  the  Republic  —  Death  of  Caesar. 

Section  IX.  The  Roman  Empire  —  Impossibility  of  restoring  the  Re- 
public —  Triumvirate  and  wars  of  Augustus,  Antony  and  Lepidus  — Au- 
gustus Emperor  of  the  World. 

Section  X.  Influence  of  Christianity — The  Jewish  State  —  Influence  on 
it  of  Egypt,  Asia  and  Greece  —  The  New  Morality  oi"  Christianity  — 
The  persecution  it  provokes  —  Its  growing  influence  on  life  and  man. 
ners  —  Unhappy  efi'ect  of  state  patronage. 

Section  XI.  The  services  of  Great  Men  to  Mankind  —  Difficulties  of 
progress  among  the  Ancients  —  Assistance  rendered  by  Great  Meh  — 
Office  of  early  Poets  —  Of  Legislators  — Philosophers,  Socrates,  Plato, 
Aristotle  —  Orators,  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  —  Influence  of  Great  con- 
querors on  progress  —  Alexander  the  Great — Hannibal  the  unfortunate 
—  Caesar,  the  successful — Brutus,  the  Patriot — Augustus  the  Emperor 
— The  elements  of  greatness  in  all  men  —  Jesus  Christ  the  Perfect  Man. 

Section  XII.  The  Christian  Era  —  Chronological  history  of  the  Emper- 
rors  —  The  triumph  of  Christianity  and  its  corruption  —  The  fall  of  the 
Empire. 

Section  XIII.  Rise  of  Modern  Nations  —  Incursions  of  Barbarians  — 
Their  settlement  in  Gaul  —  Spain,  Africa,  Italy  and  Britain  —  Mahomet 
and  the  great  success  of  his  followers  —  Charlemagne  and  the  Popes  — 
Failure  to  found  a  Western  Empire. 

Section  XIV.  The  Feudal  System  —  Results  from  the  condition  of  the 
Empire  and  the  character  of  the  invaders  —  Rise  and  character  of  Chiv- 
alry—  The  Crusades. 

Section  XV.  The  Liberties  of  the  People  —  Influence  of  the  Crusades — 
Revival  of  Commerce  and  Learning. 

Section  XVI.    The  Situation  on  the  Discovery  of  America. 

Section  XVII.  Conclusion  —  Summary  of  Progress  — The  work  assigned 
to  America. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  DISCOVERY   OF   AMEKICA 148 

Geographical  ignorance  of  the  Ancients  —  Columbus  and  his  Ideas  —  Hi? 
difficulty  in  getting  a  hearing  —  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  —  Sets  sail  foi 
the  New  World — Why  he  thought  it  Asia — Origin  of  the  name  America, 

CHAPTER  III. 
HISTORY  FROM   1492  TO  1763 151 

Various  Discoveries  —  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  fails  twice  to  establish  a  Col- 
ony— Sir  Walter  Raleigh  —  Settlements  in  Florida — Jamestown — Land- 
ing of  the  Puritans — Other  Settlements — Liberal  character  of  Colonial 
Governments — Colonies  resist  oppression — Indian  Wars — French  Wars 
— Training  they  give  the  Colonies — Capture  of  Louisburg — Braddock's 
Defeat — Colonists  as  Soldiers. 


CONTENTS.  13 

CHAPTEK  IV. 

HISTORY — ORIGIN   OF   THE    REVOLUTION 162 

British  resolve  to  tax  Colonies — Folly  of  that  measure — Resistance  in  the 
Colonies— British  repeal  the  tax,  BUT  CLAIM  THE  RIGHT— Indig- 
nation in  the  Colonies — Taxes  again  tried — Soldiers  seal  to  Boston — 
"Boston  Massacre" — Tax  on  Tea — Colonies  Organize  against  it — "Bos- 
ton Tea  Party" — Philadelphia — Boston  Port  Bill — First  Congress — 
"  American  Association  " — Battle  of  Lexington — Second  Congress — 
Siege  of  Boston — Bunker  Hill — British  driven  out — Battles  in  Canada. 

CHAPTEE  y. 

FORMATION  OF   THE   ORIGINAL   UNION 173 

History  of  the  various  stages  of  Union  among  the  States— Adoption  of  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  ' 

CHAPTEK  YL 

DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE  .  .  . 175 

Noble  character  of  this  Document — It  speaks  for  all  men  and  all  times — 
The  Declaration. 

CHAPTEE  VII. 

ARTICLES   OF  CONFEDERATION 181 

Full  text  of  the  Articles  adopted  in  1777,  forming  the  Constitution  for  12 
years. 

CHAPTEE  VIII. 

REVOLUTIONARY   WAR   FROM    1776    TO    1783 191 

Battle  of  Long  Island — Silent  retreat  at  night — Washington  driven  across 
the  Delaware — His  success  in  the  Jerseys — Battles  near  Philadelphia — 
Surrender  of  Burgoyne — Treaty  with  the  French — French  fleet — British 
evacuate  Philadelphia — Washington's  success  again  in  the  Jerseys — 
Southern  War — Defeat  of  Gates — Treason  of  Arnold — Gen.  Green  and 
Cornwallis  —  Lafayette  and  Cornwallis  —  Surrender  of  Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown  —  Review  of  the  War  —  Financial  Difficulties — Character  of 
the  People — ^Peace  at  Last ! 

CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 203 

The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787— Defects  of  the  Articles  of  Confed-  ■ 
eration- Caution  of  Statesmen  and  the  People — Result  of  the  Conven. 
tion--Full  text  of  the  Constitution  and  Amendments. 


4 


14  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE  X. 

THE  CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS 225 

INames  of  Presidents  of  the  Continental  Congress — The  various  Seats  of 
Government  from  1774  to  1789. 


PART  SECOND. 


FAOIC. 

THE   GOVERNMENT    UNDER   THE    CONSTITUTION ,  .  226 

The  Three  Branches  of  the  Government — Arrangement  of  this  Work — 
Excellence  of  the  Organization — Comparison  of  the  United  States  with 
Mexico — ^With  Ireland — Why  it  Tuts  prospered. 

THE    EXECUTIYE    DEPAETMENT. 
CHAPTEE  I. 

THE   PRESIDENT 229 

His  place  in  the  Government — He  is  its  active  force — Conditions  of  birth, 
age,  and  residence — How  he  is  elected — His  powers  and  duties — List  of 
all  the  Presidents. 

CHAPTEE  II. 

THE  VICE-PRESIDENT 234 

His  position  mainly  honorary — His  only  duty — ^When  he  may  become 
President — List  of  Vice-Presidents, 

CHAPTEE  III. 

THE  CABINET 236 

INumber  and  offices  of  members — ^Their  duties — President's  will  supreme— 
Their  means  of  aiding  him — ^The  character  and  ability  required. 

CHAPTEE  lY. 

DEPARTMENT   OF    STATE 239 

Title  of  chief  officer — Conducts  our  Foreign  business — Range  of  his 
duties — Qualifications  required — Lists  of  Secretaries  of  State. 

CHAPTEE  V. 

OUR   REPRESENTATIVES   IN    FOREIGN   LANDS 243 

The  dignity  oi  their  Official  Character— -The  immunities  it  confers — Am- 
bassadors —  Ministers  Plenipotentiary  —  Ministers  -  Resident — Charge 
d'Affaires^^'Cdmmissioners— The  high  abilities  required  in  Foreign 
Ministers.  ,,-- 


CONTENTS.  15 

CHAPTEK  VI. 

TREATIES EXTRADITION   TREATIES 246 

Nature  of  a  Treaty — Its  binding  power — Has  the  force  of  Law — ^The  Rus- 
sian Treaty  in  full — What  Extradition  Treaties  are — What  classes  of 
criminals  they  apply,  to — Countries  with  which  we  have  Extradition 
Treaties. 

CHAPTER  YII. 

BUSINESS   REPRESENTATIVES 266 

Consuls  and  their  duties — Their  official  character — Their  number — Extra^ 
"  ^oWfiBTIffSrKey,  etc.    ^^^^^— — ^— *  ~ 

CHAPTER  YIII. 

PASSPORTS 258 

Their  character — ^Their  protective  power — ^Who  give  them. 
CHAPTER  IX. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  TREASURY 260 

Its  importance — Secretary  of  the  Treasury — Great  extent  of  his  depart- 
ment — Its  thorough  organization — The  security  of  public  funds — The 
various  bureaus — List  of  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury. 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE   FINANCIAL   SYSTEM   OF    THE    UNITED  STATES 263 

How  government  income  is  obtained — Duties — Internal  Revenue  —Differ- 
ence of  views — Finance  a  study  for  the  people. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

DUTIES   AND  TARIFFS 266 

Explanation  of  terms — Ease  of  raising  revenue  from  Tariffs — ^Two  kin<'s 
of  Tariff— What  is  a  Protective  Tariff^— Tonnage. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

COLLECTION   OF    DUTIES 273 

Custom  Houses — Their  number  and  location — Officers  and  their  duties — 
Their  compensation — Revenue  Cutters — Ship's  papers. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

GOVERNMENT  COINAGE 278 

T^e  Mint — Relations  to  the  United  States  Treasury — Artistic  skill — Coins 
—Assay  offices — ^Their  relation  to  commerce  and  to  individuals. 


1 6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

NATIONAL  BANKING 2S3 

Kelations  of  Currency  to  the  Treasury — Governmenl  control  of  Banks  and 
their  issues — Security  of  Currency. 

CHAPTEE  XY. 

FINANCIAL   CONDITION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 286 

Great  resources  of  the  country— Aggregate  wealth  of  the  people — 
Resources  of  the  general  government — Public  lands — Mines — National 
wealth — The  National  Debt — Reasons  for  not  paying  it  at  once — Table 
of  Statistics — Public  Debt  for  every  year — National  Securities. 


CHAPTER  XYI. 

WAR  DEPAETMENT 291 

Secretary  of  War — Organization  of  his  department — Various  Bureaus — 
List  of  Secretaries  of  War. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE   U.  8.  ARMY 294 

Its  history  shows   great  military  ability  —  The  peaceful  policy  of  the 
country. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE   MILITARY  ACADEMY 295 

Its  object  and  location — The  results  secured. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

DEPOTS   OF   WAR   MATERIAL 298 

Armories  and  Arsenals — ^Their  uses — Location — Officers. 
CHAPTER  XX. 

ARTICLES   OF   WAR 299 

Peculiar  relations  of  military  forces  to  civil  government — Object  of  Arti. 
oles  of  War — Range  and  vigor  of  their  provisions. 

chapter'  XXI. 

MILITARY   HOSPITALS   AND   ASYLUMS 300 

Their  object — Their  location — Their  excellent  management — ^Their  success 
in  the  Civil  War. 


CONTENTS.  17 

CHAPTEK  XXII. 

NAVY   DEPARTMENT S02 

Secretary  of  the  Navy — His  duties — Various  Bureaus — List  of  Secretaries 
of  the  Navy. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE   UNITED    STATES   NAVY 306 

The  U.  S.  a  commercial  country — Gratifying  success  of  the  early  navy — 
The  importance  of  this  arm  to  the  country — Its  value  to  us  abroad — 
Number  of  U.  S.  vessels  of  war. 

OHAPTEE  XXIY. 

NAVY  .  YARDS .  309 

Their  location  and  number — Materials  and  stores — Workshops  and  repairs. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE   NAVAL   ACADEMY 309 

Its  purposes,  location  aud  value. 

CHAPTER  XXYI. 

THE   NAVAL    OBSERVATORY 311 

Dependence  of  Navigation  on  Astronomical  Science  —  Value  of  Obser- 
vatory. 

CHAPTER  XXYII. 

COAST   SURVEY 312 

Necessity  of  this  work — Scientific  accuracy — Value  for  commerce  and 
defense. 

CHAPTER  XXYIII. 

LIGHT   HOUSES 314 

Why  and  where  they  are  built — OflBcial  Superintendence — Light  Money. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

LETTERS   OF   MARQUE    AND    REPRISAL 316 

Objects  of  Privateering — Immorality  and  injustice  of  it 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

NAVY   AND   MARINE   HOSPITAI.S 318 

The  purpose  of  those  institutions— Their  means  of  support— Their  location, 
9 


18  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

DEPARTMENT    OF   THE   INTERIOR 319 

History  of  this  department  —  Secretary  of  the  Interior — Bureaus  of  the 
department — List  of  Secretaries. 

CHAPTEE  XXXII. 

PUBLIC    LANDS 322 

How  the  government  obtained  them — What  disposition  is  made  of  them — 
Land  offices — Sale  of  Lands  —  Pre-emption  —  Bounty  Lands  —  Home- 
steads— School  Lands. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

HOW  TO  SECURE  PUBLIC  LANDS        326 

Pre-emption  Laws — Land  Warrants — Soldiers'  Homestead  Laws — ^List  of 
Land  Offices. 

CHAPTER  XXXIY. 

PATENTS 336 

Patent  office — Commissioner  of  Patents — Mode  of  obtaining  a  Patent 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 
PENSIONS 339 

The  object  of  Pensions — Pension  office — Amount  of  Pensions — How  paid 
— Pension  Laws  of  various  dates. 

CHAPTER  XXXYI. 

INDIAN    AFFAIRS 351 

Aboriginal  inhabitants — Mode  of  acquiring  their  lands — Indian  Policy — 
Reservations — Annuities  —  Agents — Indian  Territory  —  Condition  and 
number  of  Indians — Their  probable  extinction. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

CENSUS   BUREAU 365 

How  the  census  is  taken — ^Value  of  census  statistics — ^Tables  of  Population. 

CHAPTER  XXXYIII. 

DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE 367 

The  objects  of  this  department — Commissioner  of  Agriculture — Buildings 
and  grounds — Extent  of  information  collected  and  circulated  —  Value 
of  this  department. 


CONTENTS.  19 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

POST   OFFICE   DEPARTMENT 360 

Postmaster  General  —  Various  Bureaus — Extent  of  organization  —  Its 
remarkable  vigor  and  success — List  of  Postmasters  General. 

CHAPTEE  XL. 

KATES   OF   POSTAGE 365 

Letters — Papers — Packages — Foreign  Rates. 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

REGISTERED   AND   DEAD   LETTERS 368 

Security  of  registered  letters — Certainty  of  finding  the  thief— Description 
of  the  whole  process — Facts  about  dead  letters. 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

THE   ATTORNEY   GENERAL 372 

Why  he  is  a  cabinet  officer — Range  of  his  duties. 

CHAPTER  XLIII. 

PRESIDENTIAL   HLECTORS 374 

Object  of  the  authors  of  the  Constitution — Why  Electors  failed  to  mees 
their  expectation — How  they  are  elected  and  discharge  their  duties. 

CHAPTER  XLIY. 

HISTORY   OF    PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS   FROM  WASHINGTON 

TO   HAYES 377 

CHAPTER  XLY. 

OABINirrS   OF   ALL   THE   PRESIDENTS 390 

LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT. 
CHAPTER  XLYI. 

CONGRESS 400 

Careful  separation  of  the  diflFerent  branches  of  government — Powers  and 
duties  of  Congress — Organization  and  powers  of  the  Senate  —  Of  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

CHAPTER  XLYII. 

CONGRESSIONAL   DISTRICTS,  CONGRESSMEN 405 

tode  of  electing  Members  of  House  of  Representatives — Advantages  of 
the  district  plan — Number  of  districts. 


20  CONTENTS. 

OHAPTJiK  XLVnL 

OONGEBSSIONAL  LIBKAKY 407 

The  objects  of  the  Library— Who  may  use  it — Duties  of  the  Librarian, 

CHAFlEK  XLIX. 

COPTEIGHTS 408 

The  Object  ot  Copyrights — Mode  of  applying  tor  them — Fees — Full  direc- 
tions trom  the  Librarian  of  Congress. 

CHAFIEU  L. 

PKESmmG   OFFICERS    OF   CONGRESS 411 

Speaker  of  the  House — How  he  is  chosen — President  of  the  Senate — Their 
duties  and  powers — ^List  of  all  the  Speakers  of  the  House. 

CHAPTEE  LI. 

SUBORDINATE   OFFICERS   OF   CONGRESS 4l4 

Secretary  of  the  Senate — Clerk  of  the  House — Their  duties — ^The  Sergean1> 
at-Arms — The  Doorkeeper — The  Postmaster. 

CHAPTER  LII. 

CONGRESSIONAL    WORK 415 

idode  oi  doing  business  in  Congress — Organization — Bills — Committees — 
Iteports — Jonnection  of  two  Houses — President's  signature  —  Veto — 
I'assing  over  the  veto  —  Resolutions  and  their  character  —  Amount  of 
business  done — Members  of  Congress  and  the  People. 

CHAPTER  LIU. 

PUBLIC    PRINTING 418 

flow  it  was  formerly  done — Changes  made — ^People  should  inform  them- 
selves. 

CHAPTER  Liy. 

SIGNAL  SERVICE 420 

Origin  of  Signal  Service  —  Scientific  and  useful  character  —  Mode  of  con- 
ducting it  —  School  of  Instruction — Grades  of  offlpors — Their  duties — 
Number  of  Stations — Smithsonian  Institution — Its  Origin,  Objects  and 
Value. 

CHAPTER  LY. 

REPORTS 424 

Mode  of  doing  Legislative  and  Executive  business — Reports  useful  to  fur- 
nish information — ^To  facilitate  business. 


CONTENTS.  21 

CHAPTER  LYI. 

IMPEACHMENTS 426 

WTio  may  be  impeached — House  of  Representatives  the  Accuser — Senate 
the  Court. 

THE    JUDICIAL    DEPARTMENT 427 

Importance  of  this  Department  in  our  System — Constitution  ol  the  Depart 
ment 

CHAPTER  LVII. 

THE   SUPREME   COURT 428 

The  high  range  of  its  duties — Its  original  and  appellate  Junsaiction — Its 
Judges — ^Their  term  of  office — Ofhcers  of  the  Court — ^List  of  Supreme 
and  Associate  Justices. 

CHAPTER  LYIII. 

ciRourr  COURTS 431 

Their  powers  and  uses — Circuits — Judges. 

CHAPTER  LIX. 

DISTRICT  COURTS 434 

Their  jurisdiction — Appointment  of  Judges — ISi  umber  of  districts — Places 
of  holding. 

CHAPTER  LX. 

ADMIRALTY   AND   MARITIME   JURISDICTION ,  .  436 

Confined  to  naval  aftairs — Belongs  to  District  Courts. 

CHAFrER  LXl. 

COURT   OF   CLAIMS 437 

Where  it  sits — Object  to  relieve  Congress — Advantages  to  claimants  against 
government. 

CHAPTER  LXII. 

DISTRICT  ATTORNEYS 439 

Business  confided  to  them — Government  lawyers. 

CHAPTER  LXIII. 

UNITED   STATES   MARSHALS 440 

Where  they  are  employed — Connection  with  census. 


22 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  LXIY. 

GRAND  JTJEY 441 

Admirable  features  ol  Grand  Jury — Do  not  pronounce  iadgment — Security 
aflbrded  to  reputation. 

CHAPTER  LXY. 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENTS 444 

General,  State,  County,  and  Municipal  governments  parts  ot  a  whole — No 
conflict — The  harmonizing  authority  in  the  Supreme  Court — How  State 
governments  are  formed — ^Their  powers — Modeled  on  the  General  Gov- 
ernment —  Various  Courts  —  Subdivisions  —  Counties —  Towns —  School 
districts — Minor  divisions  indispensable. 

CHAPTER  I^YI. 

INDIVIDUAL   STATES 447 

Circumstances  of  discovery  of  each  —  When  and  where  settled  —  Facts  in 
early  history — The  part  each  of  the  "  Old  Thirteen"  bore  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary struggle — The  Surface — Climate — ^Agriculture —  Products — Min- 
eral Wealth — Prosperity — Area — Population  in  1870  —  Circuit  and  Dis- 
trict Courts — Number  of  Representatives  in  Congress — Ports  of  entry  and 
delivery  —  Capital — Time  of  holding  elections  —  Time  of  meeting  of 
Legislature — Form  of  enacting  clause — Complete  list  of  United  States 
Senators  from  each  State. 


THE   STATBS.  PAGE. 

Alabama 497 

Arkansas 504 

California 515 

Colorado ....529 

Connecticut 473 

Delaware: -475 

Florida -   -506 

Georgia ..448 

Illinois 495 

Indiana 490 

Iowa --  508 

Kansas 522 

Kentucky 481 

Louisiana 487 

Maine 499 

Maryland -464 

Massachusetts 471 

Michigan 502 

Minnesota 518 


THE    STATES.  PAGE. 

Mississippi 493 

Missouri. 501 

Nebraska 526 

New  Hampshire 467 

New  Jersey..- ..469 

New  York 453 

North  Carolina. .450 

Nevada 525 

Ohio .' 485 

Oregon 520 

Pennsylvania .456 

Rhode  Island .477 

South  Carolina. 462 

Tennessee 483 

Texas 511 

Vermont .479 

Virginia 450 

West  Virginia 524 

Wisconsin 51S 


CXDNTENTS.  23 

CHAPTEE  LXVII. 

MOTTOES  AND   NAMES  OF   THE  STATES 531 

Alottoes  translated — Origin  and  meaning  ot  name — Familiar  name. 

CHAPTEE  LXYIII. 

THE  NATIONAL  DOMAIN 534: 

Public  domain  alter  tlie  Revolutionary  War — Various  acquisitions  of  ter- 
ritory by  the  General  Government  —  Character  of  a  Tenitorial  govern- 
ment—  Organizea  by  Congress — Appointment  of  officers — Territorial 
Legislature — When  a  State  may  be  formed — Constitution  to  be  approved 
by  Congress — Admission  may  be  vetoed  by  tlie  President. 

CHAPTEE  LXIX. 

INDIVIDUAL   TERKITGKIES 537 

Discovery  and  early  history  of  each — When  organized — Surface — Climate 
Agricultural  and  mineral  resources— Future  prospects  and  desirableness 
as  a  location— Area — Population  in  1870. 

TERRITORIES.  FAOE.  TERRITORIBS.  PASS. 

Alaska 547  Montana 546 

Aj-izona ...544  New  Mexico 537 

Dakotah 543  Washington 540 

District  of  Columbia 549  Wyoming 548 

Idaho .--.545  Utah 539 

CHAPTEE  LXX. 

THE  ANNEXATION   POLICY 550 

Causes  of  increase  ot  national  area — A  traditional  policy — Importance  ot 
national  unity — ^The  Mexican  War — Causes — Annexation  of  Territory — 
Excuses  urged— ^  We  shall  never  do  it  again  —  Superior  steadiness  of 
American  people — The  probable  future  of  annexation. 

CHAPTEE  LXXI. 

CENSUS  STATISTICS 556 


PART  THIED. 

THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  GOYEENMENT. 

The  government  for  the  people  alone — Early  distrust  of  the  masses  and  its 
causes — Embodied  in  the  Federal  party — Causes  of  its  fall — ^Absorption 
of  foreigners — Favorable  results — Future  of  the  people. 


'24  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   I. 

SUFFRAGE    AND    CITIZENSHIP 562 

Who  are  citizens — Advance  in  extent  f)f  suffrage — Who  are  voters'— Citizens 
of  States  and  of  United  States. 

CHAPTER  II. 

CITIZENS   OF   FOREIGN  BIRTH 564 

Naturalization — Various  steps  in  naturalization — Digest  of  laws. 

CHAPTER  III. 

ELECTIONS 567 

Who  are  entitled  to  vote  for  State  officers  — For  United  States  officer?  — 
History  of  general  elections — People  obtain  direct  control. 

CHAPTER  ly. 

RATIO   OF   REPRESENTATION 569 

Changes  wi^h  each  census  —  Reason  for  it  —  Data — Present  ratio  and  num 
ber  of  Members  of  Congress. 

CHAPTER  Y. 

OATHS    AND   BONDS 574 

Reasons  for  them — "  Iron-clad  oaths  " — Who  give  bonds — Amount  of  bonds 
required. 

CHAPTER  YI. 

GOVERNMENT   PRISONS 577 

Vigor  of  the  government  —  Mildness  in  punishment — Why  it  owns  no 
prisons. 

CHAPTER  YII. 

PROCLAMATIONS     578 

Who  make  them — Their  significance. 

CHAPTER  YIII. 

COMMISSIONERS    580 

Various  classes  of  officers  of  this  name. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

OFFICIAL    REGISTER obi 

Officers  and  salaries — When  publislied — Where  obtained. 


CONTENTS.  20 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE  UNITED   STATES   FLAG 582 

Significance  of  the  Flag — History  of  its  origin — Tlie  "  Star-Spangled  Ban- 
ner "  and  Ft.  McHenry. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   GREAT   SEAL 585 

Uses  of  Seals  —  How  applied — Who  keeps  the  Great  Seal — History  of  the 
Great  Seal — Jefferson,  Adams,  etc. — Failure  of  committees  to  please — 
Efforts  of  Secretary  of  Congress — Adams  and  the  English  Baronet  — 
Description  of  the  Seal. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   ORIGIN    OF   LAW 588 

Origin  of  law  in  various  kinds  of  government — In  the  TJ.  S.  all  law  springs 
from  the  People  —  The  fundamental  law —Legislative  acts  —  Laws  by 
Treaty — Universal  law. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

LAW    OF   NATIONS 591 

Its  origin — Standard  authorities  on  International  Law — How  it  is  enforced 
— General  features  of  Law  of  Nations — United  States  and  England — A 
future  Supreme  Tribunal. 

CHAPTER  XIY. 

RELATION  OF  U.  S.  GOVERNMENT  TO  RELIGION 594 

Does  not  support  religion  —  Shows  respect  to  the  sentiments  of  all  its  peo. 
pie — Consequent  policy. 

CHAPTER  XY. 

CHAPLAINS 596 

Why  employed — No  sect  preferred — Salaries — Where  employed. 

CHAPTER  XYI. 

COMPROMISES 598 

Necessity  of  them  from  the  commencement — Constitutional  Compromise 
— Missouri  Compromise  of  1820  —  Mq,son  and  Dixon's  Line  —  Compro- 
mises of  1850 — Their  failure  brings  on  the  Civil  War. 

CHAPTER   XYII. 

TREASON 602 

Defined  by  the  Constitution — The  punishment  inflicted. 


26  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK  XYIII. 

POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE   U.   S 603 

Sectional  divisions — Their  disappearance — Circuit  Courts — States — District 
Courts — Congressional  Districts —  Counties — Towns — School  Districts. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  IJ.  S.  FROM  1783  TO  1812 606 

Prostration  of  the  country  after  tne  war — Congress  has  no  effective  control 
of  finances — Negligence  of  the  States — Shay's  rebellion  in  Mass. — Vig- 
orous action  of  Gen.  Lincoln — Virginia  urges  call  of  a  Constitutional 
Convention — Meeting  and  result  of  the  Convention — Last  acts  and  dis- 
solution of  Continental  Congress — Washington's  first  Administration — 
The  rise  of  parties,  Federal  and  Anti-federal  —  Washington's  second 
Administration  —  Difficulties  with  England  —  With  France — Country 
prospers — Adams'  Administration — Naval  war  with  France — Jefferson's 
Administrations — Louisiana  purchased — Increasing  trouble  with  Eng- 
land— Madison's  Administrations — War  declared. 

CHAPTEE  XX. 

THE   WAR   OF    1812 620 

Causes  of  the  war — Disasters  in  Canada — Successes  on  the  sea — Barbarity 
of  British  and  Indians — Incompetence  of  U.  S.  officers — Second  Cam- 
paign— Brilliant  naval  successes — Mortification  of  the  British — Political 
opposition  to  the  war  embarrasses  the  Government  and  encourages  the 
enemy — Third  Campaign  an  American  success — Gen.  Scott  in  Canada — 
Defeat  of  the  British  at  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Erie ;  before  Baltimore,  at 
New  Orleans. 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

HISTORY  FROM  1815  TO  1846 629 

Results  of  the  war  highly  favorable  to  the  U.  S.  —  Gains  respect  abroad  — 
Party  bitterness  subsides  —  Compromise  of  1820 — Great  prosperity  — 
Florida  Purchase — Monroe's  two  Administrations — J.  Q.  Adams'  Admin- 
istration— Sections  divide  on  the  Tariff — Jackson's  two  Administrations 
— Nullification  of  South  Carolina  —  Jackson's  promptness — Seminole 
war — Van  Buren's  Administration — Financial  disasters — Harrison  and 
Tyler — Admission  of  Texas — Election  of  Polk. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  MEXICAN  WAR FROM  1848  TO  1860 638 

Causes  of  the  war — Battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma — Taking 
of  Monterey — Battle  of  Buena  Vista — Gen.  Scott  in  Mexico — His  long 


CONTENTS.  27 

succession  of  victories — Enters  the  City  of  Mexico — Treaty  of  Guada- 
iupe  Hidalgo — Increase  of  territory — Discovery  of  gold  in  California — 
California  applies  for  admission  as  a  State — Raises  the  violent  opposition 
of  Slave  States — Compromises  of  1850 — Taylor  and  Fillmore — Pierce's 
Administration  —  Repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  —  Troubles  in 
Kausas  —  Buchanan's  Administration  —  Preparation  for  Secession  — 
Growth  of  the  Republican  party. 

CHAPTEE  XXIII. 

THE   CIVIL    WAB 645 

Real  causes  of  the  Civil  War — The  elections  of  Nov.,  1860 — Made  the  pre- 
text for  Secession — South  Carolina  Secedes — Forts  and  property  of  the 
government  seized  in  the  South — Southern  States  successively  Secede — 
Southern  Confederacy  formed — Want  of  energy  in  the  Administration — 
Inauguration  of  Lincoln — The  Union  to  be  defended. 

CHAPTER  XXIY. 

FIRST   PHASE    OF    THE    WAK 651 

Firing  on  Ft.  Sumter — It  electrifies  the  North — Call  for  troops — General 
mustering  for  war — Capture  of  Harper's  Ferry  and  Gosport  Nuvy  Yard, 
Fighting  in  the  border  States — Experience  gained  in  the  general  skir- 
mishing— Reluctance  to  join  the  great  issue — Battle  of  Bull  Run — 
Washington  saved,  if  the  battle  is  lost — Immense  preparations  by  sea 
and  land — Confederate  government  in  Richmond. 

CHAPTER  XXY. 

SECOND   PHASE   OF    THE   WAR 658 

The  large  armies  have  acquired  much  discipline  and  experience — Move- 
ment of  McClellan  on  Richmond  —  Movement  flanking  Confederate 
positions  on  the  upper  Mississippi — Severe  battles  near  Richmond — 
McClellan's  failure—  Success  in  the  West— The  rising  fortunes  of  Grant 
at  Donnelson,  Henry,  and  Pitttsburg  Landing — Advance  of  Lee — Pope's 
failure  — Battles  in  Maryland  —  Lee's  retreat  —  Bragg's  advance  and 
retreat— Battle  of  Fredericksburg— General  results  of  the  Campaign. 

CHAPTER  XXYI. 

CAMPAIGN  OF  1863 664 

Emancipation  proclamation — The  year  remarkable  for  the  large  number 
of  engagements  and  formidable  character  of  the  operations  —  Battle 
of  Chancellorsville  and  advance  of  Lee  into  Penn.  — His  defeat  at 
Gettysburg  and  return  to  Va.— Capture  of  New  Orleans— Taking  of 
Vicksburg- Defeat  at  Chickamauga  retrieved  by  Grant— General  results 
of  the  Campaign. 


Tjb  coNTf:N'r>. 

CHAPTER  XXYII. 

CAMPAIGN   OF    1864 670 

Struggle  of  Grant  and  Lee  in  Virginia —  Sherman's  "  March  to  the  Sea" — 
"  Beginning  of  the  end." 

OHAPTEE  XXVIII. 

CONCLUDING  CAMPAIGN 675 

General  discouragement  in  the  South  —  Capture  of  Seaboard  cities  —  Re 
inaugeration  of  the  President  —  Fall  of  Petersburg  and  retreat  of  Lee  — 
Close  of  the  War  —  Assassination  of  Lincoln. 

CHAPTEK  XXIX. 

HISTORY  FROM  1865  TO  1879 680 

Opposed  reconstruction  policy  of  Congress  and  President  Johnson  —  Fi- 
nancial condition  —  Patrons  of  Husbandry  —  Election  and  re-election  of 
Gen.  Grant  —  The  centennial  year. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

PARLIAMENTARY   RULES 706 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

STATISTICS   OF   THE    WORLD - 729 

SUPPLEMENT. 

LEGAL  FORMS  — By  Judge  J.  C.  Power, 

733 


Legal  form  of  Will  —  Statement  of  Testator  —  Disposition  of  Prop'.'iiy  — 
Appointment  of  Executors  —  Statement  of  Witnesses — Circurastances 
of  Signature — Necessity  of  two  Witnesses  —  Articles  of  Copartners! lij) 

—  Statement  of  Agreement  —  Conditions  Mutually  agreed  to  —  Signature 

—  Agreement  to  continue  Copartnership  —  Agreement  to  dissolve  C®- 
partnership  —  Power  of  Attorney  —  How  signed  and  acknowledged  — 
Form  of  Submission  to  Arbitration  —  Form  of  Award  of  Arbitrators  — 
General  Form  of  Agreement — Agreement  for  sale  of  personal  property- 
Agreement  for  sale  of  Real  Estate  —  How  executed  nnd  acknowledged — 
Form  of  Lease  —  Form  of  Warrantj'  Deed  —  Form  of  acknowledgemeat 
of  execution  of  Deed  —  Witnesses  to  signature  —  Mortgage  Deed  —  Ne- 
gotiable Note  —  Non  negotiable  Note  —  Note  transferable  by  delivery-" 
Due  bill —  Receipt  —  What  statements  required  in  Receipt. 


THE  FOOTPRINTS  OF  TIME. 


PART    FIRST. 


CHAPTER    I. 

SECTION  I. 
THE   DAWJ4    OF    HISTORY. 

1.  The  early  traditions  of  every  nation  that  has  under- 
taken to  relate  the  story  of  its  origin,  have  given  ns  a  confused 
account  of  supernatural  persons  and  events  which  the  judg- 
ment of  more  enlightened  times  has  almost  uniformly  con- 
sidered fabulous  and  impossible.  It  has  always  been  an 
interesting  inquiry  how  much  of  fact  was  veiled  under  this 
mythical  dress,  and  a  great  variety  of  ingenious  and  contra- 
dictory explanations  have  been  produced  by  the  learned  in  all 
ages.  In  most  cases,  as  in  Greece,  the  national  religion  has 
been  based  on  these  legends  which  form  its  authority  and 
explanation,  and  they  passed  with  the  people  of  all  early 
times  as  facts  which  it  was  impious  to  question.  So  the  wise 
and  good  Socrates  was  supposed  to  have  denied  the  existence 
of  the  national  gods,  and  was  condemned  to  death.  This 
sacred  guard  placed  over  early  traditions,  increased  at  once 
the  interest  and  the  difficulty  involved  in  their  examination. 

2.  During  the  present  century  the  improved  methods, 
larger  range  and  more  exact  style  of  inquiry,  and  the  assist- 
ance and  hints  which  one  branch  of  study  has  given  to  others, 

(20) 


•    •    y  «  •,  i     * 


80  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

have  produced  the  most  surprising  and  satisfactory  results. 
These  inquiries  are  not  yet  complete  ;  they  seem,  on  the  con- 
trary, to  have  only  commenced,  and  promise,  ultimately,  to 
satisfy  all  the  useful  purposes  and  legitimate  curiosity  of 
mankind;  still,  their  conclusions,  so  far  as  they  go,  are  unim- 
peachable.    They  prove  themselves. 

The  study  of  Ethnology,  which  gives  an  account  of  the  races 
of  mankind;  a  critical  comparison  of  all  languages,  ancient 
and  modern;  the  patient  study  and  ingenious  deciphering  of 
architecture  and  inscriptions  found  in  ancient  ruins,  and  vari- 
ous relics  of  human  activity  imbedded  in  the  soil  of  different 
countries,  have  thrown  down  the  barriers  which  the  glowing 
imaginations  of  the  poets  and  the  want  of  autlientic  docu- 
ments in  early  times  had  raised,  and  have  given  us  a  clue  to 
many  of  the  secrets  of  history,  and  a  safe  guide  through  some 
of  the  dark  passages  of  man's  primitive  life. 

To  show  how  this  is  done  would  require  a  treatise  on  Eth- 
nology, another  on  Comparative  Philology,  a  third  on  Anti- 
quarian Research,  and  a  fourth  on  the  Geological  Antiquities 
of  Man.  Each  of  these  brings  a  large  and  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  early  history.  We  give  only  a  brief  summary  of  their 
conclusions. 

3.  The  human  race  appears  to  have  had  its  birth  on  the 
high  table  lands  of  central  Asia,  south  and  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  The  structure  and  growth  of  language,  and  the  remains 
of  early  art,  indicate  an  extremely  infantile  mental  condition 
and  successive  emigrations  from  the  primitive  home  of  the 
race.  Families  and  tribes  which  had  remained  together  long 
enough  to  build  up  a  common  language  and  strong  general 
features  of  character  and  habit,  at  length  separated  and 
formed  a  number  of  families  of  allied  races. 

4.  The  first  emigrations  were  made  by  the  Turanian 
nations,  which  scattered  very  widely.  Turanian  means  "  out- 
side," or  "barbarian,"  and  was  given  by  the  later  and  better 
known  races  who  found  them,  commonly  in  a  very  wild, 
undeveloped   state,   wherever  they   themselves   wandered   in 


THE    DAWN    OF    HISTORY.  31 

after  times.  There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  the  first 
Turanian  migration  was  to  ChiTia;  that  thej  were  never 
afterward  much  interfered  with,  and  that  they  early  reached  a 
high  stage  of  civilization.  It  has  certainly  many  very  crude 
and  primitive  features.  Having  worked  out  all  the  progres- 
sive impulses  dwelling  in  the  primitive  stock  of  their  family 
almost  before  other  races  were  heard  of,  and  being  undis- 
turbed, their  institutions  stiffened  and  crystalized  and  made 
few  improvements  for  thousands  of  years.  Chinese  history 
presents  a  curious  problem  not  yet  fully  investigated. 

Another  stream  of  Turanian  emigration  is  believed  to  have 
settled  the  more  north-easterly  portions  ot  Asia.  Some  time 
after  the  tide  set  down  through  Farther  India,  and  to  the 
islands  of  Malaysia.  In  still  later  periods  Hindoostan  was 
peopled  by  Turanian  races;  the  ancestors  of  the  Mongols  and 
Turks  were  spread  over  the  vast  plains  of  northern  and 
central  Asia;  and  somewhat  later  still  an  irruption  into 
Europe  furnished  its  primeval  people.  The  Finns  and  Lapps 
in  the  north,  and  the  Basques  of  Spain,  are  the  living  repre- 
sentatives of  the  ancient  Turanian  stock,  while  the  Magyars, 
or  Hungarians,  are  a  modern  branch  of  the  same  race,  wliich 
made  an  irruption  into  Europe  from  Asia  in  the  ninth  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  first  appearance  of  this  race  in 
written  history  was  in  the  establishment  of  a  powerful  empire 
at  Babylon,  which  must  have  been  cotemporary  with  the 
earliest  Egyptian  monarchy,  and  seems,  from  the  inscriptions 
on  the  most  ancient  ruins,  to  have  been  conquered  by,  and 
mingled  with,  an  Egyptian  or  Ilamite  family.  It  came  to  an 
end  before  the  Assyrian  Empire  appeared,  but  seems  to  have 
reached  a  very  considerable  degree  of  development. 

5.  The  other  two  great  families  of  related  languages,  and 
therefore  of  common  stock  or  race,  are  the  Semitic  and  the 
Aryan.  But  previous  to  the  appearance  of  either  of  these  on 
this  buried  stage  of  history  is  a  family,  apparently  related, 
distantly,  to  the  Semites,  but  who  might  have  separated  from 
the  common  stock  of  both  before  them,  called  Hamites.  who 


32  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

founded  the  verj  ancient  and  mysterious  Egyptian  monarchy, 
A  section  of  this  race  conquered  the  Turanians  of  Babylon, 
and  established  the  largest  dominion  then  known  to  men. 
The  Chedor-Laomer  of  Abraham's  day  was  one  of  its  mightiest 
sovereigns,  and  ruled  over  a  thickly- settled  region  a  thousand 
miles  in  length  by  five  hundred  in  breadth.  Faint  traces  of 
it  are  found  in  profane  history,  and  the  Bible  narrative  is 
Bustained  and  largely  amplified  by  inscriptions  on  ancient 
ruins.  A  second  Hamite  empire  in  Babylon  is  believed  to 
have  followed  this,  continuing  four  hundred  years,  carrying 
agriculture  and  the  peaceful  arts  to  a  high  state  of  develop- 
ment. 

6.  Egypt  was  peopled  by  the  Hamitic  race,  who  founded 
two  kingdoms,  afterwards  united.  Here,  social,  political,  and 
industrial  institutions  developed  very  early  in  great  strength. 
Their  language,  the  pictorial  representation  of  their  social, 
political,  and  religious  affairs,  and  the  grand  and  gloomy  ma- 
jesty of  their  works  of  art,  imply  a  long  period  of  growth 
before  they  reached  the  maturity  in  which  we  find  them  when 
written  history  commences.  Their  institutions,  even  in  the 
earliest  historic  times,  showed  signs  of  the  decrepitude  and 
decay  of  age.  The  vastness  and  the  grim  maturity  of  their 
monuments  and  language  seem  to  lend  much  support  to  their 
claim  of  an  immense  antiquity.  The  future  study  of  thei? 
remains  of  art  and  literature  will  settle  some  important  prob 
lems  in  the  chronology  of  the  human  race.  The  children  of 
Ham  were  clearly  the  first  to  lead  off  in  the  march  of  civiliza 
tion. 

The  Semitic  family,  deriving  its  name  from  Shem,  or  Sem- 
one  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  is  not  as  large  nor  aswidely  spread  ar 
the  Turanian  and  Aryan,  but  has  exerted  an  even  greater  influ- 
ence on  human  destiny.  It  never  strayed  much  from  Asia, 
except  to  people  small  portions  of  Africa.  They  early  appear 
in  Western  Asia  as  the  successors  of  the  second  Hamitic 
empire  in  Babylon  and  Assyria.  Settled  in  Phenicia,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  they  became  the  first 


THE   DAWN    OF   HISTOET.  33 

maritime  and  commercial  people,  and,  with  their  colony  estab- 
lished in  Carthage,  in  the  north  of  Africa,  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  promoting  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  world. 
The  Semites  early  peopled  the  Arabian  peninsula,  and  estab- 
lished a  state  in  Ethiopia,  as  some  believe,  before  Egypt  had 
attained  its  full  development.  The  Ethiopians  established  a 
flourishing  commerce  on  the  Ked  Sea,  with  the  eastern  coasts  of 
Africa,  and  with  India,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  resources 
of  ancient  Egypt. 

They  have  always  been  a  religious  race,  and  gave  the  three 
great  religions,  Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  and  Christianity,  to 
the  world,  as  well  as  some  of  the  most  debasing  superstitions  and 
forms  of  idolatry  ever  known.  The  larger  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Asia  is  still  Turanian,  and  the  Semites  now  occupy 
about  the  same  area  as  in  prehistoric  times;  but  the  Hamites 
have  been  overpowered  and  have  lost  their  clearly  distinctive 
character  as  a  family,  unless  represented  by  the  negro  tribes. 

7.  The  third  great  family,  the  Aryan,  called  also  the  Ja- 
phetic, from  Japhet.  one  of  the  sons  of  IS^oah,  and  from  the 
regions  they  peopled  and  made  illustrious  by  their  genius  and 
activity,  the  Indo-European,  was  the  last  to  leave  the  birth- 
place of  mankind.  The  other  races  were  incapable  of  carrying 
the  fortunes  of  humanity  beyond  a  certain  point,  of  them- 
selves alone,  as  the  history  of  Turanian  China,  Hamitic  Egypt 
and  the  Semitic  Mohammedans  and  Jews  clearly  proves. 
The  history  of  the  Aryans  shows  them  to  possess  inexhausti- 
ble mental  power  and  physical  stamina,  with  a  vigorous  ambi- 
tion, always  dissatisfied  with  the  present,  and  constantly 
seeking  something  better  in  the  future  and  the  distant,  that 
have  produced  the  happiest  effect  on  the  destinies  of  the 
human  race. 

8.  It  would  seem  that  while  the  Turanians,  Hamites,  and 
Semites  were  taking  the  lead  of  the  world  and  building  up  the 
empires  of  prehistoric  times,  whose  mighty  ruins  have  been 
the  wonder  of  later  ages,  the  Aryans  were  all  united  in  follow- 
ing peaceful  pursuits,  which  the  common  features  of  their 

3 


94e  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

languages  indicate  were  chiefly  the  care  of  flocks  and  herds. 
Thej  were  much  farther  removed  from  barbarism  than  any  of 
the  other  races  when  they  began  their  wanderings.  Warlike, 
agricultural  and  nautical  terms,  and  the  names  of  wild  animala 
are  not  often  found  in  the  common  vocabulary;  while  family 
relations,  domestic  animals  and  their  uses,  the  heavenly  bodies 
in  connection  with  worship  and  the  priestly  relation  of  the 
father  of  the  family,  and  terms  indicating  a  considerable  culti- 
vation of  sensibility  and  thoughtfulness,  imply  a  purer  social 
and  religious  condition,  and  more  elevated  mental  traits,  than 
in  the  primitive  forefathers  of  the  other  families.  Their 
language  was  highly  picturesque,  and  its  peculiar  terms  for 
natural  phenomena  are  believed  by  some  to  have  originated 
the  mythological  histories  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Komans 
and  Teutonic  nations.  The  ancient  language  used  epithets 
and  names,  so  glowing  with  personality,  that  the  imaginative 
descendants  of  the  primitive  stock,  when  their  early  history 
was  forgotten,  believed  theiu  to  contain  an  account  of  the 
origin  of  things,  and  the  early  deeds  of  gods  and  heroes ;  and 
the  genius  of  the  poets  clothed  the  supposed  marvels  in  the 
immortal  dress  of  fiction  which  we  find  in  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
in  Virgil,  the  Indian  Yedas,  and  the  Sagas  and  Scalds  of  north- 
em  Europe.  This,  at  least,  is  the  conclusion  reached  by  some 
of  the  most  eminent  scholars  and  philologists,  whose  study  of 
the  formation  and  growth  of  languages  has  thrown  so  much 
light  on  the  ante-historical  periods.  These  myths,  the  germs 
of  which  were  embodied  in  their  language,  embellished  by  the 
supposed  inspired  genius  of  the  poets,  formed  the  literature 
and  theology  of  the  early  historic  nations,  and  were  received 
as  undisputed  truth. 

9.  The  first  migration  of  the  Aryan  family  appears  to 
have  occurred  through  the  passes  of  the  Caucasus,  northwest 
to  the  northern  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  Southern  Europe. 
The  Turanian  nations,  or  "  barbarians,"  were  everywhere  found 
in  advance  of  them,  in  a  very  degraded  condition,  and  the 
native  spirit  and  ambition  of  the  Aryan  people  rendered  them 


PRE-HISTOKIO   GROWTH.  3S 

the  uniform  conquerors.  Afterward,  another  migration  south- 
ward peopled  India,  and,  in  the  earliest  historic  times,  the  part 
of  the  family  still  remaining  in  the  ancient  home  of  the  race 
established  the  brilliant  empire  of  the  Medes  and  Persians, 
who  extended  their  sway  over  all  the  central  and  western  parts 
■of  Asia,  broke  down  the  ancient  monarchy  of  Egypt,  and,  in 
the  height  of  their  power  and  glory,  swept  like  a  tempest  into 
Europe  with  the  purpose  of  subjugating  a  few  self-governing 
tribes  of  their  own  race  dwelling  on  the  shores  and  among  the 
mountains  of  the  small  peninsula  of  Greece.  The  failure  of 
the  mighty  empire  in  this  effort,  through  the  indomitable  res- 
olution of  a  handful  of  hardy  republicans,  forms  one  of  the 
most  glorious  pages  of  history.  It  was  a  grand  era  in  the 
development  of  civilization,  and  Grecian  culture  became  the 
inheritance  of  the  world. 

SECTION  II. 

THE   DIRECTION   OF   PRE-HI8T0RIC   GROWTH. 

1.  The  three  classes  of  indications  on  which  we  rely  for  a 
Imowledge  of  the  advance  of  mankind  previous  to  the  period 
when  authentic  history  comes  to  our  aid  —  the  researches  of 
geologists  among  the  accidental  traces  of  man's  early  activities, 
the  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  and  the  study  of  the  growth  of  lan- 
guage—  unite  in  testifying  to  an  extremely  rude,  feeble  and 
childish  condition  of  the  earliest  representatives  of  the  race, 
and  to  a  progressive  improvement  in  knowledge  and  capacity, 
precisely  like  what  occurs  in  the  case  of  every  individual  oi 
our  kind.  A  fourth  more  general  observation  also  confirms 
this  view.  This  is  the  obscurity  that  covers  the  early  ages. 
Aside  from  the  Bible  narrative,  a  cloud  rests  on  the  early  his- 
tory of  every  people.  A  long  period  passes  before  they  begin 
to  reflect,  to  look  around  and  back  toward  their  origin,  and 
still  another  of  groping  thought  and  study  before  they  are 
led  to  record  their  reflections  and  experiences.  The  necessi- 
ties and  habit  of  social  intercourse  give  rise  to  language  and 


86  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

gradually  mature  it;  a  long  period  would  necessarily  pass 
before  the  natural  aversion  to  other  than  desultory  labor,  the 
increase  of  population  and  the  habit  of  obedience  to  an  author- 
ity requiring  continued  painful  toil,  would  render  the  massive 
monuments  of  some  of  the  earlier  peoples  possible,  and  before 
their  attempts  at  architecture  could  mature  and  originate  the 
elaborate  ruins  which  time  has  not  been  able  to  destroy  during 
eo  many  centuries. 

2.  One  of  the  most  striking  traits  of  pre-historic  times  is 
the  simplicity  and  awkwardness  that  characterize  childhood. 
The  Chinese  language  has  been  remarked  upon  as  showing  the 
extremely  infantile  cast  of  mind  among  the  people  who  formed 
and  retained  it  to  our  times.  Each  word  is  a  sentence,  stand- 
ing by  itself  originally;  the  tone  and  gesture  give  it  much  of 
its  signification.  It  would  seem  as  if  its  authors  had  never 
grown  to  the  idea  of  an  elaborated  sentence.  Tliere  is  an  aver- 
age of  eight  words,  spelled  and  pronounced  exactly  alike,  for 
every  sound  used.  There  are,  it  is  said,  212  characters  pro- 
nounced che;  138  pronouncedyy?6>/  and  1165  which  all  read  e, 
and  each  letter  is  a  word,  a  phrase  and  a  sentence,  and  maybe 
an  adjective,  a  noun,  or  a  verb,  or  all  three  together.  The 
difficulty  of  expressing  shades  of  meaning,  or  all  that  may  be 
in  the  thought,  where  so  much  must  be  acquired  before  expres- 
sion is  possible,  has  kept  the  Chinese  mind,  in  many  respects, 
in  a  state  of  childhood,  though  they  have  preserved  a  stability 
of  character  and  institutions  nowhere  else  observed.  The 
primitive  mind  and  habits  are  maintained  as  if  crystalized. 
The  principle  of  decay,  so  universal  elsewhere,  would  seem,  by 
some  singular  process,  banished  from  a  vast  nation,  as  it  is  in 
the  human  body  in  Egyptian  mummies.  The  same  feature  is 
observable  in  a  smaller  degree  among  the  Hindoos,  and  seems 
to  have  characterized  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

3.  Such  a  habit  of  fixity  among  the  early  races,  whose 
position  secured  them  from  disturbance  by  the  more  restless 
tribes,  was  favorable  to  the  construction  of  the  stupendous 
monuments  which  have  been  the  wonder  of  after  ages.     All 


PRE-HI8T0BI0   GROWTH.  37 

those  races  have  been  remarkably  exclusive.  It  was  not  until 
nearly  four  hundred  years  after  the  era  of  authentic  history 
that  Egypt  was  freely  open  to  all  the  Greeks.  These  observa- 
tions apply  only  to  those  portions  of  the  human  family  which 
were  stranded  in  some  quiet  nook  outside  of  the  current  of 
movement  that  carried  along  the  most  of  mankind.  Change 
of  place,  intercourse,  conflict  and  conquest  were  the  chief 
early  educators.  The  isolated  nations,  after  exhausting  the 
power  of  their  first  impulses,  ceased  to  improve.  Their  minds, 
institutions  and  habits  stiffened  and  petrified.  ]^or  did  the 
families  that  wandered  far  from  the  general  centre  of  move- 
ment usually  acquire  any  high  degree  of  development.  They 
were  characterized  by  unsettled  habits,  not  favorable  to  highly 
organized  institutions. 

4.  It  was  around,  and  westward  of,  the  common  centre  of 
the  race  that  a  course  of  steady  improvement  went  on.  Here 
the  laws  of  inheritance  and  suggestion,  the  stimulus  of  con- 
stant friction,  and  the  infusion  of  newer  and  more  enterprising 
blood  worked  the  freest  and  developed  the  elements  of  a  true 
civilization  the  soonest.  If  the  legendary  history  of  Greece 
is  not  to  be  trusted  in  its  details,  it  at  least  establishes  the 
certainty  of  active  movement  and  incessant  conflict  out  of 
which  was,  at  length,  evolved  a  noble,  if  incomplete,  civiliza- 
tion. The  Greeks  were  near  enough  to  the  scene  of  stirring 
action  :in  "Western  Asia  to  be  benefited  by  its  influence  with- 
out having  their  institutions  frequently  disturbed  and  broken 
up  before  they  had  reached  any  degree  of  maturity,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  Assyrians,  Persians  and  Phenicians.  They 
reaped  the  fruit,  without  sharing  the  disasters,  of  the  great 
surgings  back  and  forward  which  we  find  to  have  been  the 
condition  of  the  Asiatic  peoples  at  the  time  reliable  history 
begins  to  observe  them.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  same  in 
that  region  (Western  Asia)  as  far  back  as  monument,  legend, 
or  science  can  trace.  The  fruit  of  this  shock  of  races  and 
mental  activity  matured  on  the  spot  the  greatest  and  best 
religious  systems  the  world  has  ever  known,  the  three  greatest 


38  THE   FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

of  which  have  survived  to  our  own  day,  viz. :  the  Judaic,  the 
Christian  and  the  Mohammedan.  The  germs  of  the  other 
two  were  contained  in  the  system  of  Abraham  and  Moses. 
Thus  the  three  most  important  influences  needed  for  the  pro- 
gress of  civilization  in  the  true  direction  were  supplied  in 
pre-historic  times  —  the  seething  and  surging  of  the  nations, 
in  the  "West  of  Asia,  a  high  religious  ideal,  and  the  primary 
discipline  of  the  Greeks. 

5.  The  lantern  of  science  has  guided  us  on  the  Track  of 
Time  by  his  advancing  Footprints  down  to  the  period  when 
the  grand  luminary,  Written  History,  begins  to  shine  from 
the  hills  of  Greece.  Looking  over  what  was  then  known  of 
Asia  wc  find  it  a  vast  battlefield,  on  the  western  border  of 
which  were  the  Jews,  receiving  lessons  of  instruction  or  chas- 
tisement from  the  surrounding  nations,  and  slowly  evolving 
the  Master  Religion  of  the  world,  the  massive  grandeur  of 
Egypt  is  dimly  visible  in  the  south,  and  on  the  eastern  hor- 
izon rise  the  immense  walls  and  towers  of  the  huge  cities  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon.  On  the  north  and  west  all  is  dark- 
ness, though  we  subsequently  learn  that  the  elements  of  a 
high  culture  among  the  Etrurians  of  Italy  were  waiting  their 
destruction  at  the  hands  of  valiant  Rome,  yet  to  be.  The 
Phenicians  were  beginning  to  scour  the  sea  and  to  build  up  a 
flourishing  commerce,  and  the  cities  of  Greece  had  already 
learned,  from  the  tyranny  of  their  petty  kings,  the  advan- 
tages of  free  government. 

The  period  of  authentic  history  is  held  to  have  commenced 
seven  hundred  and  seventy-six  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
In  that  year  the  Greeks  began  to  record  the  name  of  the  con- 
queror in  the  Olympian  games  —  a  national  and  religious  fes- 
tival, which  had  been  commenced  long  before  —  and  it  was 
called  the  First  Olympiad.  It  formed  the  first  definite  starting 
point  of  the  true  and  fairly  reliable  historians  who,  some  four 
hundred  years  later,  began  to  write  a  carefully-studied  account 
of  what  was  known  of  their  own  and  of  other  countries.  It 
was  the  time  when  dates  of  passing  events  first  began  to  be 


GRADUAL   DEVELOPMENT.  39 

Stated  in  the  records  of  the  cities  and  kingdoms  of  Greece, 
and  marks  the  beginning  of  a  real  civilization  and  culture, 
and  the  course  of  events  began  to  be  rescued  from  the  magni- 
fying and  marvel-loving  imaginations  of  the  people. 

6.  The  seven  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  follow  are  in  the 
highest  degree  interesting  and  important;  for  they  record  the 
achievements  of  the  early  manhood  of  humanity,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  nations  that  were  most  advanced  in  civilization, 
or  contributed  to  the  general  progress  of  the  world.  Men 
developed  their  inherent  capacities  far  more  during  that 
period  than  in  all  the  previous  centuries,  however  numerous 
they  may  have  been.  It  was  followed  by  about  five  hundred 
years  of  gradual  decline,  and  that  by  a  thousand  years  of  con- 
fusion caused  by  the  corruption  of  the  old  society  and  the 
imperfection  of  its  elements,  together  with  the  irruption  of 
vast  hordes  of  barbarians,  who  brought  in  fresh  and  vigorous, 
but  untamed  blood,  with  rude  and  fierce  manners.  They 
were  gradually  tamed  by  fusion  with  the  cultured  races,  and 
out  of  this  union  arose  a  civilization  broader  and  more  just, 
toward  the  perfection  of  which  we  ourselves  are  now  rapidly 
advancing,  and  which,  by  its  multiform  vigor  and  unlimited 
resources,  seems  above  the  reach  of  decay.  Its  power  of 
infusing  new  life  into  worn-out  peoples  and  renewing  the 
youth  of  nations  as  well  as  of  civilizing  barbarians  appears 
irresistible. 

From  this  outlook  we  return  to  consider  the  steps  by  which 
Time  has  led  us  to  such  a  desirable  eminence. 

SECTION  III. 

THE   GRADUAL    DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSTITUTIONS. 

1.  Man,  at  first,  had  no  institutions.  He  existed  in  tke 
simplest  and  most  spontaneous  way,  finding  shelter  in  caves 
and  clefts  of  the  rocks  and  beneath  the  primeval  forests,  grop- 
ing his  way  by  strong  instincts  which  soon  began  to  dawn  into 
intelligence  of  the  lowest  and  most  material  kind.    How  long 


40  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

he  led  a  purely  animal  life  we  have  no  means  of  knowing; 
but  we  may  suppose  that  the  necessities  of  self-preservation 
and  his  powerful  social  instincts  very  soon  developed  the 
germs  of  the  family  and  of  language. 

Childliood  is  comparatively  long,  and  many  generations 
must  have  passed  before  language  could  have  acquired  the 
distinctness  and  fixity  that  permitted  it  to  come  down  through 
so  long  a  period,  and  by  so  many  different  channels,  to  us. 
Tet  there  is  plain  evidence  of  an  Eastern  origin  of  all  the  vari- 
ous families  of  the  race,  and  of  a  considerable  mental  develop- 
ment previous  to  the  wanderings  that  peopled  the  East,  the 
"West,  and  the  South.  It  has  been  remarked  by  Geologists 
that  the  introduction  of  any  class  of  animal  life  was  never 
made  by  its  very  lowest  orders,  but  usually  by  a  class  inter- 
mediate in  organization  between  the  highest  and  the  lowest; 
some  of  the  very  lowest  orders  being  represented  in  our  own 
time. 

2.  A  tolerably  hardy  race,  which  could  endure  the  expos- 
ures and  overcome  the  difficulties  that  must  be  greater  for  the 
first  few  generations  than  ever  afterward,  as  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe,  was  first  introduced.  It  has  been  common 
to  suppose  that  man  must  have  been  supplied  with  a  fund  of 
knowledge,  and  a  basis  of  language,  to  have  successfully  met 
the  difficulties  of  his  condition;  but  the  uniform  law  that  the 
faculties^  the  innate  capahilities  of  his  race,  are  conferred 
on  him,  and  that  he  works  them  out  by  a  process  of  develop- 
ment is  observable  in  his  entire  history,  so  far  as  we  can  trace 
it.  All  needful  capacities  being  lodged  in  him,  with  strong 
appetites  and  instincts  to  impel  him  to  the  objects  most  vitally 
necessary  to  his  own  preservation  and  the  continuance  of  his 
species,  and  the  material  from  which  to  work  out  his  predes- 
tined ends  being  placed  within  his  reach,  it  is  made  his  indis- 
pensable duty  and  his  glory  to  realize  those  ends,  soon  or  late, 
by  his  own  endeavors.  The  evidences  of  his  early  activity, 
unearthed  here  and  there  by  geologists,  show  him  to  have 
advanced  by  degrees  from  the  lowest  points,  and  such  corrob' 


GRADUAL   DEVELOPMENT.  41 

orative  proof  as  the  earliest  forms  of  language  afford  are  decid- 
edly in  the  same  direction. 

3.  Many  of  the  terms  employed  for  the  first  and  most 
familiar  objects  with  which  the  necessities  of  life  brought  him 
in  contact,  show  the  very  imperfect  extent  of  his  early  knowl- 
edge and  resources,  and  they  gradually  change  in  a  way  to 
indicate,  most  significantly,  a  slow  and  laborious,  but  constant 
enlargement  of  ideas  by  experience.  He  advanced  then,  as 
now,  by  degrees.  The  races  latest  in  development,  as  well  as 
most  vigorous  and  intelligent,  were  the  Aryan,  or  Indo-Euro- 
pean. They  have  left  the  most  definite  traces  of  their  early 
condition  and  advancement  in  the  common  elements  of  their 
various  languages,  which  show  very  clearly  how  much  time 
and  toil  were  required  to  work  out  the  features  of  their 
first  Institution — The  Family.  The  proper  family  type  estab- 
lished relations  of  protection  and  dependence,  of  care  and 
trust,  of  purity  and  tenderness,  of  provident  foresiglit,  and  the 
shelter  and  comforts  of  Home.  Apparently  it  was  many  cen- 
turies after  the  other  races  had  begun  to  migrate  that  this 
last  and  most  valuable  stock  commenced  to  be  "  fruitful  and 
»niiltiply,"  to  tame  animals  for  their  use,  to  enclose  and  render 
their  habitations  comfortable,  and  to  organize  and  designate 
their  family  relations  down  to  son-in-law  and  daughter-in-law, 
as  well  as  to  name  the  most  common  domestic  animals  and 
occupations. 

4.  The  fact  doubtless  existed  long  before  common  exper- 
ience* and  common  consent  had  settled  on  the  terms  that 
have  remained  the  same  in  the  language  of  the  Hindoos,  the 
Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  Germanic  families;  but  by  many 
certain  signs  we  know  that  it  was  only  gradually  that  the 
tenderness  and  beauty  and  usefulness  of  this  institution  had 
laid  the  sure  foundation  of  a  future  vigorous  and  virtuous 
civilization.  This  race  devoted  themselves  mainly  to  the  care 
of  flocks  and  herds,  though  we  find  among  them  the  knowl- 
edge of  wheat  and  some  other  grains;  they  had  very  little 
experience  of  war  until  they  separated  and  began  their  wand- 


42  THE   FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

erings,  as  we  infer  from  the  fact  that  their  common  terms  are 
nearly  all  peaceful — those  designating  a  warlike  habit  differing 
in  all  the  various  branches  of  the  stock. 

The  Family,  with  them,  was  usually  founded  on  marriage — > 
the  union  of  one  man  and  one  woman — which  laid  great 
restraints  on  vice  and  preserved  the  growing  society  from 
manifold  evils.  The  other  races — Turanian,  Hamitic  and 
Semitic — appear  to  have  been  much  more  careless  in  this 
respect,  and  admitted  a  vicious  element  into  the  base  of 
society,  which  loosened  the  bonds  of  relationship  and  discip- 
line. They  practiced  polygamy,  which  magnified  the  position 
of  the  father,  while  it  deprived  him  of  the  closer  and  more 
intimate  relations  to  his  household  on  which  refinement 
depends,  and  degraded  the  mother  who  became  the  simple 
minister  of  pleasure  to,  and  the  means  of  increasing  the  influ- 
ence of,  the  Patriarchal  head.  This  point  is  very  vividly 
shown  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  Israelites  where  the  unhap- 
py effects  of  polygamy  are  distinctly  portrayed.  From  the 
same  source  we  see  how  the  first  institution  among  men  grad- 
ually grew  into  the  Tribe,  and  the  foundations  of  Organized 
Government  were  laid. 

5.  Population  rapidly  increased,  the  original  progenitor,  or 
the  oldest  of  his  male  descendants,  became  the  fountain  of 
authority  and  influence,  and  was,  in  many  cases,  the  chief  or 
king,  exercising  an  undefined  control,  sometimes  absolute  and 
despotic,  and  again  that  of  a  merely  nominal  head,  the  variations 
taking  every  shade  between  the  two.  Occasionally,  special 
gifts,  as  energy,  foresight  and  skill,  favored  by  circumstances, 
raised  one  in  the  tribe  to  eminence,  and  he  became  the  acknowl- 
edged ruler  to  the  exclusion  of  the  patriarch,  or  hereditary  heir 
of  the  patriachal  ofiice,  as  in  the  case  of  Joseph  in  Egypt,  and, 
in  later  times,  Moses,  Joshua  and  the  Judges. 

6.  Again,  a  pastoral  life  being  abandoned,  the  people  gath- 
ered for  various  reasons  in  towns,  and  cities  were  built  up, 
where  the  original  style  of  government  became  impossible, 
from  the  mixed  character  of  the  population;  the  oldest,  oi 


GRADUAL   DEVELOPMENT.  43 

family  government,  being  founded  on  relationship  and  tradi- 
tional respect.  The  need  oi  leadership  and  the  service  rendered 
by  some  member  of  the  community  founded  a  despotic  author- 
ity. In  many  cases  a  city  was  founded  by  an  adventurer  who 
had  gathered  supporters  around  him  by  some  special  ability, 
or  by  some  accidental  pre-eminence,  as  we  see  in  Kimrod  and 
Romulus;  or,  as  often  occurred,  the  head  of  a  family  or  tribe 
which  forsook  the  pastoral  life  and  founded  a  city,  from  a 
patriarch  or  chieftain  became  a  king. 

Government,  in  early  times,  was  very  imperfectly  organized. 
It  gradually  advanced  with  some  people  to  a  high  point;  while 
with  others  it  continued  in  a  very  undeveloped  state  for  long 
periods  —  some  races  never  having  reached  any  high  stage  at 
all,  or  only  temporarily  under  some  talented  individual. 

The  first  settled  governments  are  found  in  fertile  river  val- 
leys where  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  arrested  roving  and  desul- 
tory habits,  and  often  formed  the  nucleus  of  an  empire.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  first  emigration  from  the  early 
home  of  the  race  was  toward  the  east,  that  a  state  was  soon 
formed  in  China  which  became  considerably  civilized  and 
fairly  well  organized  the  earliest  of  all.  Their  national  tradi- 
tions and  some  of  their  recorded  dates  claim  a  vast  antiquity. 
It  is  not  yet  determined  by  scholars  how  much  credit  is  to  be 
allowed  to  these  claims, 

7.  As  it  appears  at  present,  two  other  governments  were 
organized  at  nearly  the  same  time,  one  in  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Euphrates  and  the  other  on  the  Nile.  It  is  also  possible 
that  a  fourth  was  built  up  in  India  nearly  cotemporary  with 
these.  Certain  similarities  between  the  ancient  ruins  of  Egypt 
and  India,  and  the  traditions  in  the  latter  country  have  given 
rise  to  the  suspicion ;  but  no  certainty  has  yet  been  reached. 
Several  systems  of  chronology,  independent  of  each  other,  are 
found  in  Egypt,  all  agreeing  as  to  its  enormous  antiquity,  but 
disagreeing  in  some  important  points,  and  satisfactory  tests 
have  not  yet  been  met  with,  so  that  the  early  days  of  Egypt 
are  very  obscure.    The  evidences  of  a  clearly  defined  progress 


44  THE  FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

are  presented  in  its  monuments,  but  the  earliest  bear  so  strong 
a  resemblance  to  the  later  that  there  is  some  reason  for  sup- 
posing that  the  first  inhabitants  had  reached  a  considerable 
degree  of  maturity  before  settling  there.  As  yet,  however, 
that  point  is  only  an  inference  —  the  most  probable  escape 
from  a  difficulty.  The  empires  established  on  the  Euphrates, 
and  north  of  that  on  the  Tigris,  mark  the  steps  of  progress 
very  distinctly,  and  furnish  fairly  satisfactory  means  of  com- 
puting their  general  chronology. 

8.  In  all  these  cases  it  appears  from  monuments,  traditions, 
and  from  whatever  information  the  records  of  the  Bible  and 
other  histories  give  us,  that  when  men  began  to  gather  in  com- 
munities, cultivate  the  ground  and  build  cities,  their  govern- 
ments were  controlled  by  kings.  Despotic  sovereignty  was  the 
natural  and  necessary  instrument  of  government.  The  vigor- 
ous will  of  an  admired  chief  concentrated  the  energies  of  the 
community,  and  a  state  was  formed.  The  beginnings  were 
very  rude  and  improvement  was  slow,  never  reaching  beyond 
the  simple  application  of  force  as  to  the  structure  and  modes 
of  government.  But  another  element,  founded  on  the  religious 
nature  of  mankind,  which  also  had  entered  as  an  important 
influence  into  family  government  from  the  earliest  times, 
became  organized  in  the  early  days  of  monarchy,  viz. : 

THE   INSTITUTION   OF    A   PRIESTHOOD. 

9.  It  would  appear,  from  such  traces  of  a  religious  tendency 
as  are  found  in  the  primary  languages,  that  the  religious 
instinct  was  awakened  by  an  observation  of  the  forces  of  nature, 
which  struck  the  mind  with  wonder,  admiration,  or  terror. 
The  mysteries  of  growth,  the  power  of  winds  and  storms  and 
waters,  the  calm  beauty,  beneficence  and  brilliance  of  the  sun, 
moon  and  stars  riding  undisturbed  in  the  heavens,  impressed 
man  with  a  sense  of  something  superior  to  himself.  The 
moods  of  nature  suggested  some  unknown  being  with  a  vary- 
ing disposition  like  his  own.  His  wants,  his  hopes  and  fears, 
and  his  sense  of  helplessness  soon  led  him  to  seek  to  propitiate 


GRADUAL   DEVELOPMENT.  45 

these  unknown  powers.  The  first  religion,  among  all  the  prim- 
itive nations,  seems  to  have  been  a  worship  of  the  powers  of 
nature.  The  head  of  the  family  was  naturally  the  first  priest 
of  the  family.  This  office  increased  the  respect  in  which  he 
was  held  by  his  multiplying  descendants,  and  contributed  to 
strengthen  his  authority. 

10.  But  when,  in  the  organization  of  cities  and  states, 
patriarchal  influence  decayed,  and  was  replaced  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  chieftain  or  the  king,  a  class  of  men  was  set  apart 
to  fill  the  office  of  religious  instructors,  to  discover  the  art 
and  conduct  the  acts  of  general  worship.  The  great  mystery 
and  uncertainty  surrounding  the  objects  of  worship,  required 
exclusive  study  and  a  supposed  purity  and  elevation  of  mind 
impossible  to  others  which  soon  raised  the  priesthood  into  an 
institution  much  revered.  It  acquired  great  influence,  and 
afforded  an  opening  to  ambition  only  inferior  to  that  of  the 
chief  or  king.  The  two  commonly  united  for  mutual  support, 
and  thus  mankind  gained  two  institutions  destined  to  be  of 
incalculable  value,  as  well  as  of  almost  boundless  injury.  In 
the  earlier  ages  they  must  have  been  an  almost  unmixed  good. 
They  disciplined,  the  one  the  labors,  the  other  the  minds,  of 
communities.  They  were  the  two  most  powerful  instruments 
for  initiating  progress.  They  moulded  the  mass,  gave  it  form, 
and  directed  its  energies. 

To  a  certain  degree  they  each  formed  a  check  on  the  excess- 
ive tendencies  of  the  other.  But,  the  power  of  each  fairly 
established,  they  often  united  to  set  very  hurtful  limits  to 
spontaneous  action.  The  king  used  his  power  to  the  common 
injury,  and  the  priests  their  knowledge  to  the  common  debase- 
ment. The  first  exhausted  the  sources  of  prosperity  and 
growth  among  his  people  to  gratify  his  caprices  and  pleasures, 
and  the  priesthood  promoted  degrading  superstitions  and  a 
gross  idolatry  to  strengthen  their  influence.  It  was  for  the 
interest  of  both  to  keep  the  people  in  pupilage,  and  check  all 
tendencies  to  independent  action  or  thought.     Had  it  been 


46  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

possible  for  them  to  be  wise  and  higli-minded,  the  race  would 
have  been  saved  many  centuries  of  debasement  and  misery. 

11.  These  evils  were,  in  some  degree,  checked  by  influences 
which  have  ever  since  been  the  mainspring  of  progress —  War 
and  CoTYimerce.  In  early  times,  relationships  of  blood  or  of 
immediate  interest  were  the  chief  bonds  among  men.  All 
outside  the  family,  tribe,  or  nation  were  usually  held  as  ene- 
mies; and  passion,  interest,  or  ambition  in  the  ruler  led  to 
constant  conflict.  But  the  shock  of  peoples  awakened  their 
minds,  made  them  acquainted  with  each  other,  made  their 
inventions  and  arts  in  some  degree  common  property,  and 
mingled  the  thought  and  blood  of  different  races ;  and  this 
greatly  enlarged  the  ideas  and  capacities  of  both  conquerors 
and  conquered.  The  acquaintance  made  in  this  way,  with  men 
and  countries,  led  to  an  interchange  of  products,  during  quiet 
times,  and  trade  and  commerce  soon  sprung  up.  This,  appeal- 
ing to  the  best  interests  and  instincts  of  the  most  enterprising 
among  the  people,  has  always  been  a  powerful  instrument  of 
advancement.  It  led  to  distant  voyages  and  travels,  to  obser- 
vation and  intercourse,  with  a  view  to  pecuniary  advantage,  to 
inventions  and  improvements  in  industry  and  art,  that  kept 
the  peoples  so  related  in  a  state  of  constant  progress. 

12.  A  growing  population  required  increasing  attention  to 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  and  increasing  wealth  led 
to  architectural  display  and  the  increase  of  instruments  of 
luxury,  the  production  of  which  disciplined  the  skill  of  the 
artisan  and  contributed  to  the  general  growth.  All  these  were 
the  elements  and  foundation  of  civilization.  An  organization 
commenced,  and  a  state  founded,  the  king  soon  found  leisure 
to  look  about  and  envy  the  wealth  and  territories  of  his  neigh- 
bor. He  made  war  and  commenced  a  career  of  conquest,  or 
fell,  under  defeat,  into  his  neighbor's  hand,  when  time  took  a 
•step  forward,  and  a  new  consolidation,  wider  and  higher  than 
the  former,  was  laid  on  a  broader  base.  Slowly  but  surely  an 
advance  was  made. 

13.  We  are  now  to  observe  this  gradual  development  in 


ANCIENT   MONARCHIES.  47 

tilt,  .successive  history  of  five  monarchies  in  Asia  and  the  king- 
dom of  Egypt,  down  to  the  time  when  they  all  fell  before  the 
conquering  power  of  Greece,  under  Alexander  the  Great, 
which  introduces  new  and  far  higher  elements  of  progress 
among  the  civilized  races,  and  forms  the  full  opening  of  a  new 
Era. 

SECTION  rv. 

ANCIENT   M0NAKCHIE8. 

1.  The  Chaldean  Monarchy  was  the  first  in  order  of  time. 
ic  seems  very  likely  that  the  first  settlement  which,  in  the  slow 
development  of  the  earliest  races,  finally  produced  an  organ- 
ized kingdom  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Euphrates,  was  made 
somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  3000  years  before  the 
Christian  Era.  It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  dispute  between 
the  best  authorities  whether  it  can  be  placed  so  far  back.  The 
monuments  of  that  age  are  difiicult  to  decipher,  but  it  seems 
pretty  certain  that  a  Scythian  or  Turanian  government  prece- 
ded that  which  the  traditions  of  ancient  history,  the  statements 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  indications  of  the  ruins  unite  in  placing 
at  2234  B.  0.  The  founder  appears  as  Nimrod,  or  Bilu-Il^ipur. 
Many  indications  render  it  fairly  certain  that  the  early  forma- 
tive stages  of  a  kingdom  had  already  passed,  and  that  Nimrod 
merely  changed  the  capital.  The  first  people  had  learned  to 
subdue  their  soil,  had  begun  to  build  and  to  bring  language 
and  art  to  some  degree  of  order,  when  it  appears  that  a  Ham- 
itic  race,  more  advanced  than  they,  and  showing  strong  like- 
ness to  the  early  Egyptians,  mingled  with  them.  In  the  first 
inscriptions  the  language  is  Turanian,  but  the  character  Ham- 
itic,  or  Egyptian.  So  far  as  can  be  judged,  the  displacement 
was  peaceful  and  gradual.  About  the  time  above  named,  a 
man  of  great  genius,  Nimrod,  a  Hamite,  or  Cushite,  as  he  is 
termed  in  the  Mosaic  record,  a  "  mighty  hunter,"  as  his  name 
implies,  founded  a  kingdom  farther  up  the  Euphrates,  and  on 
the  plain  which  lay  between  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 


48  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

2.  The  existence  of  the  first  empire  is  dimly  made  out, 
and  that  is  all.  Nimrod  had  clearlj  a  foundation  to  build  on, 
and  he  made  a  great  impression  on  his  own  times.  After  his 
death  he  was  deified  under  the  name  of  Bel,  and  became  the 
favorite  among  the  fifteen  or  sixteen  principal  deities  of  the 
early  Chaldeans.  These  gods  and  goddesses  seem  to  represent 
the  heavenly  bodies ;  while  the  earlier  Turanian  worship  was 
a  veneration  of  the  powers  of  nature.  Kimrod's  dynasty 
appears  to  have  covered  a  period  of  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years,  including  the  reigns  of  eleven  kings.  They  made 
great  advancement  in  draining  the  marshy  valley  and  reg- 
ulating the  supply  of  moisture  to  the  growing  crops.  They 
became  expert  in  the  manufacture  of  cloths  and  in  building 
with  bricks  which  are  covered  with  inscriptions.  The  priest- 
hood acquired  a  strong  development  at  this  time,  as  appears 
in  the  ruins  and  inscriptions  of  their  temples.  The  kings  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  very  warlike,  or  to  have  extended 
their  dominion  far. 

3.  A  second  Chaldean  kingdom  was  founded  about  1976 
B.  C.  It  is  called  Elam  in  the  Bible,  and  furnishes  the  first 
known  example  of  what  was  afterward  so  often  seen  in  that 
region  —  an  extensive  kingdom  formed  by  a  series  of  rapid 
conquests,  that  fell  to  pieces  again  as  soon  as  a  vigorous  hand 
failed  to  uphold  it.  The  kingdom  continued  till  about  B.  C. 
1600.  Kudur-Lagamer,  the  Chedor-Laomer  of  the  Mosaic 
account,  overran  a  territory  one  thousand  miles  in  length  by 
five  hundred  in  width.  In  one  of  his  incursions  into  Pales- 
tine his  forces  were  defeated  by  Abraham,  which  ended  a  con- 
trol over  that  region  lasting  twelve  years.  There  is  no  indi- 
cation that  the  following  sovereigns  exerted  authority  beyond 
Chaldea  and  Babylonia. 

There,  however,  they  grew  rich  and  civilized,  extending 
their  commerce  to  India  and  Egypt,  becoming  famous  and 
envied  for  their  splendor  and  luxury.  A  single  small  dwell- 
ing-house of  that  period  has  been  preserved  in  the  ruins  of 
Ohedor-Laomer's  capital  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"   south  of 


ANCIENT  MONARCHIES.  49 

Babylon.  It  was  built  on  a  platibrm  of  dried  bricks,  the 
walls  of  great  thickness,  with  two  arched  doors,  and,  appa- 
rently, lighted  from  the  roof.  The  rooms  were  long  and  nar- 
row. Iron  was  at  that  time  unknown.  All  implements  were 
of  stone  or  bronze.  Keligion  seemed  to  increase  in  its  gross- 
ness,  apparently  under  the  policy  of  the  priesthood,  who  laid 
the  foundation  of  astronomical  science  and  began  to  acquire 
the  reputation  for  hidden  knowledge  for  which  they  became 
famous  in  after  centuries.  INothing  of  any  importance  is 
related  of  the  kings  of  this  monarchy  except  the  one  con- 
queror. Despotism  and  priestly  craft  kept  most  of  the  feeble 
tendencies  to  political  improvement  curbed  —  waiting  for  bet- 
ter times.  That  arrived  with  the  advent  of  the  Assyrian 
Empire,  about  B.  C.  1500. 

4.  It  appears  that  for  a  long  time  before,  a  family,  or 
tribe,  of  Shemites  had  been  settled  in  Chaldea,  where  they 
•acquired  its  civilization  and  arts,  and  some  time  about  B.  C. 
1600  emigrated  north,  settling  on  the  river  Tigris.  They 
were  a  strong  race,  physically  and  mentally,  quite  too  fierce 
and  resolute  to  be  held  in  leading-strings  by  the  Chaldean 
priesthood.  The  country  they  occupied  was  higher  and  more 
varied,  abundantly  supplied  with  stone,  which  was  wanting  in 
Babylonia  and  Chaldea. 

Here,  in  process  of  time,  the  most  vigorous  and  progressive 
race  that  had  yet  been  seen  among  the  families  of  man,  built 
up  a  succession  of  cities  within  a  small  circuit,  each  of  which 
was,  at  d liferent  times,  the  capital,  and  which  were  all  finally 
united  and  made  the  famous  INineveh  of  the  Greek  historians, 
and  the  immense  "  city  of  three  days'  journey,"  visited  by  the 
Jewish  prophet,  Jonah.  Within  a  few  years  these  rnins  liave 
been  examined  by  competent  men  of  science  with  great  care, 
and  have  been  found  to  confirm  the  Bible  narrative,  in  all 
essential  points,  and  most  of  the  glowing  descriptions  of  pro- 
fane liistorians;  while  their  higher  style  of  art  and  greater 
vigor  and  pride  of  achievement  led  them  to  build  monuments 
4 


50  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

and  engrave  records  that  promise  to  make  us  very  intimately 
acquainted  with  their  social,  political  and  moral  life. 

5.  Thej  seem  to  have  acquired  the  habit  in  Chaldea  of  rais- 
ing a  vast  elevated  mound  for  their  more  important  buildings. 
The  largest  mound  is  found  to  be  nearly  one  hundred  feet 
high,  and  to  cover  an  area  of  one  hundred  acres,  and  on  the 
summit  of  this  were  placed  their  temples  and  the  palaces  of 
their  kings.  This  immense  foundation,  it  is  said,  would 
require  the  labor  of  twenty  thousand  men  for  six  years. 
After  this  were  to  be  constructed  their  vast  buildings,  cov- 
ered with  sculptures  and  adorned  with  statues.  Another 
mound,  higher  but  embracing  a  smaller  area  —  about  forty 
acres  —  served  the  same  purpose. 

They  were  extremely  religious  in  their  way,  but  the  vigor 
of  the  kings  appears  to  have  overshadowed  the  priesthood 
much  'more  than  in  Chaldea.  It  seems  to  have  been  about 
three  hundred  years  after  the  establishment  of  this  enterprise 
ing  stock  in  Assyria  that  they  became  famous  for  foreign 
conquest.  Babylon  had  been  gradually  rising  in  importance, 
\)ften  in  subjection,  more  or  less  nominal,  to  the  growing 
northern  power,  but  retaining  its  own  kings  and  habits. 

6.  The  reign  of  Shalmaneser  I.,  about  1290  B.  C,  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  building  a  new  city  and  improving  hia 
kingdom;  and  his  successor,  in  1270,  signalized  his  reign  by 
establishing,  for  a  time,  a  complete  sovereignty  over  Babylon, 
and  the  historical  Assyrian  empire  is  commonly  dated  from 
that  event.  For  a  century  and  a  half  there  are  few  important 
records.  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  in  B.  C.  1130,  commenced  a  series 
of  efforts  to  extend  his  dominions  by  conquest,  which  his 
success  led  him  to  describe  with  unusual  detail.  It  embraces 
five  campaigns  and  a  description  of  the  conquest  of  all  the 
neighboring  people.  He  established  a  compact  and  powerful 
empire,  which  was  surrounded  by  wild  tribes  whose  conquest 
was  of  little  honor  or  value,  and  whom  it  was  difficult  to  hold 
long  in  subjection.  In  a  return  from  a  campaign  against 
Babylon,  which  he  had  conquered,  he  suffered  a  great  reverse. 


ANCIENT   MONARCHIES.  61 

losing  the  images  of  his  gods  which  he  kept  in  his  camp  for 
protection  and  assistance  in  his  enterprises;  and  they  were 
carried  to  Babylon,  remaining  there,  it  is  said,  400  years.  A 
long  period  of  apparent  quiet  was  followed,  after  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  by  another  warlike  king  who  pushed  his 
conquests  to  the  Mediterranean  sea.  His  public  works  were 
larger  and  more  magnilicent  than  vhose  of  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors.    He  has  recorded  ten  successtux  campaigns. 

7.  His  son,  Shalraaneser  IL,  increased  the  number,  extent 
and  thoroughness  of  the  conquests  of  his  father.  Still,  most 
of  the  countries  conquered  retained  their  laws  and  govern- 
ment, simply  paying  an  annual  tribute,  and  the  conquest  set 
lightly  on  them.  Babylon  seems  to  have  retained  compara- 
tive independence.  In  the  following  reign,  Babylon  was  cap- 
tured and  remained  some  time  tributary  to  Assyria  and  the 
Ninus,  or  Iva-lush  IV.,  whose  wife  was  the  celebrated  Semi- 
ramis,  still  further  extended  Assyrian  power.  The  wonderful 
tales  related  by  Grecian  historians  of  Semiramis  are  not  con- 
firmed by  the  monuments.  She  appears  to  have  been  an 
energetic  Babylonian  princess,  the  principal  queen  of  Ninus, 
who  ruled  conjointly  with  him.  The  novelty  of  a  female 
ruler  in  that  rude  age,  and  the  splendor  of  the  empire  at  the 
time,  seem  to  have  originated  the  fabulous  tales  related  of  her. 

8.  At  this  time  the  development  of  the  people  of  all  the 
western  parts  of  Asia  was  so  great,  and  the  wars  as  well  as 
peaceful  intercourse  of  different  nations  had  so  stimulated 
them  all,  that  improvement  kept  a  tolerably  even  step.  Mul- 
titudes of  populous  cities  and  kingdoms  existed  in  all  direc- 
tions. The  magnificence  of  Solomon  belongs  to  this  period^ 
the  .Jewish  monarchy  having  reached  the  height  of  its  glory 
and  power,  too  high  to  be  long  endured  by  the  proud  and 
enterprising  Assyrians.  Commerce  filled  the  east  with  acti- 
vity and  manufactures  flourished,  in  some  directions  reaching 
'..  high  degree  of  excellence.  A  true  progress  marked  the 
general  course  of  human  effort.  The  psalms  of  David  show 
to  what  a  lofty  point  the  religious  ideas  of  that  age  were 


52  THE   FOOTPRINTS  OF   TIME. 

capable  of  being  carried.  Industrial  pursuits  and  agriculture 
reached,  in  the  next  hundred  and  fifty  years,  the  highest 
development  they  ever  attained  in  some  regions. 

9.  In  the  midst  of  this  busy  industry  Nineveh  rose,  peer- 
less in  grandeur,  enriching  herself  with  the  tribute  and  spoils 
of  all  countries,  beautified  by  the  master  race,  which  was  wise 
enough  not  to  dry  up  the  sources  of  their  prosperity  by  the 
destruction  of  cities  and  kingdoms.  The  common  policy,  up 
to  nearly  the  close  of  her  splendid  career,  was  to  leave  the 
real  resources  of  all  conquered  nations  untouched.  After 
defeating  her  opposer  in  a  battle,  she  received  the  submission 

•of  the  king,  imposed  a  heavy  tax,  or  forced  contribution,  and 
ran  engagement  to  pay  a  definite  annual  tribute,  and  went  on 
"her  way  to  subdue  another  nation  to  a  like  formal  control. 
With  misfortune,  or  a  change  of  rulers  in  the  dominant  king- 
dom, the  subject-kings  would  withhold  tribute,  raise  an  army, 
and  the  whole  work  of  conquest  had  to  be  repeated. 

Thus  the  empire  consisted,  of  a  stable  nucleus,  Assyria,  and 
a  vast  floating  mass  of  half  independent  kingdoms,  states  and 
cities  which  were  now  submissive  and  now  in  revolt.  We 
may  easily  conceive  how  this  comparatively  mild  mode  of 
warfare  would  contribute  to  the  general  advance  of  the  whole 
population.  This  mingling  and  clash  of  armies,  surging  to 
and  fro  of  vast  bodies  of  men,  and  the  knowledge  and  culture 
received  from  the  great  and  wealthy  capital  made  the  school 
of  that  period  for  the  education  of  humanity. 

10.  The  Assyrian  annals  show  a  continued  growth  in 
splendor  and  power  and  extent  of  dominion  until  the  very 
eve  of  its  fall.  In  the  course  of  that  time  Egypt  was  invaded 
and  partially  subdued  for  the  first  time;  and,  in  the  impa- 
tience of  frequent  revolt,  the  practice  commenced  of  remov- 
ing whole  nations  from  their  original  homes,  supplying  their 
place  by  others.  Thus  the  Ten  Tribes  were  transported  from 
their  homes  in  Samaria,  and  other  nations  brought  to  occupy 
their  places. 

The  last   king  of  Assyria    inherited    an    authority    that 


ANCIENT   MONAKCHIES.  53 

extended  farther  and  over  larger  numbers  than  had  ever  before 
been  known.  The  vigorous  governing  race  were  perhaps  cor- 
rupted and  weakened  by  a  thousand  years  of  power  and  suc- 
cess; but  various  extraordinary  circumstances  united  to  bring 
on  a  sudden  catastrophe.  A  considerable  part  of  the  central 
kingdom  was  devastated  by  an  irresistible  host  of  Scythians, 
immediately  after  which  the  Medians,  who  were  as  fierce  an<? 
warlike  as  the  Assyrians  in  their  best  days,  attacked  Assyria. 
A  large  army,  sent  by  the  king  to  meet  the  invaders,  went 
over  to  the  enemy  by  the  treachery  of  its  general,  Nabo- 
polassar,  and  the  combined  armies  laid  siege  to  N^ineveh, 
which  fell,  the  king  burning  himself  and  his  family  in  his 
palace.  Nineveh  was  destroyed,  and  Nabopolassar  received 
as  his  reward  the  kingdom  of  Babylonia,  and  the  Assyrian 
conquests  in  the  south  and  west.     He  founded  the 

11.  Babylonian  Empire,  which  has  made  a  greater  impres- 
sion on  posterity  than  Nineveh.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  and  resources.  The  treasures  and  captives  of  that 
miglity  city,  that  fell  to  his  share,  were  employed  in  rebuild- 
ing and  improving  Babylon.  During  his  reign  of  twenty- 
one  years,  and  the  forty-three  years  of  his  still  more  illus- 
trious son  and  successor,  Nebuchadnezzar,  that  city  was  made 
the  wonder  of  the  world.  Each  side  of  it  was  fifteen  miles  in 
length,  the  river  Euphrates  passing  through  its  center.  They 
repaired  the  wull,  M^iich  was  eighty-seven  feet  thick  and  more 
than  three  hundred  feet  high.  This  wall  was  so  immense 
as  to  contain  more  than  twice  the  cubic  contents  of  the  great 
wall  of  China,  which  is  1,400  miles  in  length,  and  the  vast 
enclosed  space  was  filled  with  palaces,  temples,  hanging  gar- 
dens, and  all  the  impressive  evidences  of  boundless  power  and 
resources  in  which  the  gross  ambition  of  that  period  delighted. 
A  second  wall  was  built  within  the  first,  the  river  was,  for  a 
time,  turned  out  of  its  bed  and  its  bottom  and  sides  paved 
with  masonry,  and  huge  walls  erected  on  either  bank ;  canals 
and  aqueducts,  for  £*gricultural  purposes,  of  the  most  stupend- 
ous character,  were  constructed  all  over  the  broad  valley.     The 


64  THE    FOOTI'RINl"S    OK    TIMK. 

weal  til  and  energies  of  the  richest  and  most  populous  part  of 
Asia,  as  then  known,  were  employed  to  build  up  the  great 
capital  and  improve  the  central  province. 

12.  The  Jews  were  kept  there,  as  captives,  for  seventy 
years,  all  the  treasures  of  their  city  and  temple,  and  the 
accumulated  wealth  of  their  nation,  were  poured  into  the 
Babylonian  treasury,  and  their  people  employed,  with  other 
countless  multitudes,  in  the  construction  of  its  walls  and 
buildings,  and  the  cultivation  of  its  fields.  Tyre,  the  most 
renowned  commercial  city  of  ancient  times,  was  taken,  after 
a  siege  of  thirteen  years,  and  much  of  Egypt  was  reduced. 

It  was  the  culmination  of  the  centralizing  system  of  the 
Assyrians  and  Chaldeans  which  had  lasted  for  two  thousand 
years. 

13.  A  dominion  so  resting  on  physical  force,  and  gorged 
with  booty  wrested  from  others,  with  no  moral  power  or 
national  spirit  underlying  it,  could  not  last  long.  A  more 
vigorous  and  warlike  power  rose  by  the  union  of  the  Persians 
and  Medes  under  the  Persian  warrior,  Cyrus,  who,  after  a 
series  of  conquests  farther  north  and  west,  in  Asia  Minor, 
turned  his  arms  against  Babylon.  The  walls  were  impregna- 
ble, but  the  river  proved  a  source  of  weakness.  It  had  been 
once  diverted  from  its  course  to  pave  its  bed  within  the  city; 
the  hint  was  accepted,  and,  on  a  night  of  feasting  and  care- 
lessness, it  was  again  turned  aside  to  give  free  entrance  to  the 
beseigers,  and  the  Babylonian  Empire  fell  in  the  very  height 
of  its  pomp  and  glory.  We  find  a  regular  progress  in  organ- 
ization, in  most  institutions,  from  the  first  Chaldean  to  the 
last  Babylonian  Empire.  In  popular  religion  alone  was  there 
an  increasing  grossness,  which  reached  its  limit  about  this 
time  by  the  fall  of  the  Chaldean  priesthood,  purer  practices 
and  ideas  were  circulated  by  the  Jews  in  their  captivity,  and 
the  Magian  religion  was  reformed  by  Zoroaster. 

14.  The  Medo-Persian  Empire  lasted  for  200  years.  Those 
nationalities  were  both  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race. 
They  had  long  been  maturing  on  the  highlands  bordering  the 


ANCIENT   MONARCHIES.  55 

north  and  east  of  Clialdea  and  Assyria,  witli  which  their  con- 
nection was  close  enough  to  communicate  the  general  value  of 
the  growing  organization,  but  too  slight  to  drag  them  down 
to  its  level.  They  brought  now,  to  the  common  stock  of  pro- 
gress, the  freshness  of  youth  and  the  healthy  habits  and  pure 
blood  of  the  mountaineer.  They  had  a  higher  capacity  for 
organization,  by  which  the  experience  and  progress  of  the 
older  nations,  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  was  prepared 
to  profit.  They  had  already  subdued  Asia  Minor  and  their 
vast  Empire  soon  extended  from  India  to  the  sea  that  washed 
the  shorefv  of  Greece.  A  complicated  civil  and  military  organ- 
ization consolidated  this  extensive  region  more  perfectly  than 
before  by  armies  and  governors  located  in  each  nation  and 
principal  city;  a  system  of  easy  communication  was  intro- 
duced; and  the  preparation  for  the  higher  Greek  models  of 
thought,  and  the  severe  regularity  of  Roman  institutions  went 
on  apace. 

15.  Babylon  fell  gradually  into  decay,  being  only  occasion- 
ally the  capital  of  the  Persian  Empire;  the  love  of  the  sov- 
ereigns of  that  race  for  their  native  highlands  leading  them  to 
build  splendid  capitals  in  the  borders  of  their  own  country. 
A  reform  of  great  significance  occurred  about  this  time  in  the 
Persian  national  religion,  which  gradually  displaced  the  debas- 
ing superstitions  and  g'^oss  idolatry  of  all  the  nations  of  the 
Empire. 

The  government  was  istill  despotic,  somewhat  relieved  by 
the  more  humane  and  independent  habits  and  traditions  of  a 
hardier  race.  A  number  of  changes  of  dynasty  by  violence 
occurred,  but  they  were  merely  revolutions  of  the  palace.  The 
vast  wealth  and  power  inherited  from  the  subject  empires 
gradually  corrupted  the  conquerors.  Their  armies  became 
vast  crowds  of  comparatively  undisciplined  troops,  who  were 
accustomed  to  bear  every  tiling  before  them  by  their  irresistible 
weight.  Their  conquests  on  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor  brought  them  in  conflict,  with  the  Greeks,  who 
had  many  colonies  long  settled  in  that  region,  and  the  Fersians 


66  THE   FOOTI'KlN're   OF   TIME. 

soon  undertook  to  subdue  that  intelligent  and  independent 
people.  Their  signal  failure  had  the  effect  to  greatly  stimulate 
the  development  of  the  Greek  national  spirit,  and  to  awaken  its 
intellectual  enthusiasm,  and  the  mighty  armies  of  the  Persians- 
were  destined  to  be  annihilated  by  the  small  but  resolute 
forces  of  the  little  republics. 

16.  Thirteen  sovereigns  ruled  during  the  continuance  of  the 
Persian  empire.  Except  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  they  did  not 
very  greatly  extend  the  boundaries  formed  by  Cyrus;  but  th*^ 
national  features  of  the  subject  peoples  were  gradually  efFacedy 
and  the  whole  brought  to  the  common  level  of  civilization. 
"Wlien  Alexander,  the  great  Grecian  soldier,  appeared  with  hi& 
army  of  35,000  men  he  scattered  the  hosts  of  the  Persian 
king,  Darius,  as  the  wind  drives  the  leaves  of  the  forest;  and 
the  vast  empire,  so  long  accustomed  to  bow  to  the  fate  of  bat- 
tles, became  the  unresisting  heritage  of  the  conquerer. 

These  five  great  monarchies  were  continuous  —  in  part  oa 
the  same  soil  —  the  centre  having  always  been  the  fertile  val- 
leys of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris;  the  successor  stepping 
into  the  place  and  carrying  out  the  general  plans  of  his  imme- 
diate predecessor,  but  on  a  broader  scale  and  in  an  increasingly 
enlightened  manner.  Through  all  these  long  centuries  a  mys- 
terious, and,  apparently,  still  more  ancient  race  had  occupied 
Egypt,  only  occasionally  interfering  with,  or  being  disturbed 
by,  the  surging  sea  of  strife  that  raged  and  foamed  so  near 
them,  which  at  length  forced  them  from  their  seclusion  and 
bore  them  on  in  the  general  tide  of  improvement. 

17.  The  Egyptian  monarchy  presents  many  very  curious 
and  difficult  problems.  Possessing  the  most  perfect  organiza- 
tion in  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  the 
traces  of  its  beginnings  quite  fail  us,  although,  more  than  any- 
other  nation,  it  lov^ed  to  build  great  and  impressive  monuments 
and  record  on  them,  in  the  most  minute  manner,  the  singular 
habits  and  monotonous  daily  life  of  its  people.  The  first  of 
those  monuments,  which,  b^'  many  signs,  must  date  very 
nearly  as  far  back  in  the  remote  past  as  the  earliest  dawn  of 


ANCIENT  MONARCHIES.  57 

organization  among  any  other  people  of  whom  we  can  gather 
any  certain  traces,  indicate  a  long  settled  state,  a  high  degree 
of  organization,  considerable  culture  and  great  resources. 

18.  The  first  king,  who  is  called  Menes  by  several  inde- 
pendent and  very  ancient  authorities,  made  his  reign  memora 
ble  by  a  system  of  vast  and  useful  public  works.  It  is  conjec- 
tured that  the  previous  rulers  were  the  sacerdotal  class  and 
that,  up  to  that  time,  they  had  no  kings.  The  habits  of  the 
people  were  quiet  and  peaceful,  and  they  seem  to  have  been 
first  gathered  around  temples.  In  all  stages  of  their  history, 
down  to  the  time  when  foreign  intrusion  by  force  disorganized 
their  peculiar  institutions,  the  priesthood  was  the  most  influ- 
ential element  in  their  constitution,  and  their  sway  seems  to 
have  been,  in  some  respects,  singularly  mild  and  beneficent. 
Except  for  the  extreme  inflexibility  and  minuteness  of  their 
regulations,  which  repressed  all  spontaneous  growth,  and  the 
gross  and  absurd  worship  of  animals  which  they  introduced, 
they  might  be  considered  an  unmixed  blessing  to  those  early 
times.  It  is  certain  that  they  were  successful  in  controlling 
men  and  moulding  them  to  their  own  views  without  produc- 
ing discontent  or  revolt. 

19.  Everything  in  Egypt  was  remarkable — its  river,  its 
country,  and  the  institutions  and  habits  of  its  people.  The 
Egyptians  dwelt  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  for  a  space  of  500 
miles  above  its  mouth;  but  this  valley  was  so  narrow  that  the 
habitable  part  of  it  contained  only  about  6,000  square  miles  in 
bU.  It  was  shut  in  by  the  Red  sea  on  the  east  and  by  track- 
less deserts  on  the  west,  and  a  fall  of  rain  was  so  rare  as  to  be 
considered  a  prodigy.  In  June  each  year  their  mysterious 
river,  whose  sources  are  yet  almost  unknown,  began  to  rise  till 
it  covered  the  whole  valley  like  a  vast  sea.  The  rise  and  fall 
occupied  the  summer  months  and  to  the  middle  of  October. 
The  waters  left  a  rich  coating  of  mud  and  slime,  which  ren- 
dered the  valley  fertile  beyond  measure.  The  productive  sea- 
son occupied  the  remainder  of  the  year,  and  their  agricultural 
resources  were  only  limited  by  their  skill  in  spreading  and 


58  THE    FOOTPEINTS    OF   TIME. 

husbanding  the  fertilizing  waters.  Yast  canals  and  reservoirs 
covered  the  whole  valley.  Lake  Moeris,  a  I'eservoir  partly 
natural  and  partly  artificial,  was  said  by  the  first  Greek  his- 
torian, Herodotus,  to  have  been  400  miles  in  circuit.  When 
the  waters  had  reached  their  highest  point,  the  cisterns,  canals 
and  lakes  were  filled  and  the  waters  kept  in  reserve  for  late 
periods  of  the  year,  and  a  succession  of  crops. 

20.  The  mysterious  character  of  the  river  seems  to  have 
deeply  impressed  the  nation  with  awe  and  reverence  for  unseen 
powers,  and  contributed  to  the  influence  of  the  priestly  caste. 
Their  peculiar  source  of  wealth  and  the  amount  of  leisure 
periodically  afforded,  perhaps  led  to  the  construction  of  the 
temples  and  palaces,  whose  gloomy  strength  is  as  mysterious 
as  their  river,  or  the  origin  of  the  people.  Far  back  in  the 
twilight  of  time,  Thebes,  the  "city  of  a  hundred  gates,"  was 
a  colossal  capital.  Its  vast  temples  and  palaces  were  built  on 
a  scale  of  grandeur  that  seems  almost  superhuman;  yet,  before 
history  begins  its  narrative  in  Greece,  Thebes  had  had  its  youth, 
its  long  period  of  splendor  and  glory,  its  hoary  age,  and  was 
already  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  nearly  in  ruins  ;  not  by  vio- 
lence or  conquest,  but  by  the  natural  transfer  of  the  center  of 
activities  to  another  region.  Considering  the  small  extent  of 
Egypt,  its  always  overflowing  population,  and  the  tenacious 
habits  of  the  Egyptians,  nothing  could  more  impressively  show 
its  great  age. 

21.  Egyptian  sculpture  was  descriptive  of  religious  cere- 
monies on  the  temples,  and  on  the  palaces  of  domestic  life  and 
general  habits,  and  furnishes  us  with  details  of  the  whole 
social  structure  and  all  their  industrial  pursuits,  as  well  as  the 
events  in  the  campaigns  of  their  few  warlike  monarchs.  Add 
to  these  the  minute  delineation  of  their  temple  service  and 
religious  teachings,  and  its  ruins  describe  the  entire  round  of 
its  ancient  life. 

The  people  were  divided  into  classes,  or  castes,  the  son  being 
obliged  to  follow  the  occupation  of  the  father;  and  all  branches 
of  business  and  industry,  public  and  private,  were  arranged  in 


ANCIENT   MONARCHIES.  69 

the  most  methodical  manner.  The  priest,  the  soldier,  the  hus- 
bandman, the  artisan  of  whatever  branch,  was  so  because  his 
ancestors  had  been  such  for  numberless  generations.  A  king 
could  be  selected  either  from  the  priestly  or  the  soldier  caste; 
but  he  must  previously  have  been  initiated  into  all  the  myste- 
ries of  the  priesthood,  and  therefore  Moses,  the  acknowledged 
heir  of  the  throne, "  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egypt- 
ians." Otherwise,  not  belonging  to  the  priestly  caste,  he  must 
have  remained  in  ignorance.  With  this  exception,  the  priest 
alone  had  the  key  of  knowledge,  and  all  the  employments 
requiring  intellectual  studies,  or  scientific  culture,  as  we  should 
now  say,  were  filled  from  that  class.  Tliey  kept  all  records, 
measurements,  and  apportionments  of  land;  prescribed  the 
times,  seasons,  and  conduct  of  all  public  transactions;  were 
the  constitutional  advisers  of  the  king;  they  were  physicians, 
astronomers,  philosophers,  and  guides  of  the  people  in  every 
respect.  They  alone  did  the  thinking,  and  they  guarded  their 
prerogative  with  the  most  jealous  care. 

22.  A  people  are  debased  and  gross  in  proportion  to  their 
ignorance,  and  the  ignorant  masses  of  Egypt  were  amused 
with  the  greatest  possible  multiplication  of  gods,  and  their 
leisure  and  simple  minds  fully  occupied  in  religious  ceremo- 
nies and  absurd  fictions.  But  the  priests  were  as  wise  and 
moderate  as  they  were  crafty  and  persistent.  Their  discipline 
was  extremely  judicious  and  well  administered,  and  was  laid 
on  the  king  as  well  and  sternly,  as  to  his  general  life,  as  on 
the  lowest  peasant.  The  priesthood  were  as  absolute,  as  im- 
partial, and  as  unvarying  from  age  to  age  as  it  is  possible  to 
conceive.  Their  services  to  humanity  were  very  great.  They 
laid  the  foundation  among  men,  of  unvarying  law,  of  diligence 
in  the  employment  of  time,  of  exactness  in  the  division  of- 
labor,  and  inculcated,  in  an  eftective  way,  the  idea  of  divine 
justice  and  of  immortality. 

23.  Their  "wisdom  "  was  the  highest  and  the  most  fruitful 
that  was,  perhaps,  possible  in  their  times  ;  their  fame  was 
wide-spread,  and  their  influence  on  the  legislation  of  other 


60  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   ITME. 

lands  has  laid  all  ages  under  great  obligations.  The  political 
economy  of  the  Jews  was  the  product  of  one  of  their  most 
intelligent  disciples,  and  the  fact  that  he  was  so  probably- 
added  greatly  to  his  influence  and  success  with  his  own  people  ^ 
and  all  the  great  legislators,  philosophers,  and  historians  ot 
Gi'eece  went  to  them  to  complete  their  education.  In  after 
times,  when  the  nation  lost  its  liberty  and  became  the  province- 
of  a  distant  kingdom,  they  sunk  the  priest  in  the  scholar,  and 
Egypt  had  the  largest  libraries  and  the  most  eminent  philoso- 
phers in  the  world.  After  Greece  was  carried,  as  it  were, 
bodily,  to  Rome,  far  down  into  the  Christian  Era,  Alexandria 
was  the  university  of  the  world. 

The  history  of  Egypt  is  thus  entirely  peculiar,  being  mainly 
that  of  its  one  influential  class.  They  impressed  a  peaceful, 
generally  virtuous,  laborious,  as  well  as  monotonous  charac- 
ter on  its  history,  and,  besides  the  vast  monuments  which 
the  patient  industry  they  inspired  reared  up,  and  the  names 
of  their  interminable  list  of  kings,  there  was,  perhaps,  little 
to  record. 

24.  The  entire  number  of  their  dynasties  of  kings,  as  they 
have  handed  them  down  to  us,  is  thirty-two,  the  last  being 
the  Ptolemies,  founded  by  a  Greek  general  of  that  name,  aftef 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  lasted  more  than 
three  hundred  years,  closing  B.  C.  44.  The  first  twelve  dynas- 
ties are  called  the  Old  Empire,  whose  period  it  is  impossible 
to  determine  accurately.  The  five  following  dynasties  are 
ascribed  to  the  reign  of  foreigners,  called  "  shepherd  kings," 
who  are  supposed  to  have  established  their  authority  between 
the  times  of  Joseph  and  Moses,  and  are  called  the  Middle 
Empire;  while  thirteen  dynasties,  including  the  royal  families 
that  reigned  down  to  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
the  Persians,  comprise  the  New  Empire.  They  were  generally 
exclusive,  shut  up  within  tliemselves,  too  much  absorbed  in 
exact  observance  of  the  endless  routine  prescribed  by  their 
priests  to  be  inclined  to  the  ambition  of  foreign  conquest; 
but  several  of  their  kings  gathered  large  armies  and  invaded 


ANCIENT   MONARCHIES.  61 

Palestine  and  Syria,  or  made  a  trial  of  strength  with  the 
Assyrians  or  Babylonians.  They  never  made  permanent  con- 
<jnests  in  that  direction.  Some  of  the  later  kings  became 
friendly  to  cne  vrreeks,  and  employed  them  in  their  armies, 
to  the  great  disgust  of  their  subjects,  the  soldier  caste  retir- 
ing, almost  in  a  body,  to  Ethiopia,  and  refusing  to  return. 
The  kingdom  soon  after  fell  into  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and 
the  accumulated  discipline,  knowledge  and  wealth  of  that  wise 
people  became  the  inheritance  of  humanity. 

^Nebuchadnezzar  was  the  first  who  made  a  conquest  of 
Egypt,  but  the  country  soon  regained  its  independence.  It 
was  not  till  after  the  death  of  Cyrus,  and  when  the  details  of 
the  new  Medo-Persian  kingdom  had  been  settled,  that  Cam- 
byses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  subdued  the  whole  of  Egypt,  and 
made  it  a  Persian  province,  in  which  condition  it  remained 
most  of  the  time  to  the  Grecian  invasion. 

25.  About  twenty-five  hundred  years  before  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  cities  of  Sidon  and  Tyre  were 
founded,  in  Phenicia,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  Tlieir  territory  extended  only  twenty  miles  back 
from  the  sea.  They  were  of  the  Semite  race,  and  their  enter- 
prising spirit  led  them  to  build  ships  and  become  at  first 
pirates  and  then  merchants.  They  were  thrifty  and  grew 
rich,  improved  their  vessels  and  became  famous  for  their  com- 
merce. They  at  length  planted  colonies  for  trading  purposes 
on  the  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  in  Sicily  and  in  Spain. 

One  of  those  colonies,  Carthage,  became  more  wealthy  and 
powerful  than  the  parent  state.  The  merchandise  they  gath- 
ered from  distant  countries  they  distributed  through  Asia  by 
a  land  trade,  and  their  caravans  reached  Nineveh,  Babylon 
and  Persia,  and,  for  long  periods,  were  almost  the  only  link 
that  joined  Egypt  to  the  rest  of  the  busy  and  growing  world. 
They  learned  many  useful  things  among  the  Egyptians,  among 
others  the  invention  of  letters,  or  at  least  hints  on  which  they 
improved.  Many  flourishing  cities  were  built  up  by  this 
internal  commerce  in  places  surrounded  by  desert  regions,  as 


62  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

Baalbek  and  Palmyra  in  Syria,  and  Petra  in  Arabia,  a  city 
excavated  in  the  rocks,  which,  lying  between  Syria  and  Phe- 
necia  in  the  north  and  the  rich  districts  of  Arabia  in  the 
south,  and  between  Babylon  and  Persia  on  the  east  and  Egypt 
on  the  west,  became  a  great  mercantile  depot.  The  Pheni; 
cians  were  the  busiest  and  most  enterprising  people  of  ancient 
times.  Their  vessels  reached  the  shores  of  England,  where 
they  had  valuable  mines  of  tin,  as  of  silver  in  Spain;  they 
visited  the  northwest  coasts  of  Africa  and  the  Madeira  islands, 
and  brought  the  rich  products  of  India  and  gold  from  eastern 
Africa  to  tha  markets  of  the  world.  The  amount  of  their  con- 
tributions to  civilization  and  progress  by  making  known  the 
discoveries  and  arts  of  distant  nations  to  each  other,  by  caus- 
ing roads  and  inns  to  be  built,  and  facilitating  communica- 
tion, was  immense;  as  well  as  by  awakening  the  love  of  gain 
and  turning  the  activities  of  a  part  of  mankind  from  warlike 
to  more  peaceful  and  useful  pursuits.  The  arts  and  inventions 
that  have  done  the  most,  in  the  long  run,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  men,  as  shipbuilding  and  writing,  were  communicated 
from  one  nation  to  another.  Their  commercial  routes  were 
the  highways  over  which  the  intelligent  and  inquiring  Greeks 
traveled  in  search  of  the  knowledge  which  they  used  for  the 
education  of  their  people.  Tyre  was  destroyed  by  Alexander 
B.C.  332;  but  he  replaced  it  the  same  year  by  building  Alex- 
andria, at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile. 

26.  We  have  thus  seen  nations  and  institutions  gradually 
unfolding,  passing  through  a  period  of  youth,  of  vigorous 
organic  action,  and  finally  decaying,  to  give  place  to  another 
of  higher  order  which  inherited  all  its  general  gain  and  pro- 
ceeded to  carry  still  further  the  banner  of  civilization.  As 
this  process  continues  the  field  widens,  and  with  the  increas- 
ing number  and  variety  of  the  elements  engaged  in  acting 
upon  one  another,  the  product  becomes  more  valuable, 
the  organization  more  complete  and  the  institutions  more 
useful. 

The  institutions  purely  political,  however,  the  modes  of 


THE    GRECIAN    STATES,  68 

government  and  the  stjle  of  administering  them,  are  imper- 
fect, at  best.  They  are  too  arbitrary,  too  restrictive;  the 
masses  are  too  large  and  too  closely  crowded  to  permit  free 
play  to  the  component  parts.  The  mingling  ol  the  whole 
was,  at  first,  evidently  necessary  to  prevent  tlie  crystalizing 
of  the  separate  nationalities  and  the  arrest  of  progress;  but 
when  that  process  was  stopped  and  a  plastic  condition  and  pro- 
gressive tendency  assured,  the  absolute  despotism  of  the  king 
and  the  priest  stood  in  the  way  of  advance.  They  had  educated 
society  and  developed  its  resources  until  a  power  of  vast 
combination  had  been  gained;  then  a  change  must  be  intro- 
duced, or  the  entire  resources  of  the  civilized  world  would  be 
employed  to  repress  its  further  advancement,  the  fountains  of 
wealth  would  be  exhausted  and  the  springs  of  activity  dried 
up.  This  barrier  against  a  destructive  centralization  had  long 
been  preparing  among  the  Grecian  states. 

SECTION  V. 

THE  GRECIAN   STATES. 

1.  They  were  of  the  Aryan  race,  and  showed  a  high 
capacity  to  receive  the  lessons  taught  by  the  experience  and 
genius  of  all  the  past,  and  make  them  the  stepping-stone  to  a 
higlier  civilization  and  freer  institutions.  They  were  pre- 
ceded in  the  occupation  of  Greece  by  the  Pelasgi,  of  the 
same  stock,  but  too  rude  and  uncultured  to  leave  many  traces 
of  their  presence  except  the  ruins  of  immense  cyclopean 
buildings,  without  inscriptions,  indicating  only  a  dawning 
culture,  but  a  vigorous  combination  of  physical  force.  The 
mythic  history  of  Greece  is  in  part  a  veiled  and  distorted 
account  of  the  struggles  of  Hellens,  cr  true  Greeks,  against 
those  uncouth  aborigines;  the  actual  facts  being  mingled  by 
the  lively  creative  fancy  of  their  poets  with  the  religious  tra- 
ditions brought  from  their  original  home.  The  highly  pic 
turesque  language  of  the  primitive  Aryan  people  *  accorded 
with  the  imaginative  and  observant  character  of  that  fam- 


64  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

ilj,  and  its  inclination  to  extemporize  some  plausible 
explanation  of  the  natural  phenomena  which  awakened  their 
attention,  and,  apparently,  suggested  the  general  course  of  in- 
vention and  embellishment  adopted  by  the  poets,  who  were  the 
historians,  the  tlieologians,  and  the  only  literary  class  of  their 
period.  Thus  the  early  speculations  and  crude  religious  ideas 
assumed,  in  poetic  hands,  an  exceedingly  fanciful  and  marvel- 
ous garb;  and  their  heroes,  who  succeeded  in  overcoming  the 
difficulties  of  a  new  settlement,  and  in  laying  the  foundation 
of  their  communities  in  a  rude  country  iilled  with  men  and 
beasts  almost  equally  wild  and  savage,  were  endowed  by  their 
grateful  and  admiring  descendants  with  superhuman  quali- 
ties, and  wonder  and  reverence  ascribed  to  them  a  descent 
from  the  gods. 

2.  A  characteristic  feature  of  Grecian  heroic  mythology 
is  the  number  and  mutual  contests  of  these  mythical  heroes 
which  indicate  a  leading  characteristic  of  the  nation — a  dis- 
position toward  independence  and  decentralization.  Every 
small  community  had  its  divine  hero,  and  insisted  on  main- 
taining its  government  in  its  own  hands.  In  the  early  times 
the  immediate  descendants  of  these  local  benefactors  com- 
monly obtained  the  sovereignty,  more  or  less  qualified,  over 
their  city  and  community.  They  all  greatly  respected  the  tie 
that  bound  them  together  in  kinship  as  one  race;  but  they 
never  would  permit  it  to  deprive  them  of  local  independence. 
If  they  had  a  king  he  should  be  of  their  own  tribe  and  choice: 
if  they  were  ruled  with  harshness  it  should  be  only  because 
they  chose  to  submit  to  their  own  tyrant.  They  seldom  per- 
mitted another  community  to  manage  their  internal  aftaira. 
Yarious  leagues  were  early  formed  among  contiguous  cities 
or  states  closely  related  by  origin;  but  they  dealt  only  in 
matters  of  common  interest,  and  if  one  city  or  king  was 
acknowledged  as  the  head,  it  was  only  in  a  general  sense  for 
the  sake  of  realizing  some  general  plan. 

3,  This  instinctive  and  resolute  refusal  to  accept  a  central- 
ized government  was  a  new  and  important  feature  in  the  his- 


THE    GRECIAN    STATES.  65 

tory  of  men  in  a  civilized,  or  highly  organized  istate.  Lt  was 
the  direct  opposite  of  that  which  characterized  Asiatic  and 
African  civilization,  and  held  the  Greek  race  open  to  a 
spontaneous  growth  and  a  mental  development  which  made 
them  the  benefactors  of  the  human  family.  With  less  indi- 
viduality and  mental  force,  or  a  less  favorable  time  and  situa- 
tion, it  would  have  kept  them  forever  barbarous;  but  time 
had  matured  them  and  the  nations  about  them,  and  their 
restless  spirit  of  inquiry  and  constant  movement  among  them- 
selves stood  in  the  place  of  the  foreign  action  and  shock  of 
races  that  proved  so  beneficial  and  necessary  to  the  Asiatics. 
The  Egyptian,  Chinese  and  Hindoo  peoples  reached  a  certain 
point  of  well  regulated  order,  apparently  by  an  original 
impulse,  and  stopped;  the  Chaldean,  Assyrian  and  Persian 
races  kept  in  the  stream  of  progress  by  a  sort  of  mechanical 
or  forcible  stir  and  intenningling  of  races  and  civilizations; 
and  the  principle  accomplished,  in  each  case,  all  it  was  capable 
of.  Time  and  progress  then  transferred  the  care  of  the  best 
interests  of  mankind  to  intelligence  as  embodied  in  the  Greek 
race.  Without  being  conscious  of  such  a  high  destiny,  they 
fulfilled  it  with  fidelity,  and  remained  true  to  themselves  and 
faithful  to  the  impulses  of  their  own  minds  until  humanity 
required  training  of  a  different  kind,  and  another  race,  receiv- 
ing their  mental  culture,  added  to  it  administrative  ability 
and  carried  the  old  world  as  high  as  it  could  possibly  go  on 
its  ancient  base. 

4.  It  seems  probable  that  about  B.  C.  2000,  or  in  the  time 
of  Abraham,  the  progenitors  of  the  Greeks  reached  that  country 
from  the  highlands  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Greece  e.  tends 
about  220  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  160  from  east  to 
west,  with  a  very  irregular  outline,  and  contains  about  34,000 
square  miles,  much  of  this  being  mountainous  and  barren. 
The  separation  of  the  different  states  by  these  mountain 
ranges  much  favored  the  disposition  of  the  people  tc  local 
independence,  and  formsd  a  bold  and  hardy  race.  Access  from 
three  sides  to  the  sea  led  to  commerce  and  colonization,  while 
5 


6^  THE   FOOTPBINTS   OF    TIME. 

it  brought  them  into  frequent  contact  with  the  most  civilized 
people  of  the  east  without  endangering  their  independence, 
and  the  lofty  mountains  on  the  north  were  an  effectual  barrier 
to  the  irruption  of  tlie  wild  and  wandering  tribes  of  northern 
Asia  and  Europe.  Early  in  the  history  of  the  Greeks  colonies 
came  from  Egypt  and  Phenicia  and  introduced  the  arts  of 
those  countries,  then  the  most  civilized  in  the  world.  This 
was  about  the  time  that  the  Jewish  nation  was  founded  by 
Moses,  and  we  can  easily  understand  that  the  native  intelli- 
gence of  the  Greeks  and  their  teachable  spirit,  led  them  to 
profit  greatly  by  this  early  light. 

6.  The  most  celebrated  traditions  of  this  people  relate  to 
an  expedition  by  the  collective  young  chivalry  of  Greece, 
called  the  "Argonautic,"  which  indicates  their  enterprising 
spirit  and  early  acquaintance  with  the  sea,  and  also  seems  to 
have  introduced  the  habit  of  planting  colonies.  Two  wars 
against  Thebes,  in  the  central  part  of  Greece,  induced  by  the 
ambition  and  combinations  of  the  kings  of  the  various  States, 
eeem  to  have  made  much  impression  on  the  whole  nation, 
while  a  combination  of  nearly  all  of  its  petty  sovereigns,  gath- 
ering an  immense  army,  stated  at  100,000  men,  to  punish  an 
injury  done  to  one  of  their  number  by  the  King  of  Troy,  on 
the  opposite  coast  of  Asia,  occupied  ten  years,  and  filled  the 
whole  country  with  confusion.  This  was  soon  followed  by 
an  event  called  the  Return  of  the  Heracleidae,  or  descendants 
of  Hercules — a  mythic  hero  of  great  celebrity — to  their 
ancient  dominion  in  the  southern  peninsula,  called  the  Pelopen- 
esus.  It  appears  to  have  been  attended  by  the  migration  of 
one  tribe  into  the  domains  of  another,  which  they  forcibly  dis. 
possessed  and  produced  the  emigration  of  the  conquered  peo- 
ple into  Asia,  where  they  formed  extensive  colonies — inde- 
pendent— but  preserving  a  love  for  their  race,  and  forming  an 
important  element  in  Greek  progress. 

6.  The  commotions  and  miseries  of  this  period  and  of 
subsequent  times,  which  had  their  rise  mainly  in  this,  most  of 
which  were  due  to  the  restless  ambition  and  personal  quarrels 


THE   GKECIAN   STATES.  67 

of  their  kings,  came  at  length  to  disgust  the  spirited  and  pro- 
gressive people  with  that  form  of  government,  and  before  the 
time  that  authentic  history  begins  they  had  very  generally  set 
aside  the  kings  and  established  a  democracy;  and  where  this 
was  not  the  case,  as  in  Sparta,  the  power  of  the  kings  became 
80  limited  that  they  were  little  more  than  leading  magistrates 
in  their  respective  cities.  This  was  not  often  done  by  violent 
revolution,  but  generally  m  a  quiet  way,  showing  the  steady 
and  intelligent  resolution  of  the  people. 

This  rare  nation  knew  how  to  adapt  its  governments  to  its 
needs.  Not  that  everything  went  on  without  struggle  or  diffi- 
culty, nor  that  they  did  not  share  in  the  rude  and  sanguinary 
passions  of  their  times.  Their  governments  were  often  unset- 
tled; there  were  frequent  conflicts  among  aspirants  for  place 
and  power  in  the  state;  they  had  a  balance  of  power  among 
the  leading  states  to  maintain;  and  the  want  of  a  strong  central 
authority  led  to  innumerable  collisions  and  sometimes  to  deso- 
lating wars.  But  amidst  all  the  confusion  and  imperfection 
of  an  early  civilization  they  still  maintained  such  an  independ- 
ence of  any  superior  in  each  state  that  they  could  settle  their 
internal  affairs  to  suit  themselves.  They  were  yet  uneducated 
men,  in  the  enthusiastic  young  manhood  of  the  world,  but 
with  spirit  enough  to  be  free. 

7.  Thac  freedom  had  many  defects.  The  true  character  of 
freedom  was  imperfectly  apprehended  in  that  age  of  the 
"world.  It  was  often  violent;  and  much  Grecian  blood  was 
«hed  by  Greeks.  It  was  frequently  turbulent;  and  sometimes 
the  strife  of  parties  and  factions  did  great  injury  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  state.  It  was  usually  a  restricted  liberty  in  which 
all  the  inhabitants  did  not  share,  for  the  slave,  the  freedman, 
and  the  foreigner  were  admitted  to  no  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment, or  in  framing  the  laws;  and  there  was  always  much 
oppression  and  injustice  somewhere.  It  was  not  a  well  under- 
stood and  well  balanced  liberty,  as  we  comprehend  it,  but  it 
left  room  for  a  large  amount  of  free  and  spontaneous  action. 
It  made  little  account  of  the  indimdual}  that  point  was  to  be 


68  THE  rOOTPKINTS   OF   TLMK. 

learned  and  made  duly  prominent  after  the  lapse  of  more  than 
two  thousand  years.  The  Greek  identified  himself  with  his 
state.  He  would  not  have  it  large  in  order  that  each  free  cit- 
izen might  have  a  personal  influence  in  it.  His  public  life 
was  an  education  to  him ;  and  the  very  defects  of  his  institu- 
tions fitted  them  more  perfectly  to  meet  the  wants  of  that  age 
than  anything  more  complete  could  have  done. 

8.  They  developed  rapidly  under  a  system  so  free  from 
restraint,  coupled  with  a  nature  so  ardent,  and  a  "thirst  for 
knowledge  so  absorbing.  Still  it  was  at  least  two  hundred 
years  after  they  had  re-arranged  their  primitive  modes  of  gov- 
ernment before  they  reached  a  degree  of  order  and  system 
that  infiuenced  them  to  record  events  as  they  passed,  and 
observe  the  world  outside  of  their  state,  and  even  then  their 
most  learned  men  wrote  little.  Men  were  absorbed  in  their 
private  matters,  or  in  the  afikirs  of  the  state.  They  thought 
little  of  the  future;  they  were  devoting  themselves  diligently 
to  the  only  means  of  education  that  existed  in  those  days, 
intercourse  and  action.  Their  priesthood  was  quite  difierent 
from  what  we  found  it  in  Chaldea  and  Egypt.  They  did  not 
form  a  class,  nor  attempt  to  exercise  an  influence  on  govern- 
ment. They  were  appointed  from  the  body  of  the  citizens 
to  ofier  sacrifices  and  conduct  religious  ceremonies.  The 
high  spirited  and  active  minded  Greeks  were  not  fit  subjects 
for  the  dominion  of  a  priestly  caste.  Althougii  Cecrops,  an 
Egyptian,  settled  and  civilized  Athens,  and  introduced  some 
of  the  social  arrangements  of  his  country,  he  did  not  plant 
the  all-controlling  priesthood.  The  Athenians,  of  all  other 
Greeks,  were  the  thoughtful,  progressive  intelligence  of  the 
nation.  The  poets  compiled  the  genealogies  and  histories  of 
the  gods,  the  heroes,  and  the  past  records  of  the  people. 
There  was  no  other  literature,  there  were  no  other  sources  of 
information  but  those  from  which  the  poets  drew — tradition 
and  inherited  customs.  Of  these  the  poets  explained  the 
origin  and  reason,  and  no  one  thought  of  questioning  their 
tales.     They  were  supposed  to  be  inspired ;  and  their  marvel- 


THE   GEEdAN    STATES.  66 

oiis  legends  rested,  to  a  certain  extent,  on  monuments,  habits, 
and  oral  tradition.  Their  lively  narratives  charmed  and  satis- 
fied the  public  mind  and  gratified  their  pride.  It  was  only  in 
later  years  that  the  philosophers  explained  them  away. 

.  In  the  early  days  they  had  no  standard  by  which  to  criticise 
them.  All  they  required  was  that  they  should  offer  a  pleasing 
explanation.  The  wisest  of  the  Greeks  came,  ultimately,  to 
believp  in  one  God  who  ruled  with  wisdom  and  justice,  and 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  all  useful  knowledge  by  teaching 
men  to  think  and  reason ;  but  true  science  was  not  possible  in 
their  age  of  the  world.     They,  however,  prepared  the  way  for  it. 

9.  Their  religion  was  cheerful  and  bright,  they  had  altars 
and  temples  in  great  numbers,  and  countless  ceremonies  in 
honor  of  particular  deities.  One  class  of  these  was  festi- 
vals, or  games,  established,  according  to  tradition,  by  their 
divine  heroes.  The  Olympian  Games  were  the  most  celebrated, 
and  took  place  every  fiftieth  month  at  Olympia.  In  the  year 
776  B.  C.  they  began  to  record  the  name  of  the  victor  in  these 
games,  and  as  that  was  done  ever  afterward,  this  became  a 
fixed  date  and  the  interval  between  each  was  called  an  Olympiad. 
It  was  the  beginning  of  reliable  history,  although  it  was  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  later  that  men  of  real  wisdom,  exten- 
sive observation  and  careful  study  began  to  flourish.  But  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  people  sought  information,  and  the 
honor  in  which  they  held  men  of  thought  and  wisdom,  encour- 
aged study,  reflection  and  travel  for  the  sake  of  knowledge,  so 
that  this  class,  in  time,  became  extremely  numerous. 

Their  researches,  and  systems  of  what  they  held  to  be  truth, 
were  often  imperfect,  and,  in  many  parts,  false;  but  they  were 
upright  and  earnest  in  the  studies  that  were  then  possible,  and 
did  as  much  good,  one  might  say,  by  their  failures  as  by  their 
successes.  Inquirers,  in  after  times,  noted  where  and  Iww 
they  failed;  so  that  all  their  pioneer  work  was  useful — their 
mistakes  for  a  warning,  their  success  for  instruction. 

10.  The  course  of  Grecian  development  took  two  contrary 
directions,  under  the  two  leading  states,  Sparta  and  Athens. 


To  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF    TIME. 

The  last  represents  the  generally  received  idea  of"  Greece  —  as 
a  land  where  the  people  were  lively  and  beautiful,  intelligent 
and  richly  endowed  with  taste  in  the  arts,  or  an  exquisitely 
quick  and  \hoYO\\^  jitdgment  oi fitness^  developed  to  the  very 
highest  point.  Sparta,  on  the  other  hand,  through  its  whole 
career,  was  a  military  state.  Somewhere  about  one  hundred 
years  before  the  first  Olympiad  (B.  C.  776),  a  lawgiver,  named 
Lycurgus,  had  reformed  the  institutions  of  the  Spartan  state 
with  the  avowed  and  only  object  to  render  it  capable  of  pro- 
ducing the  most  vigorous  and  hardy  warriors.  He  made  an 
equal  distribution  of  lands,  which  were  cultivated  by  the 
ancient  inhabitants,  reduced  to  slavery.  They  were  called 
Helots,  and  were  treated  with  great  cruelty.  Lycurgus  abol- 
ished every  species  of  luxury,  subjected  the  young,  both  boyft 
and  girls,  to  the  most  rigorous  training,  and  discouraged  all 
the  amenities  of  family  and  social  life  that  he  supposed  might 
interfere  with  the  rude  hardiness  of  the  soldier.  The  whole 
intelligence,  activity  and  vigor  of  the  Greek  mind  was,  in  thi» 
state,  confined  to  military  life.  These  institutions  continued 
to  exist  in  Sparta  for  more  than  five  hundred  years.  Among- 
any  other  race  they  would  have  secured  to  them  the  supreme 
dominion  of  the  nation;  but  among  this  liberty  loving  people 
they  merely  sufficed  to  render  them  the  general  leaders  in  war, 
and  one^  only,  among  the  most  powerful  and  respectable  Greek 
states.  Besides,  this  experiment  shows  that  there  is  little  real 
advantage  in  systematically  trampling  down  the  native  instincts 
of  humanity  in  order  to  promote  superiority  in  a  particular 
direction. 

11.  The  entirely  spontaneous  character  of  the  Athenians 
made  them,  in  general,  the  equal  of  the  Spartans  in  military 
fame,  and  gloriously  eminent  in  many  other  directions.  But 
the  various  members  of  the  Greek  nation  seem  to  have  been 
made,  by  their  intelligence  and  the  earnestness,  tlie  completeness, 
of  all  their  lines. of  development,  the  pioneers  of  humanity  in 
their  experiments.  They  exhausted  all  the  capacities  of  a  com- 
plete military  education  in  an  entire  state,  and  presented  the 


THE    GRECIAN    STATES.  71 

most  perfect  achievements  of  a  genius  that  had  no  models  to 
commence  on,  in  poetr}',  in  painting,  in  sculpture,  in  philoso- 
phy and  in  such  elements  of  science  as  were  possible  to  human- 
ity in  their  day. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  most  of  the  Greek  colonies,  the 
Phenicians  and  their  colonies,  and  a  great  part  of  the  numer- 
ous nations  in  Italy  became  republican  about  the  same  time  — 
as  did  the  Romans  later  —  and  that  those  states  which  pre- 
served hereditary  monarchy,  or  tyrants —  as  those  kings  were 
called  who  were  elected  by  the  populace  —  had  counterbalanced 
the  individual  despotism  of  the  kingly  office  by  various  insti- 
tutions that  <iontrolled  and  limited  it. 

12.  At  the  period  when  history  began  to  be  carefully  writ 
ten  and  dates  accurately  given,  civilization  was  under  full 
career  and  rapidly  moving  westward.  The  Greeks  had  been 
struggling  with  the  difficulties  of  the  early  times  for  more  than 
a  thousand  years  and  had  already  begun  to  mature  the  insti- 
tutions and  to  show  the  traits  of  character  that  afterwards* 
made  them  so  eminent  and  so  useful  in  advancing  the  progress 
of  mankind.  The  Tyrians,  or  commercial  people  of  Phenicia 
had  formed  the  net-work  of  communication  with  all  the  part*i 
of  the  earth  then  sufficiently  civilized  to  produce  anything' 
which  could  be  useful  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  Italy  was 
alive  with  the  energies  of  the  primitive  races,  mainly  Aryan 
— some  of  them  transplanted  from  the  East,  and  possessing 
many  of  the  highest  elements  of  the  ancient  culture — who 
fought  the  Romans  with  a  vigor  andpersistence  that  contrib- 
uted much  to  the  discipline  and  strong  development  of  that 
remarkable  people,  to  whose  instruction  the  Greek  colonies 
in  eastern  Italy  added  not  a  little. 

From  this  point  the  advance  of  the  center  of  development 
toward  the  western  continent,  and  of  mental  preparation  for 
more  perfect  ideals  of  government  was  continuous.  A  more 
complete  view  of  this  progress  will  be  gained  by  considering 
the  general  events  of  each  century  apart,  or  in  chronological 
order. 


72  THE   FOOTPEIXTS   OF    TI>IE. 

13.  B.  C.  776.  This  is  the  first  definite  and  positive  date 
in  reliable  history  and  commences  the  first  Olympiad.  The 
Olympic  religious  and  national  festival  was  celebrated  by  foot 
and  chariot  races,  boxing,  ^vrestling,  etc.,  and  was  commenced 
by  religious  sacrifices  and  ceremonies,  mainly  in  honor  of  the 
god  Apollo.  This  peaceable  assembly  of  all  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Grecian  race  was  one  of  the  chief  means  of  main- 
taining the  national  union,  and  greatly  promoted  the  main- 
tenance and  importance  of  a  kind  of  national  congress,  called 
the  Amphictyonic  League.  The  first  object  of  this  League 
was  the  protection  of  their  common  worship;  but  it  came  to 
have,  afterward,  considerable  importance  as  a  political  body; 
its  decrees  having  the  character  and  force  of  the  Laws  of  Na- 
tions in  modern  times.  It  was  composed  of  two  delegates 
from  each  of  the  twelve  leading  states  of  Greece,  and  held  two 
meetings  yearly ;  one  at  Delphi,  where  was  a  celebrated  tem- 
ple and  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  one  at  Thermopylae.  The  twelve 
chief  cities  of  the  ^olian  colonies  of  Greece  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  also  the  same  number  of  Ionian  colonies  on  the  same  coast 
more  to  the  south,  had  each  Amphictyonic,  or  International 
Leagues;  but  the  Greeks  from  all  the  various  regions  they 
settled,  as  well  as  from  the  mother  country,  took  a  pride  in 
participating  in  the  Olympic  games. 

14.  B.  B.  753.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  dates  in 
the  history  of  mankind.  In  this  year,  Rome,  "  The  Eternal 
City,"  was  founded  by  a  band  of  adventurers  and  outlaws, 
under  the  lead  of  the  twin  brothers,  Romulus  and  Remus. 
A  spirit  of  adventure  was  the  most  characteristic  feature  of 
that  era,  in  Greece  and  about  the  Mediterranean  sea,  together 
with  a  passion  for  colonizing,  or  founding  new  states.  Educa- 
tion, or  growth,  seems  to  pursue  parallel  lines  in  the  same  era, 
so  that  the  same  general  tendencies  move  the  masses  of  widely 
separated  nations.  Greece  began,  at  this  period,  to  send  out 
a  larg-e  number  of  colonists,  in  rapid  succession,  to  Italy  and 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  tendency  had  com- 
menced more  than  three  centuries  before,  but  the  colonies  bad 


THE   GRECIAN   STATRS.  73 

not  gone  far  from  the  native  state,  and  onlv  one  had  been  es- 
tablished in  Italy,  at  Cumse.  Carthage,  a  commercial  colony 
of  the  Tyrians,  had  been  founded  127  years  before,  and  was 
now  beginning  to  rival  the  parent  city. 

Rome  gathered  its  population  from  all  the  neighboring 
states.  The  mingling  of  races  has  always  been  favorable  to 
the  progress  of  mankind.  A  single  race,  isolating  itself  and 
receiving  no  new  blood  or  impulses  from  without  becomes 
stationary  and  fixed  in  all  its  habits  and  advancement  ceases 
beyond  a  certain  point.  The  men  who  founded  Rome  were, 
apparently,  a  crowd  of  adventurers  wlio  had  resolved  to  found 
a  state.  After  building  the  walls  of  their  city  and  providing 
themselves  with  habitations,  they  were  destitute  of  wives  — 
a  serious  want  which  would  soon  leave  their  new  city  without 
inhabitants.  They  remedied  it  in  true  Roman  style  —  by  vio- 
lence. They  made  a  festival  without  the  walls  to  celebrate  the 
founding  of  their  state,  and  invited  their  nearest  neighbors, 
the  Sabines,  to  take  part  in  it.  The  Sabines  came  with  their 
wives  and  daughters.  At  a  concerted  moment  the  young 
Romans  each  seized  a  young  Sabine  woman,  and  carried  her 
off  into  the  city;  the  gates  were  closed  and  each  proceeded  to 
make  liis  captive  his  wife. 

The  Sabines  were  powerless  to  prevent  the  deed,  but  they 
soon  made  war  on  their  violent  sons-in-law,  and  the  young 
city  would  have  been  destroyed  but  for  the  interference  of  the 
stolen  women  who  had  become  satisfied  with  the  bold  deed 
which  gave  them  valiant  husbands.  The  Sabines  were  induced 
to  unite  with  the  young  state  so  far  as  to  build  a  new  city 
adjoining  and  take  part  in  its  rising  fortunes.  Romulus  was 
elected  king  by  his  followers,  but  popular  institutions  were 
established  to  limit  his  power,  under  the  strong  instinct  of 
vigorous  organization  that,  from  the  first,  characterized  the 
new  nation.  The  people  maintained  their  right  to  make  laws 
in  conjunction  with  the  king,  and  preserved  a  limited  mon- 
archy for  250  years.     At  this  time  the  prophet  Isaiah  flour- 


74  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

islied  in  Judea,  and  the  kingdom  of  Samaria  was  approaching 
extinction. 

15.  B.  C.  747.  Tlie  Chaldeans  established,  or  revived,  their 
dominion  in  Babylon,  under  their  king,  Nabonassur,  and  seem 
to  have  been  independent  of  Assyria  for  a  time,  but  after- 
ward to  have  been  brought  into  a  qualified  subjection  to  that 
enterprising  monarchy.  It  commences  authentic  history  in 
the  East,  so  far  as  well  ascertained  dates  are  concerned.  In 
that  year  the  Chaldean  astronomers  or  priests,  first  introduced 
the  Egyptian  solar  year,  which  furnished  an  accurate  mode  of 
measuring  time.  This  was  about  the  commencement  of  the 
Sixth  Olympiad.  Egypt  was  approaching  its  most  perfect 
condition      der  its  ancient  system. 

B.  C.  743.  Messenian  w^ar  of  23  years — Sparta  conquers 
Messene. 

16.  B.  C.  735.  A  colony  from  Corinth  founded  the  cele- 
brated city  of  Syracuse  in  Sicily,  and  a  fashion  of  colonizing 
seems  to  have  obtained  in  Greece,  which  continued  for  a  hun- 
dred years.  The  native  enterprise  of  the  Greeks,  the  great 
increase  of  inliabitants  in  their  small  territorj'^,  and  the  com- 
motions and  contests  of  parties  in  their  states,  which  preceded 
the  establishment  of  more  complete  popular  governments, 
were  probably  the  ruling  causes  of  these  foreign  emigrations, 
and  all  contributed"  to  the  increase  of  knowledge,  improvement 
in  navigation,  and  the  prevalence  of  a  commercial  spirit.  Mi- 
letus, the  leading  Greek  city  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  became 
almost  as  powerful  and  prosperous  by  her  commerce  as  Tyre 
in  her  best  days.  There  were  Grecian  colonies  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  west  of  Egypt,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Italy,  several  ir. 
Sicily,  one  in  France.  They  were,  generally,  very  enterprising 
and  prosperous,  and  diffused  Greek  intelligence  and  culture 
over  a  large  part  of  the  world  as  known  at  that  time.  They 
usually  established  a  republican  government.  Syracuse  re- 
mained republican  for  251  years. 

17.  B.  C.  728.  The  Assyrian  Empire  was  now  having  its 
palmiest  days,  and  spreading  its  dominion  over  all  the  central 


THE    GRECIAN    STATES.  75 

parts  of  western  Asia,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  At  this  time  Shalman-assur,  or  Shahnaneser,  the  king 
of  Assyria,  led  away  the  Ten  Tribes  of  Israel  into  a  hopeless 
captivity,  and  planted  a  different  race  in  Samaria.  Soon  after 
this  time  the  Etliiopians  from  the  upper  Nile  established  their 
dominion  in  Egypt,  without  apparently  changing  the  general 
condition  of  things  there.  Three  Ethiopian  kings  successively 
reigned  in  Egypt,  and  made  conquests  in  Asia  to  some  extent. 
18.  B.  C.  600.  About  the  beginning  of  this  century  the 
foundation  of  Greek  philosophy  was  laid  by  Thales  of  Miletus, 
a  Greek  city  in  Asia.  He  represents  the  growth  and  acuteness 
of  the  Greek  mind  and  the  approach  of  its  period  of  greatest 
activity.  He  travelled  into  Egypt  in  search  of  wisdom,  and 
was  the  most  able  astronomer  of  his  times.  He  calculated  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  which,  coming  on  just  when  two  armies, 
the  Median  and  Lydian,  were  about  to  engage  in  battle,  so 
terrified  them  that  they  immediately  separated  and  made  peace. 
He  was  celebrated  as  a  mathematician,  and  taught  many  trutha 
concerning  the  existence  of  God  which  were  far  in  advance  of 
his  time,  and  undertook  to  account  for  the  origin  of  all  things 
in  a  very  bold  and  independent  manner.  He  was  one  of  the 
famous  "  Seven  Wise  Men  "  of  Greece.  Solon  was  held  to  be 
the  first  among  the  seven.  He  was  an  Athenian  law-giver  and 
writer,  and  established  a  very  wise  and  enlightened  system  of 
government  in  Athens.  He  was  a  pure-hearted  and  clear- 
sighted man,  enjoying  the  universal  respect  of  the  Greeks. 
Chilo,  another  of  the  seven,  was  a  Spartan  magistrate,  held  in 
the  highest  esteem  for  his  wisdom.  Pittacus  of  Mitylene,  was 
a  law-giver,  held  in  high  honor.  Bias  of  Priene,  in  Ionia, 
was  a  very  noble-hearted  and  public-spirited  citizen,  of  univer- 
sal reputation  for  wisdom.  Cleobulus,  of  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
was  remarkable  for  his  skill  in  answering  difiicult  questions, 
and  Periander  of  Corinth,  the  ruler,  or  tyrant,  of  that  place, 
was  the  last  of  the  seven.  They  were  all  living  at  the  same 
time.  They  were  only  the  most  eminent  among  a  people  who 
could  fully  appreciate  mental  ability.     The  spirit  of  inquiry 


76  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

continued  to  spread  rapidly  for  two  hundred  years,  when  the 
greatest  masters,  who  immortalized  themselves  and  their  race 
by  their  genius,  appeared. 

19.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia,  in  the  central  part  of  Asia  Minor,  rose  to  great  wealth 
and  power.  The  Lydian  kingdom  was  ancient  —  many  of  its 
customs  being  similar  to  those  of  the  Egyptians  —  and  the 
Etrurians  of  Italy,  a  much  more  polished  and  cultivated 
people  than  the  Romans  who  conquered  them,  are  thought, 
by  some  eminent  historians,  to  have  been  a  Lydian  colony 
planted  in  Italy  in  unknown  times.  The  Lydian  kings  made 
war  on  the  Asiatic  Greek  colonies  and  reduced  many  of  them 
to  subjection.  Croesus,  the  last  king  of  Lydia,  was  prover- 
bial for  his  vast  wealth.  He  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  the 
Persian,  in  the  middle  of  the  next  century. 

679  B.  C.  Numa,  the  second  king  of  Rome,  is  said  to  have 
died.  The  Romans  abstained  from  war  during  nearly  the 
whole  of  his  reign,  which  was  occupied  in  settling  the  inter- 
nal affairs  of  the  new  state,  especially  those  relating  to 
religion.  He  was  followed  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  a  very  war- 
like prince,  who  did  much  to  extend  the  Roman  state, 

20.  About  650  B.  C.  a  great  change  was  introduced  into 
Egypt,  by  Psammeticus,  its  king,  who,  having  several  rival 
claimants  to  the  throne,  employed  the  services  of  Greek  sol- 
diers to  overcome  them.  For  the  first  time  the  country  was 
freely  opened  to  foreigners,  and  the  power  of  the  priesthood 
broken.  Thus  the  Greeks  were  instrumental  in  changing  the 
current  of  Egyptian  history. 

The  Median  Kings  began  to  make  head  in  the  east,  and 
ventured  —  after  various  successful  efforts  to  extend  their 
dominion  in  other  directions  —  to  make  direct  war  on  Nin- 
eveh. At  the  close  of  the  century,  by  the  aid  of  the  rebel- 
lious Nabopolassar,  they  succeeded  in  taking  and  destroying 
that  city,  and  the  whole  of  that  immense  empire  was  divided 
between  Media  and  Nabopolassar,  who  made  Babylon  his 
capital. 


THE   GRECIAN    STATES.  7T 

21.  B.  C  590  to  500.  Events  in  this  century  begin  to 
crowd  thick  upon  each  other.  The  Greeks  rapidly  advanced ; 
the  Komans  succeeded,  amid  constant  wars,  in  securely  estab- 
lishing their  state  in  Italy,  marching  from  conquest  to  con- 
quest, not  without  heavy  reverses  at  times,  from  which  they 
soon  recovered. 

598  —  Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusalem  for  the  first  time. 
594  —  Solon  was  made  archon  at  Athens,  with  almost  unlim- 
ited power  to   change  the  existing  institutions,  and  he 
introduced  many  very  useful  reforms. 
688 — Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the 
Jews   carried   into  captivity  to  Babylon,  where   they 
remained  seventy  years.     Soon  after,  Nebuchadnezzar 
conquered  Tyre,  after  a  siege  of  many  years,  but   he 
found  himself  in  possession  of  the  walls  only,  for  the 
inhabitants  had  built  another  city  on  an  island  near 
by,  but  inaccessible  to  the  conqueror,  and  left  him  a 
barren  conquest. 
660  —  The  most  memorable  event  that  followed  was  the  union 
of  Media  and  Persia  under  the  military  prowess  of 
Cyrus.     He   first   employed  the  forces  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  kingdom   in  Asia  Minor,  conquering   Lydia 
and  the  rest  of  that  region, 
649  —  and  dethroning  Crcesus.     Babylon  and  Egypt  had  both 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Croesus  against  Cyrus, 
but  before  they  could  send  Croesus  effectual  aid  Cyrus 
had  triumphed.      He   then   turned   his   arms  against 
Babylon 
538  —  Which  he  took  by  stratagem  after  a  long  siege.     Egypt 
was  afterward  obliged  to  become  tributary  to  the  uni- 
versal conqueror. 
534  —  Cyrus,  who  had  before  been  the  Persian  general  of  the 
united  armies  under  the  Median  king,  Cyaxares,  who 
was  his  maternal  uncle,  succeeded  to  the  kingdom,  and 
soon  after  sent  the  Jews  home  to  their  native  land. 
During  this  period  the  Greeks  swarmed  on  the  eastern 


78  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

part  of  tlie  Mediterranean  sea  and  carried  on  nearly  all 
its  commerce,  the  Tyrians  being  mainly  confined  to  the 
trade  with  India,  Arabia  and  the  various  parts  of  the 
Persian  empire. 

629  —  Occurred  the  death  of  Cyrus,  full  of  years  and  glory. 
History  has  described  him  as  the  most  amiable  of  all 
the  great  conquerors.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Cambyses,  who,  to  punish  the  revolt  of  the  Egyptians 

525  —  invaded  that  country  and  made  it  a  Persian  province. 

•522  —  Cambyses  died  and  was  succeeded  by  a  Persian  noble- 
man, Darius  Hystaspes,  the  line  of  Cyrus  being  extinct. 
He  finally  broke  the  power  of  the  priesthood  in  his 
dominions,  which  perished  at  once  in  Egypt  and  Bab- 
ylon, where  they  had  so  long  reigned  supreme  over  the 
minds  of  men. 

515  —  The  second  temple  was  dedicated  at  Jerusalem. 

510  —  In  this  year  occurred  a  very  important  event  in  Roman 
history  —  the  establishment  of  the  republic.  Kings 
had  reigned  there  two  hundred  and  forty-three  years. 

SECTION  VI. 

THE   ROMAN    REPUBLIC. 

1.  The  Romans,  more  than  any  other  people  of  ancient 
times,  understood  how  to  establish  a  well  ordered  state.  Res- 
pect for  order  and  law  among  them  was  very  great.  The  idea 
of  a  government  with  a  definite  constitution,  which  the  rulers 
should  always  respect,  and  which  should  be^  an  adequate  bul- 
wark to  the  people  against  oppression,  had  never  occurred  to 
any  of  the  Asiatic  nations.  The  nearest  ajDproach  to  it  among 
the  Greeks  was  in  Sparta;  but  as  their  aim  was  directed,  not 
80  much  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  state  as  to  training  a 
race  of  soldiers,  their  experiment  was  a  failure.  The  Greeks 
had  a  great  impatience  of  subjection;  they  had  no  great  ambi- 
tion to  rule,  but  were  impulsive,  and  each  state  wanted  freedom 
to  pursue  its  own  particular  fancy.     Their  exhaustless  energy 


THE   ROMAN   BEPUBLIO.  79 

and  acute  minds  were  aevoted  to  the  pursuit  of  ideal  objects. 
Even  the  sober  and  resolute  Spartan  put  aside  every  other  con- 
sideration in  order  to  realize  his  idea  of  a  well  formed,  thor- 
oughly trained,  and  invincible  warrior.  "Weakly  and  deformed 
children  were  destroyed  in  their  infancy,  by  order  of  the 
state.  The  young  women  were  subjected  to  the  most  rigorous 
physical  training,  that  they  might  become  mothers  of  hardy 
children.  Physical  training  was  one  of  the  passions  of  all 
Greece,  originating  in  their  delight  in  beauty  and  symmetry 
of  person.  Sports  that  contributed  to  this  were  as  pleasing 
to  the  Greeks  as  to  our  modern  school-boys. 

2.  Athens,  which  most  perfectly  represented  the  Grecian 
mind,  esteemed  a  fine  poet,  an  able  writer,  a  skillful  painter 
or  sculptor,  as  much  as  an  enthusiastic  scholar  of  our  day  can 
do.  Tiiey  had  a  passion  for  beauty,  and  their  love  of  liberty 
was  in  great  part  produced  by  their  ardent  longing  for  mental 
freedom  and  the  gratification  of  their  mental  tastes.  The  wor- 
ship of  their  gods  was  chiefly  their  admiration  for  superhu- 
man majesty,  sublimity,  and  beauty,  as  they  conceived  them, 
and  their  theology  was  compounded  of  their  thirst  for 
knowledge  and  their  love  of  the  mysterious,  the  grand,  the 
terrible,  and  the  beautiful.  Life  was  of  no  value  to  them, 
if  they  could  not  gratify  these  instincts,  and  their  tenacity 
in  maintaining  their  liberties  found  its  inspiration  in  them. 
They  were  a  nation  of  mental  enthusiasts.  They  had  no 
love  of  conquest  for  the  sake  of  power.  They  were  invaded 
by  the  Persians,  and  a  handful  of  Greeks  conquered  its  im- 
mense hosts  with  ease,  by  their  intelligence  and  ardor.  It 
was  only  when  they  saw  the  splendor  and  wealth  of  the 
East,  and  felt  that  they  could  repeat  the  glorious  deeds  of 
their  mythic  heroes,  that  they  became  enthusiastic  over  the 
romantic  idea  of  conquering  a  magnificent  empire.  It  was 
the  mental  charm  of  the  undertaking  that  gave  to  Alexander 
his  miraculous  success. 

But  the  Greeks  were  net  practical.  They  wanted  worldly 
wisdom.     The    Lacedemonians    ot    Sparta    had    no  adequate 


80  THE    FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

object  when  they  sacrificed  almost  all  that  common  hnman- 
ity  holds  dear,  to  rear  up  model  soldiers.  Their  ambition 
was  confined  mainly  to  preserving  the  headship  of  their 
state  among  the  petty  republics  of  Greece;  and  the  resources 
of  all  the  states  were  wasted  in  the  effort  to  preserve  a  bal- 
ance of  power  among  the  various  members  of  the  nation ;  or 
in  struggles  of  the  more  powerful  to  obtain  a  leading  influ- 
ence. They  had  little  political  wisdom,  when  the  independ- 
ence of  their  territories  was  secured  and  the  governments 
that  restrained  them  too  much  from  their  favorite  enthusiasms 
were  abolished.  Athens  and  all  Greece  admired  immensely 
the  wise  measures  of  Solon,  when  he  reformed  the  govern- 
ment and  gave  it  excellent  laws.  But  they  had  not  the  prudence 
to  maintain  them.  In  ten  years  all  was  again  confusion.  Most 
of  their  great  men  who  possessed  a  special  genius  for  govern- 
ment, were  abandoned  when  they  showed  the  most  ability  for 
benefitting  their  country  by  their  wise  statesmanship.  Per- 
icles alone,  who  was  the  most  perfect  embodiment  of  Gre- 
cian character,  preserved  his  influence  to  the  last;  but  it  was 
by  falling  in  perfectly  with  the  tone  of  Grecian  feeling,  and  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  innovations  that  corrupted  and  finally 
overthrew  their  liberty.  He  was  as  little  practical  and  prudent 
as  his  countrymen.  Beautiful  in  person,  cultivated  in  mind, 
possessed  of  exquisite  taste  in  literature  and  art,  to  which  he 
devoted  himself  with  boundless  enthusiasm,  Greece  could 
always  appreciate  him.  His  age  was  the  glory  and  joy  of 
Greece ;  but  when  more  homely  political  virtues  were  required 
to  preserve  his  creations  and  protect  this  literary  and  artistic 
state,  the  people  could  not  follow  them.  Their  best  statesmen 
were  ostracised,  banished,  or  slain,  when  their  practical  genius 
was  most  needed. 

3.  Home  was  the  opposite  of  this.  She  had  a  genius  for 
producing  and  preserving  a  constitution,  adding  to  it  by  slow 
degrees,  maintaining  checks  and  balances  that  preserved  the 
machinery  in  working  order,  and  rendered  it  capable  of  pro- 
ducing the  most  valuable  results  that  were  possible  in  those 


/HE   BOMAN   REPUBLIC.  81 

times.  To  mle  was  her  passion.  She  was  not  wanting  in. 
intelligence,  but  it  was  the  homely  prudence  of  common  life, 
the  skill  to  adapt  means  to  ends.  Of  all  the  nations,  she 
was  the  first  to  carry  organization  into  every  part  of  her 
government,  and  conduct  everything  by  inexorable  system 
and  order.  If  Rome  was  resolved  to  rule  others,  she  was  no 
less  resolved  to  rule  herself.  The  mission  of  Greece  was  in 
th3  domain  of  thought,  to  develop  the  intellectual  capabil- 
ities of  mankind.  That  of  Eome  also  required  intelligence^ 
but  of  a  lower  and  more  material  kind.  She  was  to  teach 
mankind  to  follow  an  orderly  development,  to  introduce 
system,  to  prevent  ruinous  clashing  of  interests,  to  teach 
respect  for  law.  Greece  taught  the  world  to  think  to  purpose; 
Rome  to  goverp  with  effect.  Each  served  an  important  pur- 
pose. "Without  either  the  world  was  not  prepared  for  Christi- 
anity, which  added  moral  order,  nor  for  true  science,  which 
was  the  mature  fruit  of  these  three,  and  prepared  the  perfect 
civilization  which  was  to  be  developed  to  its  conclusion  in  a 
Kew  World. 

4.  Rome  commenced,  not  with  the  king,  but  with  the 
Senate — a  body  of  experienced  men,  who  made  the  laws  and 
appointed  a  king  to  administer  them.  The  king,  except  in 
time  of  war,  was  only  the  executive,  the  chief  magistrate. 
The  later  kings  were  restive  under  this  restraint  and  sought 
to  place  tliem selves  above  law,  and  the  Romans  at  once  dis- 
missed them,  appointing  various  officers  to  fill  their  place. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  government  were  not  changed  at 
all,  or  very  little,  except  by  the  subsequent  course  of  develop- 
ment. The  Romans  knew  how  to  adapt  their  invincible  spirit 
of  order  to  all  changing  circumstances,  and  when  external 
changes  arose  corresponding  changes  were  developed,  in  a 
regular  manner,  within. 

Thus  the  Roman  spirit  was  constant  under  the  regal  gov- 
ernment, throughout  the  republic,  and  to  the  close  of  the 
empire,  and  had  then  become  so  thoroughly  established  io 
laws  and  institutions  as  to  govern  the  development  of  the  ne^T 


8S  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

states  that  rose  out  of  its  ruins  and  produced  modern  civil- 
ization. 

At  first  the  Roman  government  consisted  only  of  the  Senate 
and  the  king.  The  Senate  was  chosen  from  the  body  of  citi- 
zens, and  represented  them.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
descendants  of  the  first  people  became  the  aristocracy,  called 
patricians,  who  enjoyed  great  privileges.  A  class  was  gradu- 
ally formed  called  the  plebs,  or  common  people,  who,  for  some 
time,  had  no  share  in  the  government.  The  patricians  alone 
could  hold  office,  and  marriage  between  them  and  plebians 
was  illegal.  But,  says  an  able  writer,  "  the  Roman  commons 
were  the  greatest  commons  the  world  ever  saw,  except  the 
commons  of  England  and  America."  In  the  course  of  time, 
by  wise  and  prudent  management,  and  taking  advantage  of 
favoring  circumstances,  resulting  from  the  fact  that  they  sup- 
plied the  body  of  soldiers  to  the  state,  without  revolution, 
breaking  the  laws,  or  violating  the  ancient  constitution,  they 
obtained  changes  or  additions  to  it,  one  after  another,  until 
they  had  acquired  a  due  influence  in  the  conduct  of  affairs 
and  became  fully  a  match  for  the  patricians.  It  was  a  new 
lesson  to  mankind,  and  one  that  has  had  great  influence  on 
the  good  order  of  society  in  all  later  times. 

5.  The  religious  system  of  that  great  people  was  conducted 
with  as  much  worldly  prudence  as  all  their  other  affairs. 
Their  religious  ceremonies  were,  in  great  part,  derived  from 
the  Etruscans.  They  were  conducted  with  much  pomp  by 
state  officers,  appointed  for  the  purpose,  embodying  all  the 
superstitions  of  the  time,  and  embracing  comparatively  little 
of  the  lofty  sentiment  that  was  so  prominent  in  Greece. 
Their  religion  was  an  affair  of  state,  and  intimately  connected 
with  the  political  working  of  the  government.  The  gravest 
public  business  was  made  to  depend  on  the  flight  of  birds, 
on  omens  and  accidents,  and  on  the  appearance  of  the  entrails 
of  the  animals  offered  in  the  sacrifices.  An  artful  use  of  these 
circumstances  enabled  the  officers  in  power  to  compass  many 
political  ends.     Their  original  gods  were   those  of  Greece, 


GREECE    AND    ROME.  88 

adapted  to  their  purposes  and  national  character;  but  they 
readily  adopted  the  divinities  of  all  the  nations  they  con- 
quered. Their  religion  was  in  a  high  degree  cool  and  calcu- 
lating. 

The  preceding  observations  apply  especially  to  the  periods 
of  Greece  and  Rome  when  their  peculiarities  were  most  fully 
developed  in  the  days  of  their  greatest  glory.  Though  always 
more  or  less  characteristic,  in  later  times  they  melted  more  or 
less  into  one  another,  or  were  toned  down  and  transformed  by 
decay  and  a  rising  spirit  of  innovation.  Especially  were  they 
displaced  by  Christianity. 

SECTION  VII. 

GREECE   AND   ROME. 

1.  We  are  now  prepared  to  return  to  the  year 
500  B.  C.  —  and  follow  events  in  chronological  order,  with  a 
fair  appreciation  of  their  import.  Just  before  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  Darius  Hystaspes,  the  king  of 
•  Persia,  sent  an  army  into  Europe,  to  the  north  of 
Greece,  t-o  chastise  the  Scythians,  and  it  conquered 
Thrace.  The  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  which  had 
been  recently  added  to  the  Persian  empire,  became 
restive  under  foreign  control,  and  when  the  Persian 
army  returned  home, 
500  —  organized  a  rebellion  and  took  and  burned  the  city  of 
Sardis,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lydia.  They  were  assisted 
by  the  European  Greeks ;  but  the  vast  resources  of  Persia 
soon  enabled  Darius  to  take  vengeance  on  them,  and 
Miletus  was  besieged  and  destroyed.  Darius  sum- 
moned the  Grecian  states  to  offer  their  submission,  but 
Athens  and  Sparta  sent  back  a  defiance.  Darius  there- 
upon gathered  a  large  armament  and  prepared  to  invade 
495  —  Greece,  which  he  commenced  by  the  conquest  of  Mace- 
don.  But  a  tempest  destroyed  his  ships  and  20,000 
men,  and  the  expedition  returned  to  Persia.     In  the 


84  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

same  year  the  Roman  plebeians  obtained  their  first  suc- 
cess against  the  patricians,  by  which  the  debts  of  the 
poor  plebeians  to  the  wealthy  patricians  were  cancelled 
and  Tribunes  of  the  People  appointed. 

490  —  This  year  the  glory  of  Greece  broke  forth.  Darius 
having  sent  another  and  larger  army  into  Greece,  it 
advanced  on  Athens  and  encamped  at  Marathon,  within 
twenty-two  miles  of  the  city.  The  Persian  host  was 
said  to  number  from  100,000  to  200,000  men.  The 
Athenians  had  but  10,000  citizens,  but  armed  20,000 
slaves,  and  the  city  of  Plataea  sent  them  1,000  troops. 
Miltiades,  the  very  able  Athenian  general,  marched  out 
and,  taking  a  good  position,  offered  battle.  It  was  the 
20th  of  September.  The  little  army  of  the  Greeks 
obtained  a  complete  victory  and  the  Persians  returned 
home  in  confusion.  The  great  services  of  Miltiades 
were  rewarded  with  imprisonment,  on  a  frivolous 
charge,  and  he  died  there  of  his  wounds. 

485  —  Darius  Hystaspes,  the  Persian  king,  died  while  prepar- 
ing  a  still  larger  armament  for  the  invasion  of  Greece. 

484  —  An  insurrection  in  Egypt  completely  subdued  by  the 
Persians. 

480  —  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,'  invaded  Greece  with  a  million 
soldiers.  The  battle  at  the  pass  of  Thermopylee  was 
fought  by  a  thousand  Spartans  under  Leonidas,  their 
king,  and  all  but  one  slain.  The  Persian  fleet  was  beaten 
the  same  day  by  Themistocles,  the  Athenian  admiral. 
Xerxes  soon  advanced  on  Athens,  which  was  abandoned 
by  its  inhabitants  and  burned  by  the  Persians.  Soon 
after,  Themistocles  fought  the  Persian  navy  again  at 
Salamis  and  totally  destroyed  it.  Xerxes,  leaving  a 
large  army  in  Greece,  returned  to  Asia. 

479  —  The  battle  of  Plataea  ended  the  Persian  invasion.  The 
allied  Greek  army  numbered  70,000,  under  Pausanias, 
the  Spartan  king;  the  Persians  300,000.  The  Persians 
are  said  to  have  had  200,000  slain,  and  their  army  was 


GBEECE   AND    ROME.  8t 

totally  routed.  Another  victory  was  gained  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  the  same  day,  and  the  last  rem- 
nants of  the  Persian  fleet  destroyed. 

478  —  Athens  was  rebuilt  and  surrounded  with  walls  from  the 
treasures  of  the  conquered  Persians.  This  was  the  age 
of  great  men  in  Greece.  Phidias,  her  greatest  sculptor, 
flourished  at  this  time.  The  Persians,  at  the  time  of 
their  first  invasion,  brought  a  piece  of  marble  to  com- 
memorate the  victory  of  which  they  were  confident. 
The  Greeks  caused  Phidias  to  produce  out  of  it  a  statue 
of  Nemesis,  the  goddess  of  vengeance,  and  set  it  up  on 
the  field  of  Marathon. 

478  —  Themistocles  died  in  banishment  about  this  time,  and 
Aristides  of  old  age.  Both  were  leading  statesmen  and 
generals  of  Athens  during  the  Persian  war. 

470  —  Socrates,  the  most  eminent  philosopher  of  all  ancient 
times,  was  born  this  year. 
"    —  The  death  of  Xerxes  by  assassination  occurred  this  year. 

466  —  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  was  now  the  great  man  of 
Athens.  He  was  soon  superseded  by  Pericles.  From 
480  B.  C.  to  430  was  the  golden  period  of  Athens.  She 
was  pre-eminent  politically,  conducting  the  war  of  the 
Grecian  allies  against  Persian  supremacy  on  the  western 
shores  of  Asia  and  in  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Eepub- 
lican  liberty  was  everywhere  predominant.  The  great- 
est writers,  painters  and  sculptors  lived  in  this  period 
or  immediately  after  it.  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
philosophers;  ^schylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  tragic 
poets;  Zeuxis  and  Apelles,  painters;  and  Phidias  in. 
sculpture,  were  a  few  among  the  many  great  names 
which  are  found  in  or  immediately  following  this  period. 

487  —  Cincinnatus  was  made  dictator  at  Eome.  During  this 
period  the  Romans  laid  the  foundation  of  their  domin- 
ion over  all  Italy  by  waging  successful  war  with  the 
Etruscans  and  Samnites,  the  most  vigorous  and  power- 
ful of  their  opponents. 


86  THE   FOOTPfilNTS   OF   TIME. 

450  —  The  Decemvirate  was  appointed  at  Rome.     They  were 
ten  magistrates  empowered  to  produce  a  more  perfect 
code.     It  was  called  the  "  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.'^ 
The  plebeians  about  this  time  succeeded   in  wresting 
important  privileges  from  the  patricians,  which  more 
equally  balanced  the  different  powers  of  the  state. 
2.     Athens  was  the  centre  of  civilization,  and  Greek  culture 
and  ideas  were  penetrating  all  the  nations  in  her  vicinity. 
Rome  was  rapidly  developing  and  Carthage  was  at  the  summit 
of  her   glory.     She  had  control  of  much  of  the  Spanish  or 
Iberian  peninsula.     Persia,  after  absorbing  all  the  old  mon- 
archies of  the  east,  was  declining.     The  "  march  of  empire  '^ 
was  distinctly  defining  its  "westward  course." 

It  was  about  the  middle  of  this  century  that  Herodotus,  the 
"  Father  of  History,"  was  rising  to  fame,  and  a  few  years  later 
Xenophon,  the  Greek  general  and  historian,  was  born.  Thu- 
eydides,  another  historian,  dates  from  this  period.  The  great 
career  of  history  now  fairly  commenced. 
443  —  Herodotus  emigrated  from  Halicarnassus,  in  Asia,  to 

Greece. 
431  —  The  Peloponnesian  war,  a  bitter  contest  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  commenced.  It  lasted  twenty-three  years, 
and  was  again  revived,  ending  in  the  conquest  of  Athens 
by  Sparta.  This  war  was  followed,  after  some  time,  by 
the  rise  of  the  power  of  Thebes,  under  their  famous 
general,  Epaminondas,  who  broke  the  power  of  Sparta. 
Thebes  sunk  into  insignificance  after  his  death,  and 
Philip  of  Macedon  commenced  the  subjugation  of  all 
Greece.  He  was  followed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  who, 
in  return  for  the  loss  of  republican  liberty,  rendered 
Greece  illustrious  by  conquering  the  Persian  empire, 
and  imbuing  all  the  Eastern  World  with  its  philosophy 
and  arts.  For  all  these  great  events  one  hundred  years 
were  required. 
429  —  The  death  of  the  illustrious  Pericles  occurred  in  this 
year. 


GKEECE   AND    ROME.  87 

"    — Plato,  the  disciple  of  Socrates,  and,  in  some  points, 
superior  to  liim  in  mental  discipline,  was  born. 

420  —  About  this  time  Alcibiades,  the  nephew  of  Pericles, 
became  prominent  in  Athenian  affairs.  He  had  bril- 
liant powers,  but  little  principle. 

406  —  The  battle  of  ^Egospotamos,  gained  by  Lysander  the 
Spartan,  broke  the  power  of  Athens. 

404  —  Athens  was  taken  by  Lysander,  its  walls  demolished, 
and  the  government  of  the  "  Thirty  Tyrants "  estab- 
lished by  the  Spartans.  Alcibiades,  banished  from 
Athens,  was  assassinated  by  the  Persians,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  Spartans. 

401  —  Occurred  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  in  Babylonia,  between 
Cyrus,  the  brother  of  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia,  and 
that  king.  Cyrus,  who  had  been  governor,  or  satrap,  in 
Asia  Minor,  gathered  a  large  army  including  more 
than  10,000  Greeks.  Cyrus  was  killed  and  his  own 
army  defeated,  but  the  Greeks  repelled  all  assaults. 
Their  generals  having  been  decoyed  into  the  power  of 
the  Persians,  on  the  plea  of  making  terms  with  them, 
were  treacherously  slain.  The  army  appointed  other 
commanders,  chief  among  whom  was  Xenophon,  after- 
w^rd  the  celebrated  historian,  and  they  made  good  their 
return  to  Greece.  It  was  finely  described  by  Xeno- 
phon, and  known  as  the  "  Ee treat  of  the  Ten  Thou- 
sand." 

400  —  Socrates  taught  doctrines  too  pure  and  high-toned  for 
his  countrymen  to  understand,  and  was  condemned  to 
drink  poison,  as  a  dangerous  man  and  despiser  of  the 
gods,  in  the  70th  year  of  his  age.  The  Athenians  soon 
repented  it. 

396  —  The  capital  of  Yeii,  taken  by  the  Romans,  ended  the 
contest  with  the  Etruscans. 

389  —  Rome  was  conquered  and,  except  the  capitol,  destroyed, 
by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus.  The  barbarians  soon 
retired  and  the  city  was  rebuilt. 


88  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

384  —  Aristotle,  the  most  learned  of  the  Grecian  philosophers, 
was  born  at  Stagira,  in  Macedon.  He  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  scientific  study,  and  was  the  tutor  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

371  —  Epaminondas  defeated  the  Spartans  at  Leuctra,  and 

362  —  Again  at  Mantinea,  where  he  was  killed. 

360  —  Philip  became  king  of  Macedon,  and  soon  began  to 
undermine  the  liberties  of  Greece  in  a  very  artful  way. 

357  —  The  "  Sacred  War  "  against  the  Phocians,  who  had 
plundered  the  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi,  com- 
menced. 

356  —  Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Rutilius,  the  first  ple- 
beian dictator  at  Rome. 

349  —  Death  of  Plato,  the  brightest  light  of  Grecian  philos- 
ophy. He  systematized  and  enlarged  the  doctrines  of 
Socrates. 

338  —  Occurred  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  between  Philip  and 
the  allied  Athenians  and  Thebans.  The  Greeks  were 
totally  defeated  and  their  liberty  lost.  Demosthenes, 
the  most  celebrated  orator  of  the  Greeks,  spent  his 
whole  life  and  his  magnificent  eloquence  in  the  efibrt 
to  rouse  the  Greeks  against  Philip;  but  Philip  was  too 
crafty  and  the  Greeks  too  little  accustomed  to  act  in 
concert.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years  the  states  of 
Greece  had  been  exhausted  by  wars  among  themselves, 
and  they  were  too  weary  of  fighting  to  make  the  necessary 
effort  against  so  powerful  and  skillful  an  adversary. 

836  —  Philip  M^as  assassinated  on  the  eve  of  an  expedition 
against  Persia,  as  chief  of  the  Grecian  states.  This 
popular  idea  consoled  them  for  the  loss  of  liberty. 
Alexander  succeeded  his  father. 

335  —  Thebes  rebelled  against  Alexander,  and  he  took  and 
destroyed  that  ancient  city. 

334  —  Alexander  carried  out  the  project  of  his  father  and 
invaded  the  Persian  empire.  The  battle  of  the 
Granicus,  his  first  great  victory,  took  place  this  year. 


GREECE    AND    ROME.  S9 

333  —  Darius,  the  Persian  king,  was  again  thoroughly  defeat- 
ed in  the  battle  of  Issus.    Damascus,  in  Syria,  was  taken 
and  Tyre  besieged  by  Alexander. 
332  —  Tyre  was  taken  and  finally  destroyed,  and  Alexandria, 

at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  founded. 
831  —  A  final  battle  at  Arbela,  in  Assyria,  overthrew  the 
Persian   Empire.     Darius  escaped,  but  was  murdered 
by  Bessus,  one  of  his  officers.     Four  years  were  spent 
by  the  Greeks  in  subduing  the  wild  tribes  on  the  east- 
ern border  of  the  Empire,  and  settling  the  government 
of  these  vast  conquests. 
327  —  Alexander  invaded  India  and  was  constantly  triumph- 
ant till  his  soldiers  refused  to  go  farther  from  home. 
They  had  grown   tired  of  conquering,  and  Alexander 
reluctantly  returned  to  Babylon  to  consolidate  his  gov- 
ernment. 
323  —  Alexander  died  of  a  fever,  the  result  of  excessive  drink- 
ing.    He   left  no   heir,  and  his   generals  divided  his 
empire. 
322  —  The  Samnites  obtained  a  temporary  success  by  surpris- 
ing a  Koman  army  in  a  narrow  defile  of  the  mountains 
called  the  Caudine  Forks,  and  subjected  it  to  a  humili- 
ating capitulation.     The  Romans  never  bowed  before 
misfortune  or  defeat.     They  prosecuted  the  war  with 
invincible   resolution    until   the    Samnite  power   was 
wholly  broken,  a  contest,  in  all,  of  about  50  years, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  the  complete  subjugation 
of  the  whole  peninsula. 
3.     In  this  year  died  the  two   greatest  Grecians,  Demos- 
thenes, the  orator,  by  suicide ;  and  Aristotle,  by  old  age.     On 
the  death  of  Alexander,  Demosthenes  aroused  the  Athenians 
to  make  a  stand  for  their  liberties.     Few  of  the  Grecian  states 
joined  them  and  they  were  totally  defeated  by  Antipater,  the 
governor   appointed    by  Alexander.       Demosthenes   avoided 
punishment  by  taking  poison.     The  Achaian  League,  about 
forty  years  after,  maintained  the  liberties  of  Greece  for  fifty 


90  THE  FOOTPRINTS    OF    TIME. 

years  or  more,  "which  then  fell  before  the  invincible  Romans. 

For  many  years  all  the  eastern  world  was  in  confusion  from 

the  struggles  of  competitors  for  the   Empire   of  Alexander. 

Ptolemy  established    himself  soon   and  firmly  in  Egypt,  and 

Seleucus,  after  various 

312  —  Eeverses,  obtained  full  possession  of  the  eastern  parta 
of  the  empire,  Babylonia,  Assyria  and  Persia.  This. 
year  is  called  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae.  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece  were  a  scene  of  the  greatest  confusion  for 
seventy  years,  so  far  as  rulers  were  concerned.  But 
nearly  all  these  were  Greeks,  and  Greek  culture  and 
philosophy  exerted  a  wide  spread  influence.  In  the  end 
it  became  fully  evident  that  the  want  of  genius  in  the 
Greek  mind  to  organize,  and  steadiness  in  Greek  char- 
acter to  sustain,  settled  institutions  was  absolute.  They 
had,  at  different  times,  men  of  the  greatest  ability,  but 
when  they  passed  away  their  plans  and  institutions 
perished  with  them.  The  acute  and  accomplished 
Greeks  were  ever  children  in  the  science  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  advent  of  Rome  alone,  whose  special 
skill  was  in  government,  saved  the  world  from  irre^ 
trievable  anarchy  or  fatal  despotism. 

300 — The  Roman  plebeians  completed  their  struggle  for  con- 
stitutional liberty  by  acquiring  a  share  in  the  priestly 
ofiice,  which  was  essential  to  the  full  value  of  their 
other  victories  over  the  patricians,  and  the  Roman  con- 
stitution was  complete.  It  was  maintained  very  fairly 
for  more  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  when  the 
spoils  of  their  conquests  corrupted  the  virtue  of  the 
citizens  and  produced  the  internal  disorder  that,  about 
a  century  later  still  brought  about  the  establishment  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  Yet  the  forms  of  government, 
municipal  and  other  regulations,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  though  often  interfered  with  in  particu- 
lar cases,  were  so  well  settled  on  sound  principles,  and 
secured  so  uniformly  the  welfare  of  society,  that  they 


GREECE   AND   BOlfE.  91 

were  preserved  longest  from  general  ruin,  and  revived 
first  in  more  modern  times.  Greek  thought  and  cul- 
ture, and  Roman  law  remained  indestructible. 

290 — The  Samnites,  Sabines  and  Gauls,  being  all  defeated, 
Rome  was  virtually  mistress  of  Italy,  although  the 
Grecian  cities  on  the  eastern  coast  remained  to  be  sub- 
dued. They  had  little  strength  in  themselves  against  a 
power  so  warlike,  and  invited  Pyrrhus,  the  king  of 

281 — Epirus,  to  their  assistance.  He  twice  defeated  the 
Roman  consuls,  but  they  inflicted  on  him  so  much 
loss  that  they  vainly  offered  him  battle  immediately 
after,  and  rejected  all  his  overtures  to  treat  for  peace. 
He  was  at  length  vanquished  and  obliged  to  abandon 
Italy  to  the  Republic. 
4.  The  Romans  soon  subdued  all  opposition  and  began  to 
look  about  for  other  lands  to  conquer. 

264 — The  Carthaginians,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  had 
become  a  colossal  power,  and  sought  to  establish  their 
control  over  Sicily — not  an  easy  task,  since  it  had  many 
colonies  of  Greeks  whose  national  spirit  and  bravery 
did  not  desert  them.  In  this  year  a  call  for  assistance 
from  a  plundering  band  who  had  captured  a  Greek  city, 
a  part  of  whom  had  also  invited  Carthaginian  aid, 
brought  Rome  and  Carthage  in  conflict.  The  Cartha- 
ginians were  enraged  at  this  interference  with  an  island 
which  they  had  long  intended  to  make  their  own,  and 
raised  an  immense  army  to  drive  out  the  intruders. 
The  Romans  defeated  the  army  and  took  Agrigentum, 
one  of  the  best  strongholds  of  the  Carthaginians  on  the 
island. 

260  —  The  Carthaginians  were  masters  of  the  sea,  and  the 
Romans  had  little  knowledge  of  naval  affairs.  Taking 
a  Carthaginian  vessel  which  had  been  driven  ashore  for 
a  model,  they,  in  a  short  time,  created  a  fleet  and 
worsted  their  enemies  on  their  own  special  element. 


92  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

256  —  The  Romans  again  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  a  sea 
fight  near  the  island  of  Lipara. 

255  —  The  Komans  determined  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa, 
and  fitting  out  a  large  fleet,  inflicted  a  still  heavier 
loss  on  the  Carthaginian  armaments,  landed  in  Africa 
and  defeated  an  immense  army.  The  Carthaginians 
sued  for  peace,  but  the  terms  proposed  by  Regulus,  the 
Roman  general,  were  so  severe  that  they  resolved  to 
continue  the  war.  A  Grecian  general,  Xanthippus, 
took  command  of  their  army  and  totaEy  defeated  the 
Romans,  taking  Regulus  prisoner,  and  destroying  or 

248 — capturing  all  his  army  but  2000.  The  Romans  lost 
three  fleets  by  storms,  but  conquered  once  in  a  sea 
fight,  and  defeated  an  army  in  Sicily.  The  Carthagini- 
ans again  sought  peace,  but  the  Romans  would  not 
abate  their  first  terms,  and  continued  the  war  until  the 

240  —  Carthaginians,  completely  humbled,  accepted  the  severe 
alternative  of  submission  or  destruction.  The  temple 
of  Janus,  the  god  of  war,  never  shut  but  in  time  of 
absolute  peace,  was  now  closed  for  the  second  time 
since  the  building  of  the  city. 

The  people,  whose  special  occupation  was  war,  soon 
grew  tired  of  peace,  and  carried  on  various  conflicts 
with  the  Gauls  settled  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  in  the 

227  —  north  of  Italy.  They  invaded  Illyria,  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  whose  people  were  very  trouble- 
some pirates.  This  war  was  again  renewed  with  a  more 
complete  defeat  of  the  Illyrians.  They  had  before  this 
subdued  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

219  —  The  Carthaginians  pursued  their  conquests  in  Spain, 
and   the   celebrated  Hannibal   took  Saguntum,  which 

218 — brought  on  the  second  Punic  war,  as  the  war  with  Car- 
thage was  termed. 

217  —  Hannibal,  with  great  celerity,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and 
the   Alps — having  first   completed   the   conquest  of 


GREECE   AND    ROME.  9> 

Spain  —  and  defeated  the  Romans  in  tlie  battle  of  Tici- 
nus,  and  again  at  Trebia. 

217 — The  Achaian  confederacy,  now  in  the  height  of  its  glory 
in  maintaining  the  liberties  of  Greece,  united  all  the 
Greeks  in  a  confederacy  under  the  influence  of  Philip, 
king  of  Macedon,  with  the  hope  of  arresting  the  power 
and  ambition  of  Rome. 

216  —  Hannibal  inflicted  a  dreadful  defeat  on  the  Romans 
near  the  Thrasymenean  Lake.  The  Romans  were 
greatly  alarmed,  and  made  Fabius  Maximus  dictator, 
whose  habit  of  refusing  a  pitched  battle,  wearing  out 
his  adversary  by  skirmishes  and  cutting  off  his  sup- 
plies, is  called  "The  Fabian  Policy."  This  plan  is, 
by  maneuvei'ing  and  delay,  to  wear  out  and  destroy 
an  invader  in  detail  without  peril  of  defeat  in  battle. 
The  Romans  kept  armies  in  Spain  to  prevent  the  Car- 
thaginians from  sending  reinforcements  to  Hannibal. 

215  —  At  the  close  of  this  year  Fabius  resigned  his  dictator- 
ship and  the  consuls  appointed  to  succeed  him  aban- 
doned his  policy.  They  offered  battle  to  Hannibal  at 
Cannae  and  the  army  was  annihilated.  40,000  Romans 
were  slain  on  the  field.  These  defeats  had  destroyed 
the  flower  of  their  fighting  population,  but  Roman 
courage  and  resolution  always  rose  with  defeat.  They 
did  not  despair,  but  raised  a  fresh  army  and  put  Fabius 
again  at  its  head,  against  whom  the  talents  of  Hannibal 
'  were  vain.  They  fomented  disturbances  in  Greece  to 
keep  Philip,  King  of  Macedon  at  home,  and  beseiged 
Syracuse  in  Sicily,  which  had  joined  the  Carthaginians, 

212  —  for  three  years,  and  then  took  it  by  stratagem.  Ar- 
chimedes, a  celebrated  mathematician  of  Syracuse,  who 
had  protracted  the  siege  by  his  ingenious  and  power- 
ful engines  was  killed  in  the  sack  of  the  city.     Soon 

210  —  after  the  whole  island  was  subdued  and  remained  a  Ro- 
man province. 

206  — Asdrubal,  the  brother  of  Hannibal,  general  of  the  Car- 


^  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

thaginian  forces  in  Spain,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Alps  to  reinforce  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
Komans  and  slain  before  Hannibal  knew  of  his  march. 
202  —  Scipio,  who  had  conquered  in   Spain,  led  an  army  into 
Africa,  Hannibal   being  considered  too  formidable  to 
attack,  though  his  forces  were  very  small.     Scipio  put 
40,000   Numidians,  allies  of  Carthage,  to   the  sword, 
besieged    the  neighboring  cities  and  defeated  a  large 
Carthaginian  army.      Hannibal  was  now  called  home 
to  defend  the  metropolis.     He  fought  a  battle  with  raw 
201  —  troops,  at  Zama,  and  was  defeated  —  20,000  Carthagi- 
nians being  slain.    The  Carthaginians  begged  for  peace, 
Hannibal  declaring  that  the  war  could  not  be  protracted. 
The  Roman  terms  left  them  little  but  their  city.     Such 
was  the  fruit  of  inflexible  resolution. 
6.     The  Romans  are  an  example  of  a  people,  who,  from  first 
to  last,  had  one  clearly  defined  end,  to  which  everything  else 
was  subservient.     They  foi*med  their  state  for  conquest,  and 
that  idea  controlled  the  Kingdom,  the  Republic  and  the  Em- 
pire.    They  were  much  wiser  than  the  Spartans,  for,  devoting 
themselves  to  war,  they  meant  to  secure  and  enjoy  all  the  fruits 
■of  conquest,  and  they  did  all  that  was  possible  to  promote  the 
prosperity  of  their  people  that  they  might  produce  warriors 
in  abundance;  but  they  relied  mainl}'^  on  actual  war  for  disci- 
pline.    Tlie}'  were  constantly  exercised  in  the  art  in  the  field 
and  the  orderly  and  sensible  instinct  of  the  race  made  disci- 
pline a  matter  of  course.    They  were  sometimes  defeated  when 
they  encountered  unfamiliar  difficulties,  or  by  the  mistakes  of 
their  leaders,  but  never  abandoned  a  purpose  once  adopted  and 
never  sued  for  peace. 

Morally,  the  object  they  set  before  them  was  entirely  unjus- 
tifiable, according  to  the  standard  of  national  rights  accepted 
in  our  day.  But  such  a  conception  never  entered  the  minds 
of  men  in  the  ancient  times.  It  is  the  fruit  of  modern  civil- 
ization alone.  The  Romans,  and  many  a  nation  after  them, 
must  work  out  the  destructive  consequences  of  that  doctrine 


GREECE   AND   KOME.  95 

tlint  "Might   makes  Eight"  before   the  universal   sense  of 
mankind  would  recoil  from  it.     It  was  the  accepted  doctrine 
of  the  ancients,  and  has  not  yet  disappeared  from  the  world. 
197  —  Sicily,  Spain  and  Carthage  were  conquered,  and  Koman 
valor  looked  around  for  opportunities  of  winning  fresh 
laurel  ?.    Philip  of  Macedon,  an  ambitious  prince,  threat- 
ened the  Athenians,  who  implored  help  from   Home. 
An  army  immediately  proceeded  to  Greece,  penetrated 
into  Macedonia,  and  completely  defeated  Philip  at  Cy- 
nocephalae. 
6.     The  Eomans  were  now  the  mightiest  people  in  the  civ- 
ilized world.     Their  obstinate  contests  with  the  vigorous  na- 
tions of  the  West  had  often  perilled  the  existence  of  their  state, 
and  a  people  of  ordinary  stamina  and  persistance  would  not, 
at  the  best,  have  risen  above  the  rank  of  the  Etruscans  and 
Samnites,  nor  have  made  Rome  greater  than  Syracuse  or  Car- 
thage.    They,  however,  matured  and  grew  into  an  invincible 
power,  whose  solid  and  stately  grandeur  struck  the  intelligent 
but  unpractical  Greeks  with  admiration,  and  all  the  old  peoples 
of  the  East  with  awe.     • 

The  Romans  were  not  without  admiration  for  the  ancient 
valor  and  the  graceful  culture  of  the  Greeks.  When,  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  before,  the  Romans  revised  their  laws,  un- 
der the  Decemvirate,  they  sent  to  Athens  to  obtain  models 
from  that  republic.  Athens  was  now  treated  by  them  with 
much  consideration,  and  finally  became  the  University  City 
of  the  Empire.  When  Roman  influence  became  paramount 
after  the  battle  of  Cynocephalse  they  did  not  at  once  proceed 
with  brutal  force  against  the  land  of  Beauty  and  Art,  but  took 
it  under  their  protection,  and  proclaimed  the  full  liberty  of 
the  Grecian  States.  It  filled  the  Greeks  with  transport,  and 
for  some  time  Rome  played  the  noble  and  dignified  part  of  a 
disinterested  protector;  but  when  the  Achaians,  under  their 
excellent  and  talented  leader  Philopoemen,  sought  to  realize 
the  fact  of  liberty,  the  Romans  abandoned  that  pretence  and 
made  Greece  a  Roman  province.    Thus  the  whole  of  Europe 


96  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

that  was  sufficiently  civilized  to  maintain  a  settled  government 
veas  ruled  by  the  Roman  Republic.  The  period  of  rude  and 
restless  valor  among  the  Greeks  was  past.  The  stage  of  culti- 
vation they  had  reached  inclined  them  to  the  quiet  and  elegant 
refinements  of  the  scholar,  and  they  readily  received  the  Ro- 
man rule  which  suppressed  the  turbulance  of  ambitious  adven- 
turers and  suffered  no  oppression  but  their  own.  The  Romans 
represented  tlie  strength  of  the  male  element  in  human  nature, 
the  Greeks  the  grace  of  the  female.  They  now  coalesced,  were 
married,  so  to  speak,  and  the  product  of  their  union  was,  in 
the  course  of  ages,  modern  civilization,  which,  when  mature, 
was  to  share  the  eminent  qualities  of  both. 

7.  The  broken  fragments  of  Alexander's  immense  empire 
in  "Western  Asia  and  Egypt  were  all  that  now  stood  between 
Rome  and  the  mastery  of  the  world.  The  Roman  people 
were  too  well  convinced  that  it  was  their  grand  destiny  to 
achieve  universal  dominion  to  hasten  prematurely  the  con- 
quest of  the  primitive  home  of  civilization.  They  watchfully 
waited  until  the  course  of  events  should  throw  the  dominions 
of  the  Seleucidae  and  the  Ptolemys  into  their  hands,  without 
offending  the  majesty  of  the  republic  by  an  undignified  vio- 
lence and  haste. 

190  —  Antiochus  the  Great,  who  now  reigned  over  the  empire 

of  the  Seleucidae,  with  true  Grecian  imprudence,  became 
ambitious  of  conquests  in  Europe.    He  invaded  Greece 

191  —  and  was  defeated  at  Thermopylae  by  the  Romans  and 

driven  into  Asia.  The  younger  Scipio,  brother  of  the 
conqueror  of  Hannibal,  followed  and  totally  defeated 
189  —  him  at  Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  purchased  peace 
by  the  loss  of  all  the  fruits  of  his  ambition,  but  was 
left  in  possession  of  the  Syrian  kingdom.  The  failure 
to  destroy  so  powerful  an  enemy  appears  to  have 
brought  on  the  two  Scipios  the  rebuke  of  the  repul>- 
lic,  the  conqueror  of  Carthage  having  aided  his  brother 
in  the  war.  They  were  condemned  to  a  heavy  fine, 
which  Scipio  Africanus  refused  to  pay  and  went  into 


GREECE  AND  KOME.  9T 

183  —  exile,  where  he  died.  H^s  death  occurred  in  the  same 
year  that  Hannihal,  pur,-:aed  by  the  vengeance  of  the 
Eomans  for  having  aided  Antiochns,  committed  suicide 
by  taking  poison  to  avoid  falling  into  their  hands :  and 
in  this  year  also  Philopoemen,  the  last  patriotic  hero 

170  —  of  Greece,  was  slain  by  his  enemies.  Perses,  king  of 
Macedon,  revolted,  and,  after  some  successes,  was  finally 
overthrown  under  the  walls  of  Pydna  and  dethroned. 

168  —  The  Carthaginians  could  not  altogether  forget  their 
ancient  greatness,  and  having  displeased  the  Romans 
by  some   independence  of  action,  it  was  resolved  to 

148  —  destroy  their  city.  With  the  courage  of  despair  they 
set  the  Romans  at  defiance,  and  defended  themselves 
with  a  resolute  bravery  that  engaged  the  lively  sympa- 
thies of  all  after  times  for  their  painful  fate.  For  two 
years  they  maintained  the  combat  against  their  pitiless 
foes,  who  could  pardon  everything  but  rivalry  in  their 

146  —  sweeping  ambition,  and  then  perished  in  the  ruins  of 
their  once  glorious  metropolis.  A  revolt  of  the  Acha- 
ians  was  punished,  in  the  same  year,  by  the  destruction 
of  the  splendid  city  of  Corinth,  in  Greece. 

140  —  The  embers  of  independence  in  Spain  broke  forth 
in  war,  which  was  checked  by  the  assassination  of 
Viriathes,  a  patriotic   chieftain   of  great  ability,  and 

133  —  quenched  in  blood  by  the  self-destruction  of  the  citi- 
zens of  Kumantium.  About  the  same  time  the 
republic  acquired  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  cover- 
ing the  richest  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  by  the  will  of 
Attalus,  its  king,  who,  on  his  death,  bequeathed  it  to 
Rome.  This  led,  in  a  few  years,  to  contests  with  the 
neighboring  Asiatic  sovereigns,  and  resulted,  in  about 
half  a  century,  in  the  conquest  and  reduction  into  the 
state  of  Roman  provinces  of  all  Western  Asia. 
7 


98  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

SECTION    VIII. 
DECAY   OF    THE    KOMAN    BEPUBIJC. 

1.  But  while  Rome  was  thus  steadily  advancing  to  uni- 
versal dominion,  great  and  unfortunate  changes  were  taking 
place  in  its  internal  constitution.  The  spoils  of  Carthage 
and  the  east,  rich  in  accumulations  of  the  industry,  commerce 
»nd  art  of  two  thousand  years,  flowed  into  Rome  and  was 
gathered  into  the  hands  of  those  in  power;  the  equilibriuiA 
between  the  plebeians  and  the  patricians  was  lost;  the  selling 
of  captives  taken  in  war  filled  Italy  with  slaves;  and  the 
inequality  of  conditions  produced  the  most  disastrous  conse- 
quences. 

.133  —  The  eldest  son  of  a  noble  house,  the  Gracchi,  under- 
took to  stem  the  torrent  that  was  sweeping  away  the 
ancient  barriers  of  the  constitution,  and  to  raise  the 
people  from  the  misery  into  which  the  increase  of 
patrician  wealth  and  power  and  the  innumerable  mul- 
titudes of  slaves  had  plunged  them.  In  the  year  in 
which  ISTumantia  fell  and  Spain  was  thoroughly  sub- 
dued, Tiberius  Gracchus  was  slain  in  a  tumult,  pro- 
duced by  the  patricians,  who  determined  that  his 
project  should  not  succeed.  He  had  attempted  to 
revive  the  old  agrarian  law,  by  which  the  landed  pos- 
sessions of  the  republic  were  shared  among  the  people 
as  well  as  the  patricians,  which  would  have  rescued  the 
plebeians  from  poverty  and  oppression;  but  the  patri- 
cians were  too  powerful  and  too  violent.  He  was 
removed  by  assassination. 
2.  121  —  Twelve  years  later  his  brother,  Caius  Gracchus, 
attempted  the  same  thing  and  was  likewise  slain. 
This  point  was  vital  to  the  internal  liberties  of  Rome. 
The  failure  of  the  Gracchi  announced  the  overthrow 
of  the  constitution;  and,  after  seventy  years  of  civil 
anarchy  and  the  murderous  conflict  of  rival  factions, 
the  empire  was  found  the  only  refuge  against  the  ruir. 


DECAY  OF  THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  99 

of  the  state.  Vigorous  Eome,  who  could  govern  all 
the  world  but  herself,  must  have  a  master,  and  became 
the  prey  of  the  strongest.  It  is  a  melancholy  history, 
a  sad  conclusion  for  a  people  whose  strength  and  gran- 
deur of  character  had  made  them  masters  of  the  world, 
but  a  perfectly  legitimate  result  of  the  immoral  prin- 
ciple that  lay  at  the  foundation  of  the  state.  That 
principle  legalized  the  doctrine  of  force,  or  robbery  on 
the  grandest  scale.  They  carried  it  out  with  great  con- 
sistency and  skill,  with  all  the  ability  of  a  race  emi- 
nently sagacioTis  and  steady  in  the  pursuit  of  an  end. 
The  conservative  force  that  dwelt  in  their  organiza- 
tion, so  instinctively  and  exceptionally  wise,  and  the 
power  of  religious  faith,  strong  in  a  hardy  and  simple 
people,  however  weakened  by  pagan  ignorance  and 
superstition,  long  maintained  the  integrity  of  their 
institutions  —  but  Greek  culture,  too  imperfect  not  to 
culminate  in  skepticism,  came  in  to  confuse  their  moral 
sense  at  the  same  time  that  boundless  wealth  flowed 
into  their  hands  to  corrupt  their  manners,  that  slavery 
assumed  gigantic  proportions  to  demoralize  labor,  and 
the  conquest  of  the  world  relieved  them  from  the 
severe  discipline  that  might  not,  otherwise,  have  left 
them  the  leisure  to  become  deeply  vicious. 

The  sternness  of  even  Eoraan  character  was  unequal 
to  the  heavy  strain  and  virtue  gave  way.  The  native 
vigor  of  the  race  made  them  as  excessive  in  unrestrained 
passion  as  wise  in  council  and  invincible  in  war.  The 
cruelty  and  rapacity  that  were  common  in  the  civil  wars 
of  the  Republic,  and  under  many  of  the  early  emperors, 
educated  giants  in  crime,  and  only  the  Roman  spirit  in 
the  army,  and  the  \'igorous  organization  everywhere 
maintained  through  the  institutions  established  in  the 
subject  world  by  Roman  law,  could  have  held  its  vast 
■dominions  together.  Rome  had  vitality  and  sense  to 
govern  others,  even  in  the  midst  of  civil  war. 


100  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

3.     From  the  death  of  the  Gracchi  to  the  consulship 

107  —  Of  Marius,  Rome  was  in  a  tumult  of  corrupt  intrigue, 
which  rendered  easy  the  usurpation  and  inhuman 
cruelty  of  Jugurtha,  king  of  Numidia.  Marius,  a  ple- 
bian  of  the  lowest  rank,  became  consul.  He  was 
unequaled  at  once  as  a  general  and  a  tyrant.  He  con- 
quered 

106  —  Jugurtha,  who  was  brought  to  Eome  and  starved  in 
prison.  In  the  same  year  Cicero,  the  great  Roman, 
orator,  was  born. 

A  vast  horde  of  Cimbri  and  Teutons  from  northern 

105  —  Europe,  invaded  Gaul  and  defeated  several  Roman  con- 
suls. 

100  —  Marius  led  an  army  against  these  barbarians  and 
defeated  them,  more  than  100,000  being  slain  or 
made  prisoners.  He  was  equally  successful  in  a  second 
engagement.  During  the  war  200,000  barbarians  were 
slain  and  90,000  taken  prisoners.  A  revolt  of  the 
slaves  was  put  down  about  the  same  time  with  circum- 
stances of  extreme  cruelty.  More  than  a  million  of 
these  unfortunates  were  slain  or  thrown  to  wild  beasts- 
for  the  amusement  of  the  Roman  populace, 

4.  100  —  In  this  year  Julius  Csesar,  one  of  the  greatest  men 
of  any  time,  and  virtual  founder  of  the  Roman  Empire^ 
was  born.  His  supreme  ability  put  an  end  to  civil  dis- 
sention  and  saved  society  from  total  ruin. 
90  —  The  Italian  allies  revolted  against  Rome.  They  claimed 
the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship,  which  the  Senate 
refused,  A  war  of  three  years  followed  and  half  a 
million  of  men  perished,  when,  having  conquered 
them,  the  Senate  granted  their  first  i-equest, 
88  —  Mitliridates,  king  of  Pontus,  talented  and  ambitious, 
sought  to  drive  the  Romans  out  of  Asia  and  Greece, 
and  warred  with  them  for  twenty -five  years,  Sylla 
procured  the  banishment  of  his  rival,  Marius,  and  con- 
ducted the  war  against  Mitliridates. 


PECAY  OF  THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  101 

86  —  Marius  regained  power  in  the  absence  of  Sylla  and 
slaughtered  his  enemies,  the  patricians,  without  mercy, 
but  soon  after  died. 

63  —  Sylla,  after  obliging  Mithridates  to  sue  for  peace, 
hastened  to  Rome,  conquered  his  enemies,  and  slew 
more  than  6,000  Eoman  citizens  in  revenge. 

SI  —  Sylla  caused  himself  to  be  made  perpetual  dictator 

77  —  But  after  three  years  resigned  and  soon  after  died  from 
the  effects  of  his  vices.  Civil  war  was  continued  for  a 
time  in  Spain  and  Italy,  but  finally  put  down  by  Pora- 

50  —  pey,  the  greatest  general  of  the  patrician  party. 

The  war  of  the  gladiators  —  men  trained  to  fight  in 
the  theatres  for  the  amusement  of  the  populace  —  broke 
out  under  an  able  leader,  Spartacus,  who,  collecting  an 
army  of  120,000  gladiators,  endangered  Rome  itself,  but 

70  —  he  was  conquered  by  Crassus.  S])artacus  was  defeated 
and  killed.  It  was  the  inhuman  oppression  of  the 
patricians  that  produced  all  these  dreadful  conflicts. 

65  —  Pompey  and  Crassus,  by  paying  court  to  the  people, 
were  made  consuls.  Pompey  proceeded  to  Asia  and 
made  war  on  Mithridates,  who  was  again  formidable, 

63  —  whom  he  defeated  and  slew  in  battle.  He  subdued 
nearly  all  western  Asia,  visiting  Jerusalem,  and  treat- 
ing the  Jews  with  kindness.  He  also  cleared  the  Med- 
iterranean of  pirates,  who  had  always  infested  it. 

62  —  A  dangerous  conspiracy  of  Cataline,  a  patrician  of  the 
most  corrupt  morals,  at  the  head  of  the  depraved  young 
nobility  of  the  time,  would  have  been  successful  but 
for  the  ability  and  eloquence  of  Cicero,  who  was  consul. 
Cataline  and  his  fellow  conspirators  were  taken  and 
slain. 

59  —  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  formed  the  first  "Trium- 
virate," and  divided  the  rule  of  the  world  between 
them.     Csesar  was  the  head  of  the  popular  party.     He 

57  —  took  Gaul  as  his  government.  Here  he  spent  eight 
years  in  his  "  Gallic  wars,"  showing  nnparalleled  talents 


102  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

as  a  general,  training  his  army  to  become  invincible  in 
battle,  and  completely  subduing  the  fierce  Gauls.  He 
66  —  entered  Britain  and  laid  the  foundation  of  civiliza- 
tion there,  thus  carrying  the  march  of  empire  to  its- 
farthest  bounds  in  Europe. 
6.  49 — He  was  ordered  to  return  and  lay  down  his  authori- 
ty by  the  Roman  Senate,  headed  by  Pompey,  who  was- 
now  his  enemy.  They  were  the  rival  champions  of  the 
two  parties  in  the  state,  the  people  and  the  patricians, 
whose  quarrels  had  so  long  filled  Home  with  tumult 
and  slaughter.  The  tribunes  in  Caesar's  interest  inter- 
posed a  veto,  which  the  Roman  Constitution  authorized 
them  to  do.  The  Senate  voted  to  suspend  the  Consti- 
tution, which  really  terminated  the  Roman  Republic, 
Jan.  7,  B.  C.  49.  CaBsar  at  once  crossed  the  river  Ru- 
bicon, the  boundary  of  his  government,  and  marched 
his  army  on  Rome.  Pompey  and  the  aristocratic  party 
fled  in  haste,  leaving  the  public  treasure  behind.  In 
sixty  days  Csesar  had  possession  of  all  Italy.  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  and  Spain  were  next  conquered  from  the  offi- 
cers of  Pompey,  when  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was 
created  dictator  by  his  party.  He  treated  all  his  ene- 
mies with  clemency.  Pompey  had  gone  into  Greece, 
48  —  where  he  gathered  a  large  army.  Caesar  followed  with 
his  veteran  legions,  and  defeated  him  in  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  in  Thessaly.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  treacherously  slain,  to  the  great  indignation  of 
Caesar,  who  would  shed  no  blood  but  in  necessary  battlev 
Thus  he  became  sole  master  of  the  world. 

In  a  conflict  with  the  Egyptians  in  Alexandria  Caesar 
set  on  fire  their  fleet,  he  being  attended  by  but  few 
troops,  and  the  conflagration  extended  to  the  Alexan- 
drian Library,  filled  with  inestimable  treasures  of 
ancient  literature,  which  were  destroyed,  to  the  great 
loss  of  future  generations.     Caesar  soon  subdued  Egypt, 


DECAY  OF  THE  ROMAN  EEPUBLIC.  103 

47  —  defeated  Pharnaces,  son  of  Mithridates,  and  returned 
to  Rome. 

46  —  He  soon  passed  into  Africa,  where  he  defeated  liis  ene- 
mies. The  celebrated  Cato,  an  inflexible  enemy  of 
Csesar,  committed  suicide  rather  than  submit  to  him. 
In  Spain  lie  soon  after  defeated  the  sons  of  Pompey^ 
the  last  of  his  foes  in  arms.     He  rebuilt  Carthage  and 

46  —  Corinth.  He  projected  many  great  public  works  and 
useful  reforms.     The  whole  power  of  Roman  sovereign- 

44  —  ty  was  formally  conferred  on  him  by  the  people,  when 
he  was  suddenly  assassinated  by  a  band  of  senators  and 
certain  conspirators,  who  imagined  it  possible  to  restore 
the  ancient  Republic.  His  nephew,  Augustus,  succeed- 
ed him  soon  after. 

43  —  The  eminent  Cicero,  never  a  friend  to  Caesar,  was  assas- 
sinated by  the  connivance  of  Augustus. 

42  —  The  republican  and  aristocratic  conspirators  were  de- 
feated by  Augustus  and  Antony  at  Philippi,  in  Greece. 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  republican  leaders,  and  assas- 
sins of  Caesar,  were  slain.  The  second  "  Triumvirate,'* 
composed  of  Augustus,  Antony  and  Lepidus,  having 
acquired  possession  of  all  the  powers  of  the  state,  ruth- 
lessly murdered  thousands  of  their  political  enemies. 
They  soon  grew  jealous  of  each  other,  and  fought  and 
intrigued  for  eleven  years,  Augustus,  with  great  pru- 
dence, firmly  settling  himself  in  Rome,  and  Antony 
becoming  the  slave  of  the  beautiful  and  infamous  Cleo- 
patra, queen  of  Egypt. 

81  —  At  length,  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  Antony  was  de- 
feated, and  soon  after  both  Antony  and  Cleopatra  com- 
mitted suicide.  Egypt  became  formally  a  Roman 
province,  and  Augustus  absolute  emperor  of  the  world. 


104  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

SECTION  IX. 

THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

1.  B.  C.  28 — In  this  year  Augustus,  having  fully  consolidated 
his  power,  was  formally  recognized  emperor.  During  all  the 
contests  of  factions,  and  when  Rome  was  itself  in  the  throes  of 
revolution,  the  subjection  of  all  the  provinces  to  the  imperial 
city,  and  whoever  was  in  power  there,  was  rigorously  main- 
tained. The  inhabitants  were  protected  from  invasion,  and  if 
they  were  often  oppressed  by  Roman  governors,  it  was  far  less 
than  under  their  native  rulers,  and,  in  general,  they  were  not 
desirous  of  a  change.  Roman  law  and  order,  and  the  power 
of  appeal  from  great  injustice  to  the  Roman  senate  or  emperor, 
maintained  a  state  of  generally  traTiquil  prosperity,  only  dis- 
turbed by  the  contests  of  rivals  for  the  control  of  the  imperial 
city  and  its  power. 

A  long  period  of  almost  absolute  quiet  followed  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire,  which  gave  Rome  and  Italy  great 
satisfaction,  after  nearly  a  hundred  years  of  civil  war.  It  is 
called  the  "  Augustan  Age,"  when  industry  and  commerce, 
literature  and  the  arts,  reached  their  highest  development. 

The  Roman  Empire  and  the  Christian  era  commenced  nearly 
together.  During  the  thirty  years  that  followed  the  battle  of 
Actium,  which  secured  to  Augustus  the  sole  control  of  the 
civilized  world,  by  the  defeat  of  his  last  rival,  Antony,  he  was 
occupied  in  organizing  the  vast  machinery  of  his  government, 
and  centralizing  all  the  parts  of  the  administration  in  his  own 
person.  For  near  three  hundred  years  Western  Asia  and 
Greece  had  been  a  scene  of  violent  commotion.  Rival  adven- 
turers were  constantly  seeking  to  reconstruct  the  empire  of 
Alexander.  Some  of  these  had  tli^  genius  and  the  good  for- 
tune to  succeed,  in  part  at  least,  and  swayed  a  powerful  scepter 
over  a  large  region  during  their  own  lives,  and,  in  some 
instances,  their  dominions  were  held  together  for  several  gen- 
erations. But  there  was  no  sufficient  base  for  a  strong  and 
permanent    government.     There  was  no   stable  element  on 


THE   ROMAN    EMPIRE.  106 

which  to  rest  it.  The  Greeks  were  brave,  intelligent  and 
enterprising,  and  no  Asiatic  people  could  withstand  a  Greek 
army  under  Greek  leaders;  but  the  Greeks  were  too  restless, 
too  easily  carried  away  by  enthusiasm  for  a  new  leader  or  a 
new  idea  to  be  capabb  of  upholding  an  empire. 

2.  Thus,  Asia  and  Greece  had  been  a  vast  battle  field,  and 
ihe  battles  served  no  r^eneral  interest  and  founded  no  permanent 
state.  The  Greeks  gro\7  tired  of  supporting  the  claims  of  each 
new  aspirant,  who  returned  their  favor  by  depriving  them 
of  liberty,  and  the  whole  eastern  world  readily  submitted  to 
the  Eomans,  under  whom  there  was,  at  least,  a  prospect  of 
civil  order,  Augustus,  then,  had  little  trouble  in  settling  the 
affairs  of  the  whole  empire,  and,  about  thirty  years  after  the 
battleofActium,  finding  the  entire  world  quietly  content  and 
the  administration  everywhere  in  fair  working  order,  directed 
the  gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus  to  be  closed,  and  a  census  to 
be  made  of  all  his  subjects.  At  this  time  Jesus  Christ  was 
•lorn  and  the  Christian  era  commenced. 

The  Roman  Empire  under  Augustus  was  the  culmination  of 
the  ancient  and  pagan  civilization.  It  had  great  vitality,  and 
strength  enough  to  rule  the  world  four  hundred  years  longer; 
but  it  had  also  fatal  weaknesses.  We  have  seen  that  the  exist- 
ence of  the  empire  originated  in  the  inability  of  the  old  society 
to  free  itself  from  the  vices  which  long  and  great  prosperity 
had  developed.  It  had  no  purityiiig  element  strong  enough 
to  drive  out  the  disease  which  its  inoral  weakness  had  allowed 
to  fasten  on  it.  It  was,  in  fact,  based  on  wrong  and  could  not 
but  perish.  Its  fall  was  only  a  question  of  time.  Its  ferocious 
valor  and  contempt  of  the  rights  of  nations  broke  down  the 
very  virtue  that  was  essential  to  the  stability  of  society.  The 
Romans  were  robbers  on  a  grand  scale,  and  it  was  very  natural 
that,  when  there  were  no  more  foreign  nations  to  slay  and 
plunder,  the  citizens  should  fall  to  cutting  each  others  throats 
and  robbing  their  neighbors.  As  this  would  lead  to  the  imme> 
diate  ruin  of  society  and  the  state,  the  empire,  which  gave 
them  an  absolute  master,  was  a  necessity. 


106  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME 

3.  But  a  full  comprehension  of  the  moral  laws  on  which 
society,  institutions  and  states  are  founded,  was  the  last  to  be 
gained.  Most  modem  nations  have  not  yet  attained  it,  not- 
withstanding that  Christianity  has  so  long  stated  the  principles 
with  clearness  and  force. 

The  common  mind  of  humanity  could  master  them  only  by 
growth  through  thousands  of  years  and  innumerable  experi- 
ences. The  «.l)ject  of  all  earthly  experience  is  to  develop  the 
value  of  the  individual  man^  and  the  object  of  society,  of 
institutions  and  of  government,  is  to  protect  the  rights  and  to 
favor  the  development  of  each  Tnan  of  the  race.  When  this 
end  is  fully  secured,  history  will  have  solved  its  problem.  As 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era  was  the  turning  point 
of  history  in  some  most  important  respects,  it  is  proper  to 
glance  back  and  forward  over  the  state  of  this  problem,  and  the 
relation  of  Christianity  to  it,  before  proceeding  with  the  gen- 
eral course  of  events. 

At  first  men  were  like  children,  with  everything  to  learn; 
and,  like  children,  they  learned  one  thing  at  a  time;  and  they 
also  made  an  addition  to  their  common  stock  of  knowledge  at 
every  remove  of  the  centre  of  growth.  In  Asia  and  Egypt  the 
general  lesson  was  industry  and  obedience,  while  the  Jews,  on 
the  western  shore,  more  or  less  assisted  by  the  Assyrians,  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Greeks,  labored  at  the  development  of  a 
pure  religion  which  culminated  in  Christianity.  The  removal 
of  the  centre  to  Greece  added  mental  and  artistic  culture,  and 
the  further  westward  journey  to  Kome  gave  them  a  new  class 
of  most  important  ideas  concerning  public  organization,  law 
and  order. 

4.  If  each  of  these  lessons  had  been  perfect  in  themselves 
the  addition  made  by  Christianity,  which  defined  the  relations 
between  men,  the  law  of  human  rights  and  the  doctrines  essen- 
tial to  the  stability  and  purity  of  society,  M-ould  have  enabled 
mankind  to  build  up  satisfactory  institutions  and  a  complete 
civilization  from  the  Eoman  period.  But  the  elementary  les- 
sons were  very  incomplete.     The  Asiatics  became  very  super- 


THE   ROMAN    EMPIRE.  107 

Btitious;  the  Greeks  could  teach  men  the  art  of  thinking,  or 
exercising  their  minds,  but  they  could  not  find  the  true  start- 
ing point;  they  did  not  discover  what  subjects  it  was  useful, 
and  what  it  was  useless,  to  reason  upon;  and  wasted  a  good 
part  of  the  thought  of  their  times  on  profitless  questions. 
Their  failure  to  obtain  a  clear  and  valuable  result  from  philoso- 
phy made  men  skeptical  and  contributed  much  to  the  decline 
of  civilization  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Romans 
built  their  whole  structure  of  law  and  order  on  force  and  a 
wholesale  violation  of  the  rights  of  mankind,  and  the  minds 
of  men  became  greatly  confused.  The  doctrine  of  the  Epicu- 
rean philosophers  —  "Let  us  eat  and  drink  for  to-morrow  we 
die"  —  a  despair  of  working  out  the  problem  of  life  to  a  satis- 
factory answer,  became  the  most  popular  in  the  empire.  The 
splendor  and  glory  of  Oriental,  Grecian  and  Roman  civiliza- 
tion seemed  to  end  in  degrading  servility  and  superstition,  in 
the  endless  and  absurd  speculations  of  so-called  philosophers, 
and  in  the  vast  brutal  tyranny  of  the  emperors.  The  east 
failed  of  a  pure  religion  that  was  generally  accepted.  Greek 
philosophy  did  not  have  science  to  guide  her  thought,  and 
Rome  could  not  be  just  as  well  as  strong. 

5.  It  was  only  in  modern  times  that  these  lessons  were 
made  complete.  The  discoveries  in  Geography,  in  Astronomy, 
in  Natural  Philosophy,  in  Chemistry,  in  Geology,  made  men 
acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the  universe,  the  properties 
and  the  laws  of  matter,  and  corrected  the  extravagances  of  the 
ancient  speculative  philosophy.  For  want  of  science,  Greek 
thought  wandered  about  in  an  unreal  world  and  lost  a  good 
part  of  its  labor..  A  long  experience  under  the  control  of  this 
corrscted  thought  was  required  to  construct  a  science  of  Gov- 
ernment that  should  supply  what  was  wanting  to  Roman 
jurisprudence,  and  Christianity  itself  could  not  be  rightly 
understood  while  so  many  false  theories  and  wrong  practices 
prevailed. 

But  the  ancient  times  were  as  essential  to  the  building  up 
of  the  modern  as  the  modern  to  the  completion  of  the  ancient. 


108  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

It  was  the  renewed  study  of  the  Greek  classics,  of  Roman  law, 
and  of  the  original  teachings  of  Christianity,  under  more 
favorable  circumstances,  and  after  many  new  experiences  for  a 
thousand  years,  that  gave  birth  to  all  our  later  improvements 
in  religion,  in  government  and  in  science.  The  Asiatic  Jews 
gave  us  in  Christianity,  a  pure  and  simple  worship,  and  a 
system  of  public  morality  so  perfect  that  no  society  has  yet 
been  able  to  embody  it  completely  in  practice,  although  it  is 
now  recognized,  very  generally,  as  the  highest  conceivable 
standard,  to  be  constantly  aimed  at  and  conformed  to  as  far  as 
possible  ;  the  Greek  Philosopher,  Aristotle,  gave  us  the  first 
notions  of  science,  and  Roman  law  formed  the  base  of  modern 
legal  practice. 

6.  The  difficulties  of  progress  are  very  great.  It  is  not 
easier  for  nations  to  unlearn  what  they  have  learned  amiss  in 
their  youth,  than  for  individuals.  No  nation  that  has  matured 
institutions  has  ever  yet  thoroughly  reformed  them.  The  best 
and  most  clear  sighted  minds  discover  their  defects  and  show 
what  is  to  be  remedied  ;  but  the  force  of  habit  and  the  vene- 
ration men  feel  for  what  is  old,  offer  so  much  resistance  to  com- 
plete reforms  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  establish  and  build 
up  institutions  on  new  principles  on  fresh  ground.  So  all  the 
light  and  power  of  science,  of  the  reformed  religion,  of  a 
more  complete  system  of  law,  the  greater  intelligence  of  the 
masses  of  men  and  the  activity  of  commerce  and  trade  did  not 
suffice  to  do  for  modern  Europe  what  has  been  done  with  ease 
in  America.  But  Europe  furnished  the  ideas  which  America 
worked  out;  and  the  sight  of  those  principles  embodied  in 
institutions  that  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  mankind 
has  reacted  on  Europe,  and  bids  fair,  in  time,  to  produce  a 
novelty  in  human  experience — a  complete  regeneration  of  old 
nations  and  governments.  When  Greece  rose  to  power  it 
subjected  but  lightly,  and  only  superficially  transformed,  the 
nations  of  Asia  ;  Rome  absorbed  them  both,  and  Christianity 
gave  its  simple  and  noble  lessons  to  them  all.  But  the  slight 
infiuence  of  Greece,  Rome  and  Christianity  on  the  old  nations 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   CHRISTIANITY.  109 

of  western  Asia  is  shown  in  the  rise  and  permanence  of 
Mohammedanism,  so  inferior,  in  all  respects,  to  Christianity. 
After  a  career  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  years,  it  still  rules 
many  more  millions  than  Avero  contained  in  all  the  Koman 
Empire  in  its  most  prosperous  days. 

7.  But  the  power  of  a  progressive  civilization  constantly 
increases,  and  will,  by  and  by,  be  equal  to  the  thorough  reform 
of  even  crystalized  China.  Without  America,  Europe  would 
be  still  struggling  with  the  incipient  stages  of  reform.  With 
it,  she  has  gone  far  toward  correcting  the  imperfections  which 
existed  one  hundred  years  ago,  and  will  presently  complete 
the  process.  With  these  general  observations,  we  proceed  to 
examine  the  influence  of  Christianity  on  the  old  civilization. 

SECTION  X. 

THE  INFLUENCE   OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

1.  It  was  developed  on  the  western  borders  of  Asia,  and 
was  the  completion  or  perfect  development  of  the  system  of 
religion  existing  among  the  Jews  from  a  very  early  period. 
Soon  after  Abraham,  the  father  and  grand  patriarch  of  the 
Jews,  had  given  his  descendants  the  outlines  of  the  system, 
they  were  led,  by  circumstances,  to  Egypt,  and  remained  there 
for  many  generations.  When  they  left  Egypt,  it  was  under 
the  leadership  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  world's  great  men, 
who  had  been  heir  apparent  of  the  Egyptian  throne,  and  was 
consequently  versed  in  all  the  mysterious  wisdom  of  the  priest- 
hood of  that  country.  Tliat  he  became  wiser  than  they  is 
evident  from  the  history  of  his  contest  with  them  before  the 
king  when  endeavoring  to  gain  his  consent  to  the  migration 
of  his  people  from  the  country.  Instructed  in  all  the  cele- 
brated "  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  together  with  the  reflec- 
tions and  additions  of  forty  solitary  years  as  a  shepherd  in 
Arabia,  he  produced  a  remarkable  system  of  mingled  theology 
and  legislation  which  has  come  down  as  a  sacred  record  to  our 
day. 


110  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

2.  The  Jews  were,  nine  Imndred  years  afterwards,  trans- 
ported as  a  nation  to  Babylon,  remained  there  for  more  than 
two  generations,  and  received  such  h'ght  as  the  Babylonian 
priests  and  Persian  magi  were  able  to  give  them.  The  con- 
quest of  Asia  by  the  Greeks  and  the  vicinity  of  Jndea  to  com- 
mercial Tyre,  furnished  them  all  the  aid  these  nations  could 
give  in  the  line  of  religious  suggestion.  A  Jew  produced,  in 
the  early  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  simple,  yet  sublime 
teachings  of  Christianity.  It  had  the  comprehensiveness  and 
directness  requisite  to  give  it  authority  as  a  universal  religion. 
In  few,  but  plain  and  convincing  words,  it  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciples of  human  rights  and  of  divine  law.  It  defined  the 
nature  and  stated  the  sanctions  of  virtue  in  the  clearest  terras; 
tore  away  every  covering  from  vice  and  denounced  without 
fear  the  favorite  ambitions  and  follies  of  men.  It  seems 
almost  incredible  that  such  a  system  should  have  had  its 
origin  even  among  a  people  like  the  Jews,  and  at  the  time 
when  the  Roman  Empire  represented  the  highest  civilization 
of  the  world. 

3.  The  Jews,  as  a  nation,  however,  rejected  and  bitterly 
persecuted  it,  and  the  Romans,  who  were,  on  principle,  ex- 
tremely tolerant  of  all  foreign  religions,  soon  became  extremely 
hostile.  It  was  humble,  unostentatious,  very  simple  in  all  its 
forms,  carefully  refrained  from  all  interference  with  established 
government,  and  presented  many  new  and  consoling  truths, 
with  great  force.  It  would  have  seemed  that  it  had  only  to 
speak  to  gain  a  hearing  and  take  a  leading  place  at  once  in  the 
work  of  the  future.  The  few  unprejudiced  among  the  great, 
and  thousands  of  the  poor  and  oppressed  w-hom  the  cruel 
power  of  the  Romans  had  deprived  of  nationality,  property 
and  personal  liberty,  and  many  whose  minds  recoiled  from 
the  vices,  crimes  and  skepticism  of  the  age,  heard  and  em- 
braced it  with  joy.  But  it  rebuked  with  most  severity  the 
ambitions,  the  injustice  and  the  love  of  luxury  that  were  most 
prevalent  in  that  age  and  that  were  most  distinctly  Roman. 
It  was  peculiarly  severe  against  all  other  systems  of  religion, 


THE    INFLUENCE    OV   CHRISTIANITY.  Ill 

and  that  formed  the  strongest  barrier  against  its  immediate 
spread  over  the  pagan  world  at  large.  It  was,  therefore,  per- 
secuted with  the  greatest  rigor  for  three  hundred  years. 

4.  But  persecution  called  public  attention  to  it  and  won  it 
sympathy,  and  it  continually  spread  beneath  the  surface  of  so- 
ciety. The  brutal  features  of  Roman  character  were  gradually 
softened  ;  very  gradually,  indeed,  for  Roman  manners  and 
morals  were  an  Augean  stable  which  it  was  a  more  than  her- 
culean task  to  cleanse  ;  but  after  a  time,  the  gigantic  crimes 
of  a  Marius,  a  Sylla,  a  Nero,  or  Domitian  became  impossible, 
and  the  horrors  of  the  theatre,  where  gladiators  killed  each 
other  and  men  were  thrown  to  wild  beasts  for  the  amusement 
of  the  populace,  became  rare.  Atrocious  crimes  awakened  a 
disofust  that  showed  a  different  view  and  a  new  standard  of 
judgment  in  the  community.  Christianity  created  a  purer 
moral  atmosphere  even  in  Rome,  and  while  it  was  persecuted 
with  the  utmost  barbarity. 

6.  It  is  then  no  matter  of  surprise  that  Christianity  did 
not  at  once  meet  with  general  acceptance,  and  did  not  fully 
reconstruct  Roman  society  and  manners.  The  marvel  is  that 
it  could  be  produced  at  all  by  an  age  to  whose  whole  spirit  it 
was  so  absolutely  contrary  .  It  was  the  doctrine  of  peace  pro- 
claimed among  nations  who  knew  no  occupation  so  glorious  as 
war;  whose  institutions  all  rested  on  conquest;  whose  domi- 
nant race  —  admired  as  much  as  feared  —  was  the  very  genius 
and  embodiment  of  martial  force  arrayed  against  the  inde- 
pendence of  all  nationalities  by  an  organization  the  most  com- 
plete. It  proclaimed  the  rights  of  man  and  the  equality  of 
all  classes  and  persons  before  the  Divine  Law,  to  a  people  who 
had  phmged  in  a  common  ruin  Carthage  and  Corinth,  the 
Republics  of  Greece,  and  the  absolute  rulers  of  monarchical 
Asia.  It  scorned  equally  gorgeous  ceremonies  of  worship, 
the  subtleties  of  an  imperfect  philosophy  and  pride  of  place 
and  power. 

It  is  not  possible  to  imagine  a  greater  contrast  to  all  the 
modes  of  habit  and  thought  prevalent  in   those  times.     The 


112  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

most  sensnal  of  all  races  it  exhorted  to  spiritualitj,  to  the  most 
cruel  and  insolent  it  preached  meekness  and  forbearance.  It 
placed  the  slave  to  wliom  the  recognized  laws  of  war  left  no 
rights,  beside  the  master  who  gloried  in  setting  his  foot  on  the 
neck  of  the  prostrate;  and  recognized  as  equaiS  the  great  and 
the  small,  the  ignorant  and  the  wise,  the  bond  and  the  free. 

We  cannot  be  surprised  that  it  did  not  obtain  immediate 
currency,  that  it  was  everywhere  scorned  and  cast  out,  that  it 
aroused  unheard  of  persecutions,  and  that  it  could  only  obtain 
a  triumph  when  the  old  Ttoman  inflexibility  and  fierceness  had 
died  out  of  its  degenerate  children,  and  the  spirit  of  the  an- 
cient world  was  burned  out  in  the  hot  fires  of  its  own  passions. 
Character  does  not  change  in  a  day,  and  the  ruling  impulses 
of  a  race  can  be  modified  only  by  slow  degrees.  Such  is  the 
supreme  law  which  has  ruled  all  history. 

6.  from  all  these  causes  Christianity  was  slow  in  pene- 
trating society  and  moulding  institutions;  but  it  spread  so 
extensively  that  a  clear  sighted  emperor  at  length  found  it 
politic  to  profess  Christianity  in  order  to  gain  the  support  of 
so  large  and  vigorous  an  element  against  his  rivals  in  power. 
Constantine  was  victorious  and  proceeded  to  make  Christianity 
the  state  religion.  It  had  maintained  its  growth  by  its  real 
superiority  and  ever  after  remained  the  most  powerful  and 
productive  among  the  influences  that  aided  the  progress  of 
mankind.  It  was  actively  aggressive  and  had  made  the  bar- 
barians who  overthrew  Home  converts  to  the  faith  before  the  in- 
vasion, and  thus  broke  the  force  and  diminished  the  disastrous 
effects  of  that  event.  In  after  times,  no  sooner  did  a  barbarian 
tribe  appear  and  establish  itself  in  any  part  of  the  old  empire 
than  Christianity  commenced  the  work  of  teaching  and  prose- 
lyting, which  aided  much  in  restoring  order  and  repairing  ruin. 
Had  Christianity  preserved  its  purity  its  usefulness  and  power 
would  have  been  much  greater. 

7.  But  as  it  gained  in  numbers  and  in  position  it  lost  inter, 
nal  strength.  Both  Oriental  and  Greek  philosophy  tainted  its 
simple  doctrines  and  introduced  in  various  forms  the  hurtful 


THE    SERVICES   OF 'GREAT  MEN.  113 

Speculations  so  dear  to  the  ancients;  and  when  it  became  the 
court  religion  the  simplicity  of  its  ceremonies  was  gradually 
replaced  by  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  pagan  worship.  Con- 
stantine  and  his  successors  in  the  empire  assumed  the  virtual 
headship  of  the  church,  called  councils  and  packed  them  for 
political  purposes,  and  pronounced  for  or  against  supposed 
heresies.  The  oflices  of  the  church  became  the  rewards  of 
ambition  and  gradually  a  hierarchy,  or  regular  gradation,  was 
established  in  the  priesthood,  and  both  faith  and  manners  came 
to  be  strangely  in  contrast  with  their  original  simplicity.  Yet, 
Christianity,  aping  the  forms  and  infected  with  the  supersti- 
tions of  paganism,  and  become  the  tool  of  the  aspiring,  was 
still  alive  with  a  youthful  vigor  by  which  she  eased  the  fall  of 
the  old  civilization,  and  was  abundant  in  valuable  service  for 
the  civilization  yet  to  be. 

SECTION  XI. 

THE   SERVICES   OF   GREAT   MEN   TO    MANKIND. 

1.  It  is  difficult  for  US  to  comprehend  the  embarrassment* 
which  a  want  of  diffused  information  presented  to  the  progress  of 
the  ancient  days.  With  no  books,  or,  at  best,  but  very  few,  with 
little  or  no  record  of  the  past,  or  the  distant  present,  but  what 
confused,  distorted  and  uncertain  tradition  and  rumor  could 
give,  with  almost  no  instruments  of  thought  and  education,  it 
would  seem  natural  that  they  should  fall  into  a  hopeless  bar- 
barism. That  they  raised  themselves  so  far  out  of  a  condition 
so  low  and  so  helpless,  that  they  created  so  many  instruments  for 
us,  is  a  proof  of  the  wonderful  capacity  for  advancement  that 
lies  in  humanity,  and  a  prophecy  of  stupendous  things  yet  in 
store  for  mankind. 

2.  One  of  the  most  important  elements  of  their  progress 
lay  in  their  great  men.  It  is  indispensable  that  a  man,  to 
become  great,  or  famous,  by  exercising  a  wide  influence,  should 
represent  in  a  large,  well  defined  and  successful  way,  the  gen- 
eral tendency  and  aspiration  of  his  times.     He  must  unite  a 


114  THE    FOOTPEIKTS   OF   TIME. 

■clear  perception  of  these  tendencies  in  his  mind,  with  the 

power  to  give  them  adequate  expression  in  his  words  or  deeds. 

Be  must  be  so  far  ahead  of  his  times  as  to  be  able  to  clearly 

"Work  out  what  is  lying  unexpressed  in  the  general  mind,  but 

-not  so  far  ahead    that   it   cannot  come   into   sympathy  and 

■  co-operation  with  him ;  else  he  will  not  be  recognized  as  great. 

Great  men  are  a  summary  of  their  times,  or  of  the  people  they 

•dwell  among;  they  gather  its  tendencies  to  a  point  and  express 

the  undefined  desire  of  that  period.     Their  value  for  later 

times  is  that  they  represent  the  spirit  of  their  race  at  that  time 

in  a  form  to  make  a  striking  impression,  and  those  who  have 

"the  good  fortune  to  represent  the  qualities  of  the  best  races,  or 

•of  nations  at  the  most  important  stage  of  their  history,  become 

-the  general  exemplars  of  mankind;  teaching  in  a  forcible  and 

•tstriking  way  the  lessons  which  have  been  wrought  out  in  the 

experience  of  a  whole  people  for  ages. 

3.  The  poets  are  the  first  of  these  great  men  of  whom  his- 
tory gives  us  any  account,  except,  perhaps,  the  heroes  wliose 
deeds  they  sung,  which  are  more  or  less  uncertain,  because 
they  clothed  the  common  tradition  of  their  times  in  an  imag- 
inative and  fictitious  dress.  The  poets  Homer  and  Hesiod  had 
great  influence  on  early  Greece.  They  summed  up  its  theology 
and  the  history  of  its  admired  heroes,  and  gave  expression  to 
the  early  thought  and  literary  turn  of  that  people. 

Their  legislators  came  next.  They  gave  expression  to  the 
genius  of  their  people  in  institutions  and  laws.  Lycurgus 
arranged  the  Spartan  state  into  a  military  school.  His  laws 
remained  in  force  more  than  five  hundred  years.  Solon  was 
the  legislator  of  Athens  and  his  laws  were  much  admired  for 
their  wisdom  and  justice.  The  Greeks  could  think  more 
wisely  than  they  could  act.  Lycurgus  organized  the  warlike 
spirit  in  Greece  as  well  as  Sparta.  The  small  Grecian  states, 
determined  to  keep  Sparta  and  each  one  of  the  other  states 
from  destroying  their  individual  liberties,  were  trained  by  the 
necessity  of  combating  the  vigorous  military  organization  of 
Sparta  to  great  ability  in  war. 


THE   SERVICES   OF   GKEAT   MEN.  115 

TJndev  Pericles,  a  republican  statesman  of  Athens,  nearly  a 
century  later  than  Solon,  the  full  glory  of  the  Grecian  genius 
ehone  forth.  He  encouraged  his  countrymen  to  give  the  sup- 
port to  art  and  literature  that  produced  the  famous  master 
pieces  which  have  made  Greece  illustrious  and  influential  to 
this  day. 

4.  Socrates  appeared  soon  after.  He  was  the  apostle  of 
thought.  His  influence  in  leading  men  to  use  direct  and 
effective  modes  of  examination  and  reasoning  was  incalcula- 
ble, and  has  perhaps  had  more  effect  on  the  world  than  the 
victorious  career  of  Alexander  or  of  the  Romans.  He  was 
followed  by  Plato,  a  disciple  of  his,  who  pushed  out  to  further 
results  the  same  principles.  He  is  called  the  prince  of  philo- 
sophers, and  has  exerted  a  world-wide  influence.  He  had  not 
the  simplicity  and  plain  directness  of  Socrates,  though  his 
mind  was  more  polished,  and  he  was  more  learned.  Some 
scholars,  however,  consider  his  masterpieces  to  indicate  as 
powerful  a  mind  as  the  world  has  produced.  He  spent 
twelve  years  in  travel,  and  used  all  the  means  of  education 
and  study  then  to  be  found.  His  works  are  still  the  delight 
of  the  most  accomplished  scholars. 

5.  Aristotle  began  his  career  in  the  last  years  of  Plato. 
He  was  the  tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  followed  a  dif- 
ferent line  of  study,  wrote  on  logic,  or  the  art  of  reasoning, 
on  the  natural  sciences,  and  introduced  method  in  the  exercise 
of  the  mind  and  in  study.  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Thucydides, 
and  many  other  great  writers,  artists  and  sculptors,  lived 
about  the  same  period;  and  thus  Grecians  did  for  the  mind 
what  the  Romans  did  for  law  and  government — laid  down 
the  fundamental  principles  which  formed  the  basis  of  real 
progress. 

The  free  government  of  Athens  encouraged  oratory  and  the 
art  of  persuasion.  Demosthenes  was  the  most  celebrated 
orator  among  the  Greeks,  and  if  his  state  had  only  been  more 
powerful  he  would  have  conquered  Philip  of  Macedon.  He 
was  indeed  one  of  the  greatest  orators  of  all  times.     Cicero, 


116  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

among  the  Romans,  was  a  writer  and  orator  of  almost  equaj 
merit.  They  both  lived  just  at  the  downfall  of  the  liberties- 
of  their  states,  and  they  spoke  with  more  effect  to  the  times- 
after  them  than  to  their  contemporaries.  If  they  did  not 
succeed  in  preserving  the  liberties  of  Greece  and  liome,  they 
made  a  great  impression,  the  name  of  Liberty  was  consecrated 
by  their  noble  words,  and  those  who  destroyed  it  made  infa- 
mous by  their  burning  invectives.  "When  a  more  favorable 
time  came  for  restoring  it,  they  lived  again  in  influence,  and 
triumphed  by  the  memory  and  record  of  their  great  patriot- 
ism and  powerful  eloquence. 

6.  Great  conquerors  and  warriors,  in  all  times,  have  also 
been  representative  men,  giving  expression  and  gratification 
to  the  warlike  spirit  of  their  people,  and  producing  great 
changes  that  have  been  favorable  to  the  real  advancement  of_^ 
mankind.  The  energies  they  stirred  up,  and  the  mingling  of 
nations  they  produced  generally  promoted  civilization.  Alex- 
ander  the  Great  displayed  the  wonderful  genius  and  fertility  in 
resources  that  was  peculiarly  Greek.  His  nation  was  almost 
consoled  for  the  loss  of  their  liberties  by  the  conquests  to  which 
he  led  them.  He  opened  to  their  study  unknown  regions,  and 
gave  their  mental  genius  a  broader  play  and  a  fuller  occupation. 
They,  to  such  an  extent  as  change  was  possible  with  old  civil- 
izations, Ilellenized  the  East  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
reception  of  Christianity.  Alexander,  in  three  great  battles, 
conquered  the  great  Persian  Empire  with  a  small  army.  He 
never  suffered  defeat,  and  died  at  thirty-three  years  of  age. 
Had  he  lived,  he  might  have  done  what  Hannibal  could  not 
do  —  have  crushed  the  rising  power  of  the  Koman  republic. 
It  would  have  been  a  misfortune,  for  the  Romans  did  incalcu- 
lable service  to  humanity.  Greek  learning  exerted  its  influ- 
ence on  the  East  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  its 
final  conquest  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  did  great  service 
to  mankind  by  his  military  success.  Hannibal  is  an  instance 
of  a  great  man  not  as  fully  representative  of  his  own  people, 
perhaps,  and  whose  misfortune   it  was  to   have  to  struggle 


THE   SERVICES    OF    GREAT    MEN.  117 

against  a  people  whose  united  genius  was  greater,  more 
inventive,  and  more  patient  than  his  own.  The  Roman 
Pompey  represented  the  aristocratic  element  of  his  people, 
and  though  a  great  general,  hardly  deserved  to  succeed. 
Julius  Caesar  possessed  the  merciful  character  and  intelligence 
of  the  Greek  and  the  prodigious  energy  and  resolution  of  the 
Roman.  His  conquest  of  Gaul  and  Britain  introduced  civil- 
ization into  the  lands  that  were,  five  hundred  years  later,  to 
begin  a  new  career  for  mankind.  His  thorough  subjection  of 
the  Gauls  preserved  the  ancient  civilization  from  the  inroads 
of  the  vigorous  Germans  until  all  was  ready  for  the  new  order 
of  things.  More  than  any  other  great  man,  he  may  be  said 
to  have  been  representative  of  the  best  spirit  of  his  time. 
Perceiving  that  the  Roman  republic  was  dead,  and  could  not 
possibly  be  restored,  from  the  strength  of  the  vices  ruling  in 
the  state,  he  repressed  its  anarchy  and  set  aside  its  forms, 
wisely  and  prudently,  with  as  little  bloodshed  or  cruelty  as 
possible.  He  thoroughly  represented  the  practical  sense  and 
immense  vigor  of  the  true  Roman.  He  has  been  severely 
reproached  for  destroying  the  republic,  but  the  republic  vir- 
tually fell  with  the  Gracchi,  seventy-five  years  before,  and  he 
established  the  only  government  that  could  possibly  preserve 
the  Roman  state  from  disorganization. 

7.  The  office  of  all  these,  and  multitudes  of  other  great 
men,  less  representative  of  the  greater  qualities  of  their  fel- 
lows, or  representative  of  less  striking  features  of  their  times, 
ias  been  to  sum  up  the  character  of  their  people,  and  present 
their  special  features,  condensed^  for  the  observation  of  man- 
kind, and  by  their  position  as  leaders,  to  give  their  times  an 
opportunity  for  powerful  development,  as  well  as  to  show 
•what  mankind  are  capable  of  In  this  last  view  they  stimu- 
late individuals  to  aspiration  and  eflfort.  Millions  of  men, 
probably,  have  had  the  qualities  of  Alexander  and  Csesar, 
millions  more  those  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero,  of  Socrates, 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  so  of  all  the  different  classes  of  great 
men,  but  have  wanted  the  opportunities  and  peculiar  stirau- 


118  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

lants  to  develop  them.  Whoever  can  appreciate  them,  can, 
with  a  favorable  balance  of  faculties  to  give  equally  sound 
judgment,  together  with  equally  favorable  circumstances^ 
imitate  them.  Modern  times  have  shown  multitudes  of  men 
who,  their  character  and  talents  taken  as  a  whole,  have  shown 
themselves  far  greater  than  any  of  the  ancients.  Culture  and 
the  mingling  of  races  will,  perhaps,  finally  make  all  men 
greater  than  the  greatest  of  the  ancients. 

8.  Brutus,  one  of  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  wished  to 
restore  the  glories  of  the  ancient  Roman  republic,  and  thought 
Caesar  stood  in  the  w^ay.  He  removed  him  by  violence,  and 
found  the  diflSculties  greater  than  ever.  A  hundred  years  of 
conquest  had  sapped  the  virtues  of  the  Roman  people,  and 
Brutus  killed  himself  in  despair,  saying:  "  O  Virtue!  thou  art 
but  a  name!"  To  Caesar  succeeded  Augustus,  by  a  necessity 
of  things.  Without  Caesar's  clemency,  he  deluged  Rome  with 
the  blood  of  its  citizens.  Afterward,  however,  his  rule  was- 
less  sanguinary,  and  for  thirty  years  he  ruled  with  mildness, 
though  with  despotism.  The  limited  amount  of  virtue  in 
pagan  civilizations  wore  out;  and  notwithstanding  the  intelli- 
gence of  Greece  and  the  good  sense  of  Rome,  the  ancient 
world  was  obliged  to  close  its  career  as  it  began,  by  absolute 
monarchy.  It  remained  for  the  modern  world  to  find,  among 
its  more  abundant  resources,  the  means  of  forever  preserving 
itself  from  decline.  Education  and  purity,  science  and  reli- 
gion, freedom  and  fraternity  among  all  races  and  nations;  a 
knowledge  and  wisdom  not  conceived  by  the  ancients,  a  repla- 
cing of  war  and  violence,  which  are  essentially  demoralizing^ 
by  peaceful  means,  which  shall  benefit  all  and  injure  none; 
perfectly  free  intercourse  under  the  guidance  of  absolute  jus- 
tice and  benevolence;  such  is  the  way  by  which  the  modern 
world  will  work  out  the  problem  impossible  for  the  old  world 
to  solve.  America  has  gone  far  toward  the  goal.  In  time,  all 
nations  will  be  persuaded  to  join  her  in  attaining  it. 

9.  Before  we  proceed  with  the  chronology  of  the  Christian 
Era  we  must  briefly  notice  the  one  perfect  man,  J  -^sus  Christ. 


THE    SERVICES   OF   GREAT   MEN.  119 

To  pronounce  on  the  miraculous  and  divine  claims  made  for 
his  character  and  deeds  would  carry  us  outside  of  our  theme. 
"We  can  only  deal  with  him  as  with  other  historical  men,  in  his 
historical  character  and  relations.  These  are  extremely  re- 
markable. 

That  individual  sprang,  like  Socrates,  from  the  poorer 
classes,  and,  like  him  without  the  advantages  of  education,, 
produced  a  system  which  proved  a  marvel  of  perfection,  adapt- 
ed to  all  times,  but  most  perfectly  to  the  most  perfect  state  of 
mankind,  and  consequently  growing  up  with  the  progress  of 
nations  to  an  ever-increasing  influence.  Its  moral  precepts, 
even  in  our  day,  are  as  far  ahead  of  our  civilization  as  that  is 
behind  a  perfect  condition.  This  man  made  an  extraordinary 
impression.  In  three  hundred  years,  by  merely  publishing 
his  ideas  in  a  quiet  way,  which  was  the  only  mode  the  hostility 
of  the  Roman  rulers  W'ould  permit,  his  followers  overthrew  the 
prevailing  religious  systems  which  had  been  established  as- 
many  thousand  years,  and  spread  his  influence  world-wide. 

His  birth  became  the  eomniencement  of  the  Era  of  Human- 
ity. Like  Socrates,  he  went  about  among  the  people  with  a. 
few  chosen  friends,  setting  forth  his  ideas,  chiefly  in  conversa- 
tion. He  did  not  write;  the  simple  record  of  his  life  and  a 
few  of  his  discourses  being  recorded  by  his  disciples.  Again, 
like  Socrates,  his  life  was  ended  by  violence.  All  the  records 
of  that  life  show  that  he  was  as  perfect  as  we  can  conceive.  In 
no  respect  does  he  seem  to  have  wanted  any  feature  of  a  noble 
manhood,  in  any  degree,  nor  to  have  shared  the  prejudices  or 
defects  of  his  age.  He  lived  as  we  may  conceive  man  to  live 
when  his  mental  and  moral  habits  are  accurately  adjusted  and 
harmonized  with  his  relations  and  his  duties,  which  he  has 
learned  perfectly  to  appreciate.  His  public  career  lasted  but 
three  years  and  a  half,  and  shines  in  history  a  beam  of  light. 
He  inspired  his  appreciative  followers  with  rapturous  admira- 
tion, a  passionate  attachment  to  his  person,  and  pleasure  in 
obedience  to  his  teachings,  stronger  than  death;  and  in  those 
whose  plans  and  prejudices  he  crossed,  and  whose  ambitions 


120  THK    FOOTPRIMTS    OF   TIME. 

he  rebuked,  a  deadly  hatred  which  could  only  De  satisfied  with 
his  blood. 

10.  Immediately  after  his  death  his  followers  commenced 
to  publish  and  enforce  his  teachings  with  great  success,  and  on 
the  outbreak  of  persecution,  without  making  opposition,  they 
scattered  in  all  directions,  proclaiming  them  with  undimin- 
ished zeal.  Very  soon  their  converts  numbered  tens  of  thou- 
8ands,  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Persecution 
increased  their  fervor  and  their  numbers,  without  leading 
them  to  revolt  or  resistance,  until,  in  the  course  of  time,  an 
emperor  found  it  politic  to  profess  Christianity.  This  high 
patronage,  and  the  active  part  the  emperors  took  in  the  affairs 
of  the  church  from  that  time,  had  the  effect  to  corrupt  its 
simplicity  of  manners,  as  the  adhesion  of  Greek  philosophers, 
who  imported  into  its  doctrines  their  crude  theories,  adultera- 
ted its  teachings,  and  much  that  was  quite  foreign  to  its  essen- 
tial character  continued  associated  with  its  promulgation  and 
institutions  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  and,  indeed,  remnants 
of  the  same  foreign  element  yet  linger  in  it. 

Notwithstanding  the  embarrassing  load  which  the  fantastic 
distortion  of  its  original  simplicity  and  directness  laid  upon  it, 
it  continued  to  exert  great  influence,  and  seems  destined  to 
return,  in  time,  to  its  original  form  and  purity,  and  to  employ 
its  primitive  power  to  crown  the  work  of  civilization. 

11.  Such  is  the  historical  report  of  the  man  who  intro- 
duced into  the  process  of  human  progress  an  element  of  unex 
ampled  power.  An  impartial  estimate  of  the  influence  of 
Jesus  Christ  on  history  must  allow  that  he  is  the  most  impor- 
tant character  that  has  ever  appeared  among  men.  The 
unhappy  association  of  his  ideas  with  the  vagaries  of  an 
imperfect  philosophy  and  the  unwholesome  ambitions  of  power, 
greatly  curtailed  their  usefulness;  but  the  simple  majesty  of 
his  character  and  his  discourses  could  not  always  be  obscured, 
and  the  luster  of  both  has  never  shone  more  clearly  nor  exert- 
ed more  influence  than  they  do  in  this  age. 

The  course  of  the  history  of  Christianity  will  be  seen  to  be 


THE   CHRISTIAN    ERA.  121 

intimately  connected  with  every  stage  of  advancement  from 
the  time  the  Roman  Empire  began  to  wear  out;  it  was  the 
nucleus  which  survived  its  fall,  around  which  the  surging 
waves  of  invasion  raged  in  vain,  and  which  immediately  began 
the  work  of  reconstruction. 

SECTION   XII. 

THE   CHRISTIAN    ERA. 

4  —  By  some  chronological  confusion  the  new  era  has  been 
made  to  begin  four  years  before  the  appearance  of  the 
founder  of  Christianity.  When  Augustus  had  settled 
the  whole  empire  he  ordered  the  temple  of  Janus  to  be 
closed  and  a  census  taken  of  all  its  inhabitants,  which 
numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions.  On  this 
occasion  Jesus  Christ  was  born. 

10  —  A  Roman  army  under  Yarns  was  defeated  and  cut  to 
pieces  in  Germany.  It  was  the  severest  defeat  the 
Romans  had  suffered  since  the  overthrow  and  death 
of  Crassus,  by  the  Parthians,  sixty-three  years  before. 

14  —  The  Emperor  Augustus  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
step-son,  Tiberius. 

29  —  Jesus  Christ  was  crucified  by  Pontius  Pilate,  Roman 
governor  of  Judea,  at  the  solicitation,  and  on  the  accu- 
sation, of  the  leading  Jews. 

3T  —  Tiberius  died  and  was  succeeded  by  Caligula.  The 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  was  wise  and 
moderate,  but  he  soon  became  violent  and  cruel.  Cali- 
gula was  a  still  greater  monster  of  wickedness. 

40  —  Growing  weary  of  his  cruelty  he  was  assassinated  by 
one  of  his  officers,  and  his  uncle,  Claudius,  was  raised 
to  the  throne.  He  was  of  feeble  intellect  and  became 
the  tool  of  infamous  favorites.  He  was  poisoned  by 
order  of  his  wife,  Agrippina. 

54  —  Nero,  the  son  of  Agrippina  by  a  former  husband,  was 
made  emperor  at  seventeen  years  of  age.     He  exceeded 


122  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

all  description  in  folly,  extravagance  and  crime.  His 
violence  and  barbarity  fell  generally  on  the  patricians 
and  members  of  his  court,  bnt  he  was  esteemed  by  the 
conmion  people,  as  were  most  of  the  emperors,  who 
spent  vast  sums  on  theatres  and  spectacles  for  their 
amusement.  The  two  bases  of  the  empire  M^ere  th© 
populace  and  the  army.  The  emperor  was  terrible  and 
tyraimical  chiefly  to  the  patricians,  while  the  army  made 
him  formidable  to  the  provinces  and  the  barbarians. 
A  conflagration   which  some  attributed  to  the  orders 

64  —  of  Nero  lasted  nine  days  and  destroyed  the  greater 
part  of  Rome.  Nero  cast  the  blame  on  the  Christians, 
who  had  become  numerous,  and  raised  a  horrible  per- 
secution against  them. 

6Q  —  The  Jews  rebelled  and  defied  the  Roman  Empire. 

68  —  Nero  was  dethroned  by  the  Roman  senate  and  army, 

and  committed  suicide  to  avoid  punishment  for  his 
crimes. 

69  —  Three  emperors,  Galba,  Otho  and  Yitellius,  were  placed 

on  the  throne  in  succession,  but  rebellions  were  raised 
against  them  and  all  were  put  to  death.  Yespasian, 
then  besieging  Jerusalem,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
his  araiy  at  the  desire  of  the  rulers  of  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, and,  in  the  same  year,  overcame  all  opposition 
and  commenced  the  first  reign  since  Augustus  that  was 
free  from  disgraceful  profligacy  and  public  crime. 

70  —  Titus,  the  son  of  Yespasian,  captured  and  destroyed 

Jerusalem.  Vespasian,  during  a  reign  of  ten  years, 
restored  order  and  prosperity  to  Rome  and  the  empire, 
but  not  without  great  labor  and  danger. 
79 — Titus  succeeded  as  emperor,  and  was  remarkable  for 
his  clemency  and  care  for  his  subjects.  During  his 
reign  occurred  the  most  fearful  eruption  of  the  volcano 
Yesuvius  on  record.  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  two 
wealthy  and  flourishing  cities,  were  destroyed,  being 


THE   CHRISTIAIf   ERA.  123 

buried  by  the  ashes.  Pliny,  an  eminent  writer,  was 
sufibcated  while  observing  the  eruption. 
81  —  Titus  died,  to  the  great  grief  and  loss  of  mankind,  and 
■was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Domitian,  who  was  one 
of  the  most  infamous  rulers  that  ever  desolated  the 
earth.  He  raised  a  violent  persecution  against  the 
Christians  for  refusing  to  adore  his  statues  and  wor- 
ship him  as  a  god.  Among  the  victims  was  his  own 
cousin,  Clemens,  who  had  embraced  Christianity.  He 
96  — was  assassinated  by  his  wife  and  officers  in  self-defense, 
and  the  senate  proclaimed  JS^erva,  a  native  of  Crete, 
emperor.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  lenity  and  all  the 
gentle  virtues.  He  was  followed,  after  a  reign  of  two 
98  —  years,  by  Trajan,  whom  he  had  adopted  as  his  colleague 
and  successor,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  greatest  and 
most  deserving  person  of  his  time.  He  was,  by  birth, 
a  Spaniard,  was  wise  and  successful  as  a  warrior  and 
statesman,  and  extremely  noble  as  a  man.  He  bridged 
the  Danube  and  the  Euphrates  rivers  and  conquered 
both  the  Germans  and  Parthians  on  the  north  and  east 
of  the  empire.  A  stain  on  his  memory  was  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians. 

117  —  He  was  succeeded  by  Adrian,  in  whose  reign  all  the 
Roman  laws,  or  annual  edicts  of  the  praetors,  were 
compiled  into  one  body,  and  law  assumed  the  dignity 
of  a  science.  He  promoted  literature,  but  continued 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians.     A  rebellion  of  the 

139  —  Jews  was  punished  with  merciless  severity.  He  was 
followed  by  Antoninus  Pius,  who  suspended  all  perse- 
cution of  Christians,  promoted  the  best  interests  of  all 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  introduced,  during  a  prosper* 
ous  reign  of  twenty- two  years,  the  most  important 
reforms  into  every  part  of  the  government. 

161  —  Marcus  Aurelius,  called  the  Philosopher,  succeeded. 
He  carried  on  a  successful  war  with  the  Germans,  and 
made  the  welfare  of  his  subjects  his  special  care,  but 


124  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

was  seduced,  bj  the  pagan  philosophers,  into  a  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians.  Having  discovered  his  error 
he  stopped  it,  tovrard    the   close  of    his  reign.      Com- 

180  —  modus,  his  son,  inherited  the  purple.  He  also  inher- 
ited a  vicious  and  cruel  disposition,  and  received  a 
demoralizing  education  from  his  mother.  He  was  a 
monster  of  vice  and  cruelty.     He  was  assassinated  in 

192- — his  bed  by  his  own  family  and  guards  to  save  their 
lives.  Pertinax  reigned  three  months,  but,  attempting 
to  restrain  the  license  of  the  soldiery,  he  was  murdered 
by  them.  The  soldiers  in  Rome  then  proclaimed  that 
the  empire  was  for  sale,  and  a  rich  merchant,  Didius, 
bought  it  from  them  and  reigned  in  Rome  two  months, 

193 — when  he  was  also  slain  by  the  army.  Septimus  Sev- 
erus,  an  able  general,  seized  the  purple  which  he 
secured  against  many  rivals,  and  retained  for  eighteen 
years.  His  vigor  alone  prevented  general  anarchy,  but 
he  was  systematically  cruel. 

211  —  Caracalla,  his  son,  succeeded.  He  was  a  bloody  and 
atrocious  tyrant,  supported  on  the  throne  only  by  his 
soldiers,  whose  aid   he  secured  by  large  pay.     He  was 

217  —  murdered  by  the  commander  of  his  guards,  Macrinus, 

who   succeeded   in  acquiring  his  place,  but  was  soon 

218  —  murdered  by  the  soldiers.     They  raised  Heliogabalus, 

a  young  Syrian  priest  of  fourteen  years  of  age,  through 
the  assurance  of  his  female  relatives  that  he  was  the 
son  of  Caracalla,  to  the  purple.  He  is  described  as  the 
most  cruel  and  infamous  of  all  the  Roman  emperors. 

222  —  After  four  years  of  horrible  crime,  he  was  slain  in  a 
mutiny  of  his  guard  and  his  body  thrown  into  the 
Tiber.  Alexander  Severus,  succeeded.  He  was  appa- 
rently a   secret   admirer  of  Cliristianity  and  a  model 

235  —  prince.  He  was  murdered  by  Maximin,  a  Thracian 
peasant,  who  had,  by  his  valor,  risen  to  high  command 
in  the  army,  who  seized  the  reins  of  power.  He  was 
successful  in  war,  but  his  severity  provoked  mutiny  in 


THE    CHRISTIAN    EKA.  125 

238  —  various  parts  of  the  empire,  and  he  was  slain  by  his 
own  soldiers.  Gordian  succeeded,  a  heroic  youth  of  a 
noble  family.     He  was  successful  in  war,  but  was  mur- 

244  —  dered  by  his  own  prime  minister,  Philip,  an  Arabian, 
who  became  emperor.  He  favored  the  Christians,  and 
reigned  five  years.  In  his  reign,  the  thousandth  year 
of  the  foundation  of  Kome  was  celebrated  by  public 

249  —  games.     He  was  slain  in  a  revolt  by  Decius,  the  general 

of  his  army,  who  occupied  the  throne.  He  raised  a 
most  violent  storm  of  persecution  against  the  Chris- 
tians, who  M^ere  despoiled  of  their  goods  and  driven  to 
caves  and  deserts.     From  this  time  is  dated  the  sect  of 

250  —  anchorites,  or  hermits,  who  imagined  they  could  acquire 

superior  holiness  by  abandoning  society  and  devoting 
themselves  to  meditation  and  prayer.  The  idea  appears 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Persian  Magians,  who, 
in  this  century  restored  the  ancient  dynasty  and  religion 
of  the  Persians,  or  Parsees,  in  Persia.  During  the 
political  and  social  disorganization  that  soon  commenced 
the  anchorites  became  numerous,  and  the  system  was 
extensively  prevalent  for  a  thousand  years  to  the  great 
injury  of  active  and  true  Christianity. 

251  —  Decius  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Goths,  who  had 

invaded  the  empire,  and  Gallus  became  emperor. 

253  —  He  was  put  to  death  by  Emilianus,  who  attempted  to 
seize  the  reins  of  government,  but  the  army  elected 
Yalerian,  governor  of  Gaul.  The  empire  was  invaded 
by  the  Goths  on  the  north  and  the  Persians  under  their 
king.  Sapor,  on  the  east.     From  this   time,  it  had  to 

259  —  fight  for  its  life.  Yalerian  was  defeated  by  Sapor  and 
remained  nine  years  in  captivity,  Gallienus,  his  son, 
becoming  emperor.  He  was  extremely  incompetent 
and  a  multitude  of  rival  claimants  for  the  supreme 
authority  arose  in  all  directions.  They  were  called  the 
"Thirty  Tyrants."  One  of  them,  Odenatus,  king  of 
Palmyra,  in   the   Syrian  desert,   defeated   Sapor,   and 


126  THE   FOOTPRINTS    OF    TIME. 

Gallieims  proclaimed  him  his  colleague.     On  the  death 

of  Odenatus,  his  wife,  Zenobia,  assumed  the  title  of 

"  Queen  of  the  East,"  conquered   Egypt   and  ruled  a 

wide  region  with  success  and  sj^Iendor.     Both   Goths 

262  —  and  Persians  invaded  Asia  Minor.     Gallienus  was  mur- 

268  —  dered  and  Claudius  succeeded.     He  defeated  tlie  Goths 

270  —  but   died  in   a   pestilence.     Aurelian    succeeded.     He 

was   an   able  general.     He  subdued  the  Germans  and 

272  —  Goths,  and  conquered  Zenobia,  one  of  the  most  remark- 

275  —  able  women  of  history.     Aurelian  was  assassinated  by 

some  victims  of   his  severity,  and  Tacitus,  a  Roman 

senator  succeeded,  but  died  in  seven  months,  and  was 

followed  by  Probus.     He  was  a  vigorous  general,  and 

drove  back  the  barbarians  on  all  sides,  but  attempting 

to  employ  his  soldiers  in  labor  on  public  works,  they 

282  —  revolted  and  murdered  him.    Cams,  the  captain  of  the 

283  —  imperial  guard,  was  raised  to  the  throne.     Dying  the 

next  year,  his  sons,  Carinus  and  Numerianus,  inherited 
his  authority,  but  JSTumerianus  was  assassinated  in  a 

284  —  few  months  by  his  father-in-law,  and  Diocletian,  said 

to  have  been  formerly  a  slave,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  the  army.  This  was  called  "  The  Era  of  the  Martyrs," 
from  the  long  and  bloody  persecutions  against  the  Chris- 
tians. This  was  the  tenth  general  attack  on  them,  and 
proved  to  be  the  last.  The  barbarians  pressing  in 
great  force  on  all  sides,  Diocletian  appointed  several 
colleagues,  and  their  united  ability  drove  the  invaders 
back. 

305  —  Diocletian  resigned  his  power  to  Galerius,  who  appointed 

three  associates,  making  a  division  of  the  empire.  One 
of  these,  Constantius,  died    in  Britain,  and  was  suc- 

306  —  ceeded  by  his  son,  Constantine.     For  a  time,  there  were 

six   emperors,  but   one  was   killed,  Galerius  died,  and 
Constantine  conquered  the  others. 
312  —  Constantine  changed  the  whole  character  of  the  empire 
by  embracing  Christianity  and  relying  largely  on  that 


THE    CHRISTIAN    ERA.  127 

element  for  the  support  of  bis  power,  while  he  disbanded 
the  Pretorian,  or  royal  Guard,  which  had  for  two  hun- 
dred years  assumed  to  make  and  unmake  emperors,  and 
whose  example,  imitated  by  the  other  armies,  kept  the 
world  periodically  disturbed  by  the  disputes  and  battles 
of  rival  claimants  to  the  imperial  purple.  By  the 
313  —  edict  of  Milan,  Constantine  abolished  all  laws  unfriendly 
to  Christianity;  he  restored  the  authority  of  the  senate 
and  magistrates,  and  removed  his  capital  from  Rome  to 
Constantinople. 

324  —  The  pagan  element  was  now  so  worn  and  decrepid  that 

no  general  disorders  resulted.  Whatever  was  left  ral- 
lied under  Licinus,  who  was  conquered  by  Constantine. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  strength  of  the  Christian 
element  and  its  essential  hostility  to  the  Roman  prin- 
ciple of  violent  subjugation  that  produced  so  many  and 
fierce  persecutions.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  pressure 
of  barbarians  on  the  empire  the  prevalence  of  that  sys- 
tem would  have  preserved  society  and  the  state  for  a 
thousand  years  more,  as  it  actually  did  in  the  Eastern 
empire;  but  every  thing  that  man  has  the  management 
of  must  be  afiected  by  his  limitations,  his  mistakes  and 
his  follies.  Christianity  needed  a  better  ally,  a  fresher 
and  purer  society,  built  up  by  the  young  blood  and  bet- 
ter instincts  of  another  and  newer  people. 
Constantine  paid  great  respect  to  the  clergy  of  the 
church  and  took  a  leading  part  in  its  general  counsels 
—  a  great  mistake  ai;id  a  great  misfortune. 

325  —  His  spiritual  supremacy  was  virtually  acknowledged  at 

the  council  of  Nice  which  he  convoked. 

330  —  Constantine  died  leaving  his  vast  dominions  to  his  three 
sons,  who,  in  the  course  of  ten  years,  were  reduced  to 
one,  Constantius.      After  a  troubled  reign  of  twenty 

361  —  years  more,  he  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin 
Julian,  called  the  "Apostate,"  from  his  renouncing 
Christianity  and  laboring  to  restore  the  pagan  religion. 


128  THE   FOOTPBINTS   OF   TIME. 

In  this  he  signally  failed.  He  undertook  to  rebuild  the 
Jewish  temple  at  Jerusalem,  without  success. 

363  —  He  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  invasion  of  Persia,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Jovian,  who  restored  imperial  favor 

364:  —  to  the  Christian  religion.  He  died  after  one  years  reign 
and  Yalentinian  was  elected  emperor  by  the  council  of 
ministers  and  generals.  He  divided  the  empire  with 
his  brother,  Yalens,  and  afterward  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople usually  had  each  an  emperor.     Yalentinian  died 

375  —  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Gratian. 

378  —  The  Huns  appeared  in  Europe,  having  wandered  from 

the  borders  of  China,  and  defeated  Yalens  with  dread- 
ful slaughter.  Yalens  himself  was  among  the  slain. 
This  was  the  commencement  of  the  great  migrations 
that  finally  overwhelmed  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  west. 

379  —  Gratian,  left  sole  emperor,  appointed  Theodosius,  called 

The  Great,  his  colleague,  who  subdued  the  Goths^ 
repelled  the  Huns,  and  restored  order. 

383  —  Gratian  was  murdered  by  the  usurper  Maximus. 

388  —  Theodosius  conquered  and  put  Maximus  to  death  and 
restored  Yalentinian  II.,  brother  of  Gratian,  to  the 
throne  of  the  western  empire.     In  a  few  years  the  whole 

394  —  empire  was  reunited  by  the  death  of  Yalentinian. 
Theodosius  soon  died,  universally  lamented,  leaving  the 
two  empires  to  his  sons,  Honorius  and  Arcadius. 

402  —  Alaric,  the  Goth,  invaded  Italy  and,  though  defeated^ 
endangered  the  safety  of  Rome. 

408  —  Theodosius  II.  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  the  east, 

410  —  Alaric  again  invaded  Italy  and  sacked  Rome.  Alaric 
soon  after  died  and  his  forces  were  pursuaded,  by  nego- 
tiations, to  leave  Italy,  but  they  permanently  established 
themselves  in  Spain  and  Southern  Gaul  (France).  Thus 
the  empire  began  to  fall  to  pieces. 

425  —  Honorius  died  and  Yalentinian  III.  became  emperor. 

429  —  The  Yandals  soon  conquered  the  Roman  provinces  in 


THE   RISE   OF   MODERN   NATIONS.  129 

Africa,   under  their  king,    Genseric.     They   extended 
440  —  their  conquests  to  Sicily. 

447  —  Attila,  called  the  "  Scourge  of  God,"  appeared  at  the 

head  of  the  Huns,  and  Theodosius  made  a  humiliating 
treaty  with  him  to  save  his  dominions  from  desolation. 

448  —  In  the  next  year  the  Saxons  and  Angles  were  invited 

into  Britain  by  the  civilized  Romans,  to  protect  them 
from  the  Picts  and  Scots,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
modern  Anglo-Saxon  race,  and  the  Franks  invaded  Gaul 
laying  the  foundations  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  France. 
England  received  its  name  from  the  Angles  —  France 
from  the  Franks. 

451  —  Attila,  the  Hun,  invaded  Gaul,  and  was  defeated  at 

452  —  Chalons,  by  the  united  Romans  and  Visigoths.     Attila 

then  invaded  Italy  and  laid  it  waste,  but  died  before  he 
454  —  had  completed  the  ruin  of  the  empire.     Yalentinian  III. 
was  murdered,   and  the  Yandals  from  Sicily  invaded 
Italy  and  sacked  Rome. 

SECTION  XIII. 

THE   RISE   OF   MODERN    NATIONS. 

476  —  After  a  succession  of  puppet  emperors  in  Rome,  Odoacer 
abolished  the  name  and  took  the  title  of  king  of  Italy. 
He  was  a  German  in  command  of  the  auxiliaries  in 
'Roman  pay.  Thus  ended^  in  disaster  and  disgrace,  the 
once  mighty  Roman  Empire.  Its  ruin  was  gradual 
and  the  barbarians  who  overthrew  it  had  already 
embraced  Christianity,  so  that  the  institutions  of  the 
church  did  not  share  its  fall. 

486  —  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  defeated  the  Romans  and 
Gauls  at  the  battle  of  Soissons.     The  Ostrogoths  invaded 

492  —  Italy  under  Theodoric  the  Great,  deposed  Odoacer,  and 
founded  a  new  kingdom, 

496; — Clovis  defeated  the  invading  Germans  and  embraced 

500  —  Christianity.     Clovis  next  defeated  the  Burgundians. 
9 


180  THE   FOOTPETNTS   OF    TIME. 

507  —  He  subdued  the  Yisigoths  and  all  France  was  united 
under  one  rule.  He  was  of  the  Merovingian  line,  or 
dynasty,  of  kings,  which  lasted  over  two  hundred  years, 
during  which  the  remains  of  Roman  civilization  and 
the  influence  of  the  church  were  gradually  modifying 
and  penetrating  the  character  of  a  iiew  and  energetic 
race, 

627  —  Justinian  became  the  ruler  of  the  Eastern  or  Grecian 
Empire. 

534  —  His  generals  waged  war  with  the  Yandals  in  Africa 
and  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  and  after  eighteen  years 
of  conflict,  succeeded  in  reconquering  part  of  Italy, 
which  the  Greek  emperors  continued  to  hold  nominally 
for  about  three  hundred  years;  the  seat  of  their  repre- 
sentative being  at  Ravenna.  He  was  called  an  Exarch. 
Rome  itself  was  left,  substantially,  to  the  control  of  the 
Christian  bishop.     When  the  Lombards  founded  a  king- 

668  —  dom  in  the  north  of  Italy  they  were  prevented,  by  the 
exarch  and  bishop,  from  spreading  over  the  southern 
part;  and  when  the  exarch  threatened  to  become  too 
powerful  to  suit  the  views  of  the  bishop,  he  supported 
the  Lombards.  Thus  the  temporal  or  political  power 
of  the  popes  arose,  and  they  were  the  politic  authors  of 
the  "Balance  of  Power"  theory,  or  system,  that  has 
played  so  large  a  part  in  European  history.  The  result 
has  been  exceedingly  favorable  to  progress  in  all  direc- 
tions, since  it  has  secured  the  independence  of  states,  and 
a  more  various  and  perfect  civilization  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  special  genius  of  each  people.  Many  cir- 
cumstances conspired  to  support  this  idea,  in  later  times, 
and  render  it  very  prominent  and  influential. 

This  gradual  advance  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  in 
political  influence  associated  him  with  the  mighty 
memories  of  the  "  Eternal  City,"  and  suggested  the 
idea  of  a  spiritual  empire  over  all  Christendom,  which 
gradually  became  realized  and  quite  changed  the  char- 


THE   RISE   OF   MODERN   NATIONS.  131 

acter  of  Christianity  for  near  800  years.  Hurtful  as  it 
ultimately  became,  by  reviving  a  universal  despotism 
over  conscience  and  freedom  of  thought,  it  was  long 
powerful  for  good  by  giving  a  common  centre  to 
Europe,  broken  into  fragments  as  it  was  by  the  rise  of 
feudalism.  That  was  disorganizing;  this  was  centraliz- 
ing, and  kept  the  channels  of  communication  open  and 
the  missionary  spirit  and  the  elements  of  a  restored 
learning  in  activity.  Its  influence  in  commencing  and 
carrying  forward  the  crusades,  which  substantially  broke 
the  strength  of  feudalism,  was  of  immense  import- 
ance. 

622  —  Mahomet  arose  in  the  Arabian  peninsula,  and  his  new 
religion  spread  with  astonishing  rapidity.    In  one  hun- 

732  —  dred  years  from  the  death  of  Mahomet  the  Saracens 
had  established  a  vast  empire,  covering  two  thirds  of 
the  Roman  empire,  viz. :  all  of  the  old  Persian  empire, 
Egypt,  and  all  of  nothern  Africa  and  Spain,  and  threat- 
ened to  inundate  Europe.  They  poured  a  vast  army 
over  the  Pyrenees  into  France.  This  was  defeated  in  a 
great  battle  at  Tours,  by  Charles  Martel,  who  founded 
a  new  dynasty,  replacing  the  Merovingian,  called  the 
Carlovingian,  and  made  France  the  most  powerful,  as 
it  became  the  leading,  nation  in  Europe,  for  promoting 
civilization  during  many  centuries. 

By  this  means  the  center  of  political  influence,  "  The 
Star  of  Empire,"  took  another  step  westward.  His 
son,   Pepin   le  Bref,  or  the  Short,  caused  himself  to  be 

752  —  crowned  king  of  France  by  the  Roman  Pontiff,  Stephen 
II,  which  added  to  his  own  prestige,  as  it  also  did  to 
that  of  the  pope.  It  was  a  sort  of  league  between  the 
rising  temporal  and  spiritual  powers  in  Europe,  and  set 
an  example  long  followed.  Charlemagne,  or  Charles 
the  Great,  the  son  of  Pepin,  ascended  the  throne  in  771, 

771  — ■  and  by  his  intelligence,  energy,  and  wise  statesmanship, 
by  his  encouragement  of  learning,  his  organizing  talents 


132  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

and  his  success  in  conquering  and  civilizing  the  seeth- 
ing mass  of  nationalities  in  German j,  he  may  be  said 
to  have  really  founded  modern  civilization  during  his  long 
reign  of  forty-tliree  years.  He  conquered  the  Lombard 
kingdom  in  Italy,  and  was  crowned  by  the  pope,  Adrian 
I,  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans,"  kneeling  at  the  altar  in 
Rome ;  but  he  virtually  confirmed  the  temporal  author- 
ity of  the  popes,  and  associated  their  influence  in  all 
his  conquests.  He  thoroughly  broke  the  spirit  of  the 
pagan  Saxons,  in  northwestern  Germany,  by  a  war  of 
thirty-three  years,  carried  his  conquests  east  over  most 
of  the  present  Austrian  empire,  civilizing  and  bringing 
the  barbarians  into  the  pale  of  Christendom  by  the  aid 
of  Christian  missionaries,  and  conquered  some  portions 
of  Spain  from  the  Saracens. 

It  seemed  as  if  the  history  of  the  western  Roman 
Empire,  which  had  fallen  three  hundred  years  before, 
was  to  be  repeated.  That  was  the  hope  and  dream  of 
.  both  Charlemagne  and  the  Roman  Pontiff,  who  joined 
hands  to  realize  it.  Tliis  new  western  emperor  had 
great  abilities  and  the  church  was  very  strong.  The 
centre  of  Europe  had  so  long  been  within  the  reach  of 
civilizing  influences,  and  had  attained  such  a  point  of 
development  in  its  various  nationalities,  that  they  read- 
ily accepted  permanent  institutions,  when  presented  by 
a  power  so  strong  as  that  of  the  mighty  Frank  ruler. 
814  —  But  when  he  died,  it  was  found  that  there  was  no  other 
hand  strong  enough  to  wield  his  sceptre.  All  the 
memories  of  the  old  empire,  all  the  influence  of  the 
Christian  church,  the  remains  of  the  Roman  organiza- 
tion, and  the  ripening  vigor  of  new  races,  which  had 
begun  to  lay  aside  their  barbarous  impulses,  were 
united  to  aid  the  vast  designs  of  this  great  statesman. 
But  the  tendencies  of  the  new  society,  in  general,  were 
in  a  different  direction.  The  Germanic  civilization  was 
totally  different  from  the  Roman,  and  had  there  been 


THE   FEUDAL    SYSTEM,  133 

a  succession  of  rulers  as  large  minded  and  strong  willed 
as  Charlemagne,  they  could  not  have  repeated  the  his- 
tory of  the  ancient  world.  The  tendency  of  the  races 
that  overthrew  the  empire  was  invincibly  against  cen- 
tralization, and  instead  of  a  new  Roman  Empire  in 
western  Europe,  appeared  the  Feudal  System. 

SECTION  XIV. 

THE    FEUDAL   SYSTEM. 

1.  Tliis  system  was  the  direct  opposite  of  centralization. 
Cinder  it  all  Christendom  broke  up  into  fragments;  the  king 
exerted  but  a  loose  general  control,  that  continued  to  decrease 
for  several  centuries;  and  most  of  the  real  authority  was 
exerted  by  the  feudal  lords  from  their  fortified  castles,  which, 
for  three  hundred  years,  had  been  springing  up  over  all  the 
territory  conquered  from  the  Romans.  It  had  its  true  origin 
in  the  vcvsirke^  personal  assertion,  the  strong  individuality  of 
the  Teutonic  Race,  which  was,  and  is,  one  of  its  most  promi- 
nent traits.  While  in  their  native  barbarous  state  their  armies 
were  formed  for  their  expeditions  of  foreign  conquest,  that 
proved  so  fatal  to  the  Romans,  on  the  voluntary  principle. 
The  prowess  and  fame  of  a  leader,  ,or  chief,  drew  to  him  a 
multitude  of  warriors,  longing  for  activity  and  booty.  So 
long  as  he  could  lead  them  to  success,  to  gain  their  individual 
ends,  they  obeyed  him.  When  he  failed  to  reward  their  am- 
bition they  held  themselves  free  to  leave  him. 

2.  It  w^as  not  immense  disciplined  armies,  but  innumera- 
ble bands,  organized  in  this  way,  that,  through  a  long  course 
of  years,  gradually  overran  Britain,  Gaul,  Spain  and  Italy. 
For  four  hundred  years  the  civilized  world  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  control  and  protection  of  a  distant  ruler  whose 
powerful  armies  rendered  resistance  vain,  and  all  thought  of 
organization  for  self-protection  against  the  terrible  barbarians 
was  wanting  when  they  were  attacked.  Each  city  or  region 
defended  itself  as  well  as  possible,  or  submitted  at  once.     The 


134  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

conquerors  took  what  they  wanted  and  passed  on  to  other 
lands,  or  spread  themselves  out  over  the  province.  They 
usually  settled  in  the  country  parts,  fortifying  the  country 
seats  of  the  richer  inhabitants,  or  building  themselves  castles 
near  the  larger  towns,  to  hold  them  in  awe.  The  leader  con- 
sidered himself  the  owner  of  the  conquered  territory,  and 
divided  it  among  his  followers,  who  settled  themselves,  each 
in  his  new  domain,  as  its  owner  and  ruler.  The  conquered 
inhabitants  were  his  subjects  from  whom  he  took  tribute. 
The  conquerors  were  few  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  con- 
quered; but  there  was  little  resistance  throughout  the  old 
Eoman  provinces.  Organization  and  spirit  were  wanting  to 
them,  and  resistance  would  provoke  complete  rain,  since  the 
conqueror  could  easily  call  to  his  aid  any  number  of  his  fel- 
lows in  return  for  a  share  of  the  spoils.  Thus  they  gave  what 
was  demanded  and  made  themselves  content  with  what  was 
left. 

The  cities  paid  tribute,  the  cultivators  gave  a  portion  of 
their  harvests  to  the  new  rulers.  The  territory  not  given  to 
his  followers  was  considered  the  property  of  the  original 
leader.  In  return  for  the  gift  each  of  the  recipients  of  ter- 
ritory was  held  bound  to  aid  him  in  his  wars,  and  each  larger 
chief  stood  in  similar  relations  to  the  king  of  his  tribe  or 
nation.  Out  of  this  grew,  at  length,  what  was  called  the 
Feudal  System,  feudal  being  derived,  by  some,  from  the  old 
German  words  "fee,"  salary,  and  "od,"  landed  possessions  — 
a  payment,  or  salary,  in  land,  for  services  rendered,  with  a 
certain  obligation  to  the  giver. 

3.  The  kings  of  the  Franks  —  the  German  nation  that 
conquered  Gaul  —  up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  labored  to 
consolidate  their  power  and  rule  like  the  Roman  emperors. 
But  the  genius  of  their  race  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  sit- 
uation were  both  opposed  to  that  purpose.  Charles  Martel, 
Pepin,  his  son,  and  Charlemagne,  his  grandson,  were  all  rulers 
of  great  vigor,  and  the  last,  apparently,  succeeded  for  a  time. 
But  the  military  strength  lay  only  in  the  scattered   feudal 


THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM.  185 

chieftains,  eacli  of  whom  sought  to  build  up  his  own  power 
on  his  own  estates.  It  was  not  possible  to  maintain  a  strong 
central  government  for  any  length  of  time,  or  under  an  ordi- 
nary man.  For  two  hundred  years  these  petty  lords  grew  in 
strength  at  the  expense  of  the  king.  They  were  still  held  to 
him  by  the  necessity  of  supporting  him  in  war,  by  a  system 
of  checks,  which,  in  time,  were  increased,  and  still  more 
enlarged,  when  the  people  began  to  make  themselves  felt  in 
the  twelfth  century;  but  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury feudalism  was  the  prevailing  system  in  all  the  civilized 
European  nations, 

4.  It  was  a  very  rude  and  violent  period,  but  some  of  the 
most  happy  traits  of  modern  life  grew  out  of  it.  The  isola- 
tion of  the  feudal  lord  in  his  fortified  chateau  or  castle,  where 
his  wife  and  children  were  his  only  equals,  combined  with  the 
constant  influence  of  the  church,  gradually  elevated  the  con- 
dition of  the  woman,  the  rudeness  and  violence  of  the  time 
were  modified  by  the  rise  of  chivalry,  which  was,  in  great 
part,  founded  on  this  new  respect  for  the  gentler  sex,  and  sym- 
pathy for  her  helpless  condition  when  exposed,  without  a  pow- 
ful  protector,  to  unrestrained  insolence  and  passion;  and 
the  feudal  system  held  all  the  elements  of  society  in  suspense 
until  the  mighty  forces  —  revived  learning,  the  printing  press, 
and  a  new  commerce  and  industry  —  were  ready  to  take  a 
prominent  part  in  making  it  what  we  now  find  it  — far  supe- 
rior to  the  old  society. 

5.  Feudalism  held  men  apart,  and  individually  subject  to 
the  refining  influence  of  Christian  precepts,  from  the  fifth  to 
the  ninth  century,  when  the  romantic  practice  of  chivalry 
became  popular  as  a  relief  from  the  tedium  of  isolation,  and 
a  channel  for  the  flow  of  the  softer  sentiments  of  respect  for 
woman,  of  compassion  for  weakness,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
a  vent  for  the  martial  spirit  which  the  constant  conflicts  of 
the  time  cultivated.  The  age  of  chivalry  indicates  that  Chris- 
tianity was  powerfully  moulding  the  character  of  the  new 
nations.     Working  on  qualities  as  stern  and  rude  as  those  of 


136  THE  FOOTPBINTS  OF  TIME. 

the  old  Roman  of  the  Republic,  its  partial  control,  the  begin- 
nings of  its  power,  were  manifested  in  a  romantic  way.  The 
isolation  of  feudal  life,  and  a  sense  of  wrong  in  employing  all 
their  energies  in  unceasing  contests  of  ambition  produced  the 
chivalric  outbreak  and  the  crusades.  The  knights  of  chivalry 
•were  feudal  lords  and  gentlemen,  trained  in  all  the  warlike 
arts  of  the  period  and  in  all  the  courtesies  which  the  new 
influence  of  female  society  produced.  When  starting  forth 
as  knight-errants,  they  were  exhorted  by  the  stern  feudal  war- 
rior to  valor,  and  by  the  Christian  priest  to  gentleness  toward 
the  weak  and  defenseless,  and  they  made  'it  the  business  of 
life  to  wander  about  on  horseback  incased  in  armor,  dis- 
playing their  warlike  accomplishments  and  combatting  petty 
tyranny.  There  was  little  power  in  the  king  to  right  the 
wrongs  of  his  subjects,  and  brutal  violence  in  the  feudal  lords 
had  no  other  eifectual  punishment.  Chivalry  flourished  for 
more  than  five  hundred  years ;  but  its  most  useful  days  were 
from  1000  to  1200.  It  was  the  first,  and  seems  to  later  times 
a  somewhat  amusing  indication  of  a  more  humane  social 
state  than  the  world  had  ever  known. 

6.  The  crusades  commenced  about  1100,  the  object  being 
to  rescue  the  sepulcher  of  the  founder  of  Christianity  from 
unbelievers.  It  first  engaged  the  sympathy  of  the  people  at 
large,  then  of  the  feudal  nobility  and  finally  interested  the 
ambition  of  kings.  For  two  hundred  years  a  large  part  of 
the  best  blood  of  Europe  w^as  poured  out  in  Palestine  in  a 
vain  effort  to  expel  the  Saracens  from  it.  Tlie  transportation 
of  armaments  and  supplies  to  that  country  from  various  parts 
of  Europe  gradually  led  to  commerce  and  skill  in  navigation ; 
80  much  of  ancient  civilization  and  knowledge  as  still  existed 
in  the  Eastern,  or  Greek  Empire  at  Constantinople,  was  intro- 
duced into  modern  Europe,  which  at  the  same  time  was  re- 
lieved of  its  more  turbulent  and  adventurous  elements;  and 
a  heavy  blow  was  given  to  the  smaller  feudal  proprietors  by 
the  expense  incurred  in  a  distant  expedition  where  they  died 
"without  issue,  reduced  their  families  to  poverty,  or  whence 


THE   LIBERTIES   OF    THE   PEOPLE.  137 

they  returned  penniless  to  mortgaged  estates.  It  rapidly 
hastened  the  movement,  begun  by  other  influences,  to  reduce 
the  number  of  feudal  proprietors,  and  render  government 
more  vigorous  over  increasingly  large  territories. 

SECTION  XV. 

THE   LIBERTIES   OF   THE    PEOPLK 

1.  Between  1000  and  1200  the  independent  and  enterpris- 
ing spirit  —  the  individualism  —  that  we  have  seen  at  the  base 
of  European  character,  and  which  first  produced  the  Feudal 
System,  began  to  move  among  the  masses  in  various  ways  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  that  influence  of  the  People  that  was 
afterward  to  become  the  most  powerful  element  in  political 
life. 

It  first  presented  itself  in  the  development  of  industrial  arts 
and  commerce  in  cities  which  obtained,  as  corporations,  the 
rights,  or  a  part  of  the  rights,  of  the  feudal  proprietor,  which 
they  proceeded  to  exercise  under  the  form  of  Free  Cities  in 
Germany,  privileged  Communes  in  France  and  commercial 
Kepublics  in  Italy. 

2.  A  second  development,  highly  favorable  some  centuries 
later  to  the  reaction  of  popular  freedom  against  centralizing 
despotism  in  the  government,  was  the  religious  protest  against 
the  claims  of  the  church  over  freedom  of  thought.  This  spirit 
grew  up  in  Germany,  and  its  first  remote  beginnings  are  to  be 
found  in  the  imperial  title  conferred  by  the  pope  on  Charle- 
magne. In  the  course  of  time  (a.  d.  963)  that  title  was  inher- 
ited by  the  German  rulers  who,  for  a  long  time,  struggled  for 
the  control  of  Italy  and  a  feudal  superiority  over  the  popes. 
This  was  carried  on  for  two  centuries  with  much  acrimony, 
in  which  the  terms  Guelph,  the  general  name  of  those  who 
supported  the  side  of  the  popes,  and  Ghibellines,  of  those  who 
rallied  to  the  emperor,  came  to  be*  the  watchwords  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  The  popes  triumphed  in  this  contest,  which  pre- 
vented the  establishment  of  a  vast  and  powerful  political  des- 


138  THE   FOOTPEINTS   OF   TIME. 

potism,  and  gave  the  church  a  temporal  kingdom  in  a  part 
of  Italy,  with  an  immense  spiritual  empii'e  highly  embar- 
rassing to  free  mental  growth.  The  reaction  against  this 
spiritual  control  produced  the  Protestant  Reformation  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  in  which  was  wrapped  up  the  germ  of  mod 
ern  Republicanism, 

3.  The  Crusades  loosened  the  bonds  of  Feudalism,  taught 
nations  and  rulers  to  act  together  to  gain  a  common  object, 
enlarged  the  experiences  of  men  immensely,  and  cultivated  and 
organized  the  spirit  of  personal  adventure  which  afterwards 
expended  itself  on  commerce. 

It  was  at  about  the  crisis  of  this  period  (1215,  a.  d.)  that 
the  Magna  Charta  —  the  foundation  of  English  constitutional 
liberty  —  was  produced;  that  the  Hanseatic  League  and  Free 
Cities  began  to  flourish  in  Germany;  the  commercial  republics 
of  Venice,  Genoa  and  Florence  rose  in  Italy ;  and  the  communal 
corporations  in  France  sprang  up.  They  were  all  more  or  less 
stimulated  by  influences  growing  out  of  the  Crusades,  and 
brought  forward  the  people  and  their  distinct  and  separate 
interests  and  activities  into  political  importance.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  an  entirely  new  order  of  things,  which  re- 
quired a  new  continent  for  its  full  development. 

4.  A  first  circumstance,  above  all  favorable  to  the  libertier 
of  the  people,  was  the  Invention  of  Printing,  producing  rapid 
diffusion  of  information,  the  coincident  revival  of  learning 
and  the  foundation  of  modem  science.  All  these,  working 
together  with  various  other  agencies,  gradually  swept  awaj 
feudalism,  checked  the  towering  spiritual  tyranny  of  the  churcl 
and  corrected  a  crowd  of  minor  evils  that  embarrassed  society, 
enterprise,  and  progress  in  the  science  of  government. 

The  intermediate  stage  in  this  progress  appeared  like  a  return 
to  old  principles.  Tlie  dissolution  of  feudalism  left  the  govern- 
ments of  Europe  centralized.  The  lords  inheriting  feudal 
rights  had  become  intolerable  despots.  For  a  certain  period 
the  authority  of  the  king  was  the  bulwark  behind  which  th© 
people   sheltered   themselves  from   the  oppressions  of  their 


THE   LIBERTIES   OF  THE   PEOPLE.  139 

feudal  superiors,  and  they  united  with  him  to  reduce  the  feudal 
nobility  to  the  comparatively  harmless  condition  of  the  modem 
aristocracy,  whose  greatest  distinction  is  social  pre-eminence. 
It  left  them,  indeed,  a  high,  but  not  overwhelming,  position 
in  the  body  politic,  which  the  growing  education  and  wealth 
of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  constantly  tended  to  reduce. 
This  change  was  commencing  when  America  was  discovered. 
The  feudal  chiefs  labored  to  extend  and  strengthen  their  power 
at  the  expense  of  each  other,  of  the  king  and  the  people.  The 
increasing  activity  and  importance  of  commerce,  trade  and  in- 
dustry required  the  support  of  a  broad  legislation  that  could 
not  be  obtained  while  nations  were  broken  up  into  petty  lord- 
ships, principalities  and  kingdoms  almost  independent  of 
each  other,  and  whose  rulers  were  often  hostile  to  or  at  war 
with  each  other;  while  the  support  of  so  many  rulers  became 
a  heavy  burden  on  the  resources  of  the  people.  The  king  rep- 
resented the  nation  and  was  the  rallying  point  of  reform.  To 
strengthen  him  was  to  promote  the  larger  interests  of  the 
country. 

5.  For  these  reasons,  and  from  the  resistance  oflFered  by 
the  feudal  institutions,  which  had  existed  a  thousand  years, 
authority  became  centralized  in  the  monarch  to  an  extrava- 
gant degree,  and  this  at  a  time  when  freer  institutions  were 
most  required  by  the  larger  and  wiser  views  of  the  people. 
The  great  usefulness  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  civil- 
izing and  educating  the  modern  nations  and  founding  a  center 
or  common  bond  between  them,  which  produced  a  degree  of 
unity  in  their  progress,  had  continually  added  to  her  power, 
while  the  disposition  to  free  thought  was  ever  becoming  more 
pronounced.  Thus  two  despotic  forces,  each  claiming  absolute 
obedience  in  their  respective  spheres,  were  rising  in  strength 
to  a  degree  extremely  embarrassing  to  the  growing  intelli- 
gence and  increased  activities  of  the  commonalty.  The  tradi- 
tional authority  of  the  church  and  the  king  came,  in  the 
course  of  a  hundred  years  after  the  discovery  of  America,  to 


140  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

directly  oppose  the  most  important  interests  and  instincts  of 
mankind. 

6.  The  progress  of  the  people,  as  distinct  from  that  of 
their  governments,  may  then  be  described  as  starting  in  the 
last  great  service  done  for  Europe  by  the  church — -the  organ- 
ization of  the  Crusades.  The  feudal  system  separated  men 
too  much  for  healthy  progress,  and  this  singular  display  of 
religious  zeal  united  the  various  nationalities  in  a  common 
effort,  and  stirred  up  powers  that  had  long  slumbered.  It 
was  in  this  period  that  the  adventurous  and  comprehensive 
activities  of  modern  life  commenced.  Wealth  had  been 
largely  confined  to  the  feudal  nobility.  It  now  began  to  flow 
out  through  the  general  community.  The  nobles  expended 
vast  sums  in  fitting  out  princely  retinues  to  lead  to  the  Holy 
Land,  for  which  their  estates  were  security.  They  died,  or 
returned  penniless,  and  their  lands  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  commercial  classes,  whose  successful  diligence  had  made 
them  wealthy.  It  was  the  first  heavy  blow  to  feudal  institu- 
tions, and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of  the  people. 

Corporations  and  cities  which  had  obtained  the  tights  of 
feudal  proprietors,  employed  them  for  the  purposes  of  self- 
government,  and  so  used  an  instrument  of  despotism  to  shield 
and  sustain  a  virtual  democracy.  With  this  freedom  of 
action,  popular  liberty,  controlled  in  a  general  way  by  feudal 
obligations  to  the  prince,  king,  or  emperor,  grew  fast  and 
strong  protected  by  the  growing  despotisms  of  the  church  and 
the  state.  The  Hanseatic  League,  in  the  north  of  Germany, 
was,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  perhaps  as 
wealthy  and  powerful  as  any  king  or  emperor  in  Christendom ; 
and  in  the  sixteenth,  the  small  commercial  province  of  the 
Netherlands  could  defy  the  whole  power  of  Spain,  with  the 
wealth  of  the  Indies  at  her  back. 

7.  The  revival  of  learning,  and  the  invention  of  the  art  of 
printing,  gave  an  immense  impulse  to  this  uprising  of  the 
people,  commenced  near  three  hundred  years  before;  about 
the  same  time  the  Portuguese  discovered  the  way  to  India  by 


THE  SITUATION  ON  THE  DISCOVEKT  OF  AMERICA.  141 

the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Columbus  threw  open  the  "  Gates 
of  the  West,"  and  the  wealth  of  both  Indies  flowed  in  a  full 
stream  through  the  channels  of  commerce  and  trade;  that  is 
to  say,  into  the  hands  of  the  busy  and  industrious  people. 
All  events  seemed  to  conspire  to  build  up  a  base  for  the  power 
and  development  of  the  commonalty. 

This  growing  intelligence  and  strength  among  the  masses, 
with  the  habit  of  ruling  themselves  under  feudal  forms,  made 
a  conflict  with  the  two  arrogant  despotisms  inevitable  in  the 
near  future.  Feudal  inistitutions  were  still  a  serious  and  vex- 
atious embarrassment  to  freedom  of  movement,  and  a  very 
heavy  tax  on  industry,  and  the  only  legal  way  to  remove  it 
was  by  strengthening  the  central  or  kingly  power,  which  con- 
tinued to  increase  for  more  than  a  hundred  years;  but  the 
conflict  with  priestly  despotism  was  entered  on  at  once.  A 
vast  rebellion  against  the  church  commenced,  called  "The 
Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  tVhicli  embraced 
nearly  all  the  most  enterprising  and  commercial  nations. 

SECTION  XVI. 

THE   SITUATION    ON   THE   DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA. 

1.  We  have  said  that  great  men  were  a  kind  .of  summary 
of  the  tendencies  of  their  period  ;  an  expression  of  a  wide- 
spread thought  or  state  of  mind,  which  their  fortunate  combi- 
nation of  faculties  and  more  favorable  circumstances  enabled 
them  first  to  state,  or  embody,  with  distinctness;  that  the  great 
following  they  obtained,  and  the  extensive  influence  which 
enabled  them  to  make  great  changes,  were  due  to  a  coincident 
development  in  their  generation  of  the  same  thoughts  and 
tendencies.  This  explains  the  existence  of  eras  in  all  depart- 
ments of  life.  Men  grow,  or  progress,  silently,  from  one  to 
the  other  ;  when  the  general  progress  has  reached  the  suitable 
point  it  breaks  out  in  a  leader  more  bold  and  positive  than 
the  rest. 

The  discovery  of  America  was  such  an  era;  and  the  sudden 


143  THE  FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

advance  in  many  ways  at  about  the  same  time  was  the  result 
of  gradual  growth  during  many  centuries.  It  was  shown  by 
the  sudden  appearance  of  great  men  in  different  spheres. 
Columbus  lived  in  the  midst  of  a  great  era.  Printing,  the  use 
of  the  compass,  the  science  of  astronomy  and  the  successful 
protest  against  spiritual  despotism  all  commenced  their  great 
career  just  before,  or  just  after  him.  The  great  painters, 
whose  works  are  now  so  much  esteemed,  were  all  living  in 
1500.  Copernicus  discovered  the  true  planetary  system  in  the 
year  Columbus  died.  Gunpowder,  which  enabled  Cortez  to 
conquer  the  Mexican  Empire,  came  into  general  use  about  the 
same  period.  Luther  commenced  the  Reformation,  while  the 
first  adventurers  were  creeping,  with  amazed  curiosity,  around 
the  shores  of  the  American  continent.  The  foundation  of  all 
the  sciences  was  then  laid.  Correct  principles  were  enunciated 
for  religion,  government  and  thought;  and  the  laws  of  nature, 
of  human  relations  and  of  religious  liberty  were  promulgated 
almost  simultaneously. 

2.  But  not  all  the  European  nations,  and  not  all  of  any  one 
nation,  were  prepared  for  this  vast  advance.  The  southern  part 
of  Germany,  and  the  people  in  general  in  southern  Europe, 
resisted  what  they  regarded  as  a  dangerous  innovation,  and 
the  reform  spread  only  north  and  west.  The  close  connection 
instituted  by  Constantine  between  church  and  state,  which  was 
renewed  under  Charlemagne,  raised  at  this  time,  a  long  series 
of  religious  wars,  which  contributed  to  embarrass  Protestant- 
ism in  the  same  way  by  the  necessity  under  which  it  lay,  (or 
supposed  it  lay,)  of  seeking  the  protection  of  princes, 
Luther's  reorganized  church  became  the  state  religion  of 
northern  Europe,  and  fell  under  government  control  in 
Switzerland  and  Holland.  Henry  YIIL  of  England,  while 
yielding,  like  a  true  Englishman,  to  the  general  tendency  of 
his  people,  in  taking  the  reformed  faith  under  his  protection 
constituted  himself  its  head. 

In  the  long  contest  between  Catholic  and  Protestant,  it 
became  apparent  that  full  religious  liberty  was  not  then  pos- 


THE  SITUATION  ON  THE  DISCOVEKT  OF  AMERICA.  143 

Bible  in  Europe ;  and  the  more,  that  a  political  element  was 
involved  in  the  contest.  Free  thought  naturally  led  to  free 
institutions,  and  the  leading  European  governments  were, 
by  the  breaking  up  of  feudalism,  centralized  and  made 
more  despotic  than  ever.  Thus  its  tendency  to  political 
revolution  organized  strong  governments  against  it,  or  pre- 
vented its  development  by  the  check  of  governmental 
supremacy. 

3.  While  this  contest  was  working  itself  out  in  the  firm 
establishment  of  Protestantism  under  state  patronage  in  north- 
ern Europe,  and  its  entire  extinction  in  the  stronger  and  more 
conservative  southern  monarchies,  the  discovery  and  subjuga- 
tion of  Mexico  and  Peru,  with  their  wealth  of  precious  metals 
and  tropical  productions,  together  with  the  trade  with  the  East 
Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  passage  to  which  was  discov- 
ered before  the  daring  venture  of  Columbus,  had  greatly  enriched 
Europe.  A  large  part  of  this  wealth  passed  immediately,  or  in 
process  of  time,  into  the  hands  of  the  people  as  the  result  of  per- 
sonal adventure  or  of  the  activity  of  commerce,  trade  and  indus- 
try. The  maritime  regions  of  northern  Germany,  Holland  and 
England  gathered  much  of  this  golden  fruit;  the  maritime 
republics  of  Italy  fell  into  decay;  and  Spain  spent  its  vast  treas- 
ures in  war.  It  was  led  to  this  suicidal  policy  by  various  royal 
marriages  which  united  the  German  Empire,  Spain  and  the 
Netherlands  under  one  scepter.  This  vast  ascendancy,  united 
with  great  wealth,  excited  the  alarm  of  other  nations,  and  con- 
tributed to  strengthen  the  Reformation.  The  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  France  united  to  reduce 
this  dangerous  pre-eminence  in  order  to  uphold  the  existing 
nationalities  of  Europe,  or  the  Balance  of  Power,  as  it  was 
called.  Thus  the  emperor,  Charles  Y.,  was  led  to  pour  out 
the  treasures  of  Mexico  and  Peru  to  sustain  his  political 
aspirations,  and  his  wars  turned  the  wealth  of  the  Indies  into 
the  channels  of  commerce  and  industry. 

His  successor,  Philip  II.,  still  uniting  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands, undertook  to  crush  the  reformed  faith  in  the  latter  stateii^ 


144  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF  TIME. 

and  failed  in  a  war  of  nearly  half  a  century.  This  vast  expense 
made  Spain,  the  richest  country  of  Europe,  the  poorest,  still 
to  tlie  profit  of  commerce  and  the  greater  strength  of  Protest- 
ant lands.  The  United  l^etherlands  became  free  Protestant 
states  and  remarkably  prosperous. 

4.  The  English  people  advanced  in  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  free  constitution  from  the  time  of  the  Magna  Charta  in 
1215,  They  became  strongly  Protestant,  and  finally  their 
commons  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  king,  Charles  I.,  for 
the  maintenance  of  popular  rights.  He  resisted  to  the  last 
extremity,  and  the  commons  precipitated  a  revolution  that 
dethroned  and  beheaded  him,  and  established  a  republic.  This 
was  premature  and  expired  with  the  great  leader,  Cromwell, 
who  had  successfully  headed  it.  Eoyal  power  was  restored, 
but  a  few  years  later  was  rearranged  and  so  modified  as  to  be 
suited  to  the  independent  but  moderate  tendencies  of  the  peo- 
ple. A  certain  part  of  the  English  people,  however,  aspired 
to  more  complete  liberty  than  a  monarchy  could  afford  them, 
and  passed  over  the  sea  to  secure  freedom  of  conscience  and 
political  enfranchisement  in  the  New  World. 

"With  the  moderate  and  steady  maintenance  of  their  rights, 
characteristic  of  Englishmen,  they  were  governed  under  chart- 
ers from  the  English  sovereigns  who,  for  the  sake  of  extending 
their  dominions,  allowed  them  much  freedom.  European 
governments  could  not  conform  to  the  demands  of  progress  by 
loosening  the  bands  of  arbitrary  rule,  and  the  new  colonies 
became  the  refuge  of  such  as  aspired  to  more  liberal  institu- 
tions, as  well  as  of  adventurers  in  search  of  gain.  Thus  the 
English  colonies  became  the  escape  valve  of  European  politics 
and  society,  the  Appendix  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  Hope 
of  Liberty. 

SECTION  XVII. 

CONCLUSIOMT. 

1.  We  see  here  again  the  operation  of  the  constant  law 
that  impelled  men,  or  moved  the  "  Star  of  Empire,"  west- 


CONCLUSION.  1 45 

ward.     The  form  of  the  continents,  the  character  of  the  sur- 
face and  the  climate,  provided  a  natural  and  desirable  opening- 
only  in  that  direction.     The  overplus  of  population,  the  dis, 
content  of  some  part  of  the  people  with  existing  government,, 
the  restlessness  of  adventurers,  or  the  requirements  of  trade- 
and  commerce  produced  a  migration.     The  colony,  instructed  > 
by  the  experience  of  the  parent  state,  was  free  to  improve  on  • 
its  institutions.     Colonies  have  almost  always  prospered  more- 
than  the  mother  country.     Transplanting  seemed  to  improve 
both  the  stock  and  the  institutions.     Greece  was  colonized 
from  Asia,  as  was  Home;  Miletus,  Syracuse,  and  other  Greek 
colonies  excelled  the  mother  cities  in  wealth,  and  though  the* 
free  structure  of  Grecian  government  allowed  a  natural  devel-- 
opment  at  home  and  made  Athens  the  metropolis,  yet  its; 
marvelous  genius  was  nourished  and  stimulated  by  the  colo- 
nies.    Carthage  was   greater  and  stronger   than  Tyre,  and 
contended  with  Rome  for  the  control  of  the  world;  the  most 
western  nations  of  Europe  were  colonized  from  Rome  and 
Germany,  and  have  taken  the  lead  in  later  progress,  while 
America  has  always  displayed  the  lusty,  fertile  vigor  of  a. 
young  life. 

Thus  the  conformation  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the- 
peculiarly  fruitful  character  of  a  transplanted  civilization, 
have  always  furnished  an  escape  from  the  embarrassing  fixity 
of  an  old  state,  in  the  same  western  direction,  and  the  old; 
and  the  new  unite  to  establish  frequent  stages  of  progress. 
In  this  way  a  continuous  growth  has  been  secured  that 
impresses  on  advancing  culture  the  same  unity,  from  first  to- 
last,  that  we  see  in  the  growth  and  mental  development  of. 
the  individual  man. 

2.  "We  have  seen  the  aggregation  and  primary  discipline^ 
of  mankind  in  the  simple  but  extensive  despotisms  of  western 
Asia,  varied  in  Palestine  by  a  theocratic  system  which  has- 
produced  the  world's  great  religion,  and  in  Egypt  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  a  learned  priestly  caste.  We  saAV  an  improve- 
ment made  in  Greece  to  meet  the  demands  of  intellectual 
10 


146  THE   FOOTPEINTS    OF    TIME. 

developmeiit.  Their  intelligence,  however,  was  a  spontaneous 
outburst,  of  necessity  immature.  Two  thousand  years  of 
training,  and  the  addition  of  many  new  elements  were 
required  before  mind  could  rule  the  world;  but  Greece,  by 
the  attractiveness  of  her  art  and  culture,  set  men  at  work  on 
the  great  problem  of  politics  and  life. 

Kome  followed  to  organize  government  and  consolidate  the 
civilizations,  to  ripen  their  fruit  and  transmit  the  seed  to  a 
more  favorable  time,  and  to  new  and  better  races.  A  com- 
plete civilization  was  impossible  without  well  digested  science, 
"which  had  its  remote  roots  in  Greece;  and  law,  which  was 
gradually  produced  by  the  grand  Koman  republic;  and  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  profound  yet  simple  precepts  of  Jesus 
Ohrist. 

3.  Western  Europe  received  all  the  wisdom  and  experience 
of  the  ancient  world,  and  labored  well  at  the  grand  problem 
though  she  did  not  completely  solve  it.  She,  however,  made 
an  immense  advance  toward  it,  and  her  children,  rich  in 
her  experience,  instructed  at  once  by  her  success  and  her  mis- 
takes, and  aided  always  by  her  wisdom,  found  (let  us  hope)  in 
America  the  goal  of  their  noblest  aspirations.  Thus  we 
find  the  spirit  of  progress  traversing  the  whole  course  of 
human  history,  constantly  advancing  through  all  the  confu- 
sion of  rising  and  falling  states,  of  battle,  siege  and  slaughter, 
of  victory  and  defeat;  through  the  varying  fortunes  and  ulti- 
mate extinction  of  monarchy,  republic  and  empire;  through 
barbaric  irruption  and  desolation,  feudal  isolation,  spiritual 
supremacy,  the  heroic  rush  and  conflict  of  the  Cross  and  the 
Crescent;  amid  the  busy  hum  of  industry,  through  the  marts 
of  trade  and  behind  the  gliding  keels  of  commerce;  through 
the  bloody  conflicts  of  commons,  nobles,  kings  and  kaisers  to 
IS^ew  and  Free  America.  There  the  Englishman,  the  German, 
the  Frenchman,  the  Italian,  the  Scandinavian,  the  Asiatic  and 
the  African  all  meet  as  equals.  There  they  are  free  to  speak, 
to  think,  and  to  act.  They  bring  their  common  contributions 
of  character,  energy  and  activity  to  the  support  and  enlarge- 


CONCLUSION.  147 

ment  of  a  common  country,  and  the  spread  of  its  infinence 
and  enlightenment  through  all  the  lands  of  their  origin.  As 
America  is  the  common  ground  on  which  all  the  currents  and 
ideas  of  all  the  civilizations  meet,  so  also  it  is  the  point  from 
which  return  currents,  hastened  by  lightning  and  by  steam, 
seek  again  every  quarter  of  the  earth  with  kindly  greetings, 
to  renew  the  relations  broken  in  the  original  separation  of  the 
races,  and  to  cement,  by  exchanges  mutually  profitable,  a  new 
and  better  unity  of  mankind.  As  the  heart  in  the  human 
body  receives  the  current  of  blood  from  all  parts  of  the 
system,  and,  having  revitalized  it,  returns  it  Avitli  fresh 
elements  of  strength,  so  America  adopts  the  children  of  all 
lands  only  to  return  a  manhood  ennobled  by  a  sense  of  its 
own  dignity  through  the  practice  of  a  system  of  self-govern- 
ment which  improves  the  condition  and  promotes  the  inter- 
est of  each  while  it  produces  harm  to  none. 

4.  America,  then,  will  colonize  Ideas,  extensively,  when  her 
institutions  are  thoroughly  matured.  The  process,  indeed, 
commenced  with  her  birth,  and  her  Spirit  sails  with  her  ships 
in  every  sea  and  visits  all  lands.  All  the  past  has  contributed 
to  the  excellence  of  her  foundation,  and  modern  Europe  has 
supplied  her  with  the  most  desirable  building  material  both 
of  ideas  and  of  men.  Without  Asia,  Greece  and  Rome,  there 
would  have  been  a  very  imperfect  modern  Europe;  and 
without  modern  Europe,  America  must  have  begun  at  the 
beginning,  with  all  the  lessons,  discoveries  and  discipline  of 
thousands  of  years  to  learn.  Happily,  we  seem  authorized  to 
believe  that,  as  she  concludes  the  possible  groat  migrations 
of  humanity,  she  has  so  well  learned  the  lessons  of  experience 
as  to  have  given  due  flexibility  and  capacity  of  improvement 
to  all  her  institutions,  and,  when  necessary  can  reconstruct 
herself  within  herself.  If  this  be  true,  she  will  reach  the  goal 
of  all  progress  by  furnishing  to  each  individual  among  her 
citizens  such  aid  as  a  state  can  give  to  make  the  most  of 
himself,  to  reach  the  fullest  expression  of  his  value. 


CHAPTEE    II. 


THE   DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA. 


1.  Civilization,  or  the  history  of  it,  at  least,  commenced  in 
the  Eastern  continent.  The  Western  was,  until  a  compara- 
tively recent  period,  quite  unknown  to  those  who  recorded  the 
progress  of  mankind,  and  the  events  by  which  it  was  marked. 
The  science  of  the  most  learned  men  and  nations  of  ancient 
times  did  not  extend  to  a  comprehension  of  geography  beyond 
the  limits  of  their  own  countries,  and  of  the  countries  conquered 
by  their  rulers,  or  those  which,  bordering  on  these,  held  some 
relations  with  them. 

2.  The  world  appeared  to  be  a  flat  surface,  and  no  one 
thought  of  questioning  that  it  was  so  only  in  appearance.  It 
was  reserved  for  a  daring  Genoese  sea  captain,  about  four  hundred 
years  ago,  to  conceive  the  happy  idea  that  this  appearance  was 
deceptive;  that  it  was  really  round;  and  that,  by  sailing  west- 
ward, the  distant  East,  or  India,  might  be  readily  reached. 
Columbus,  having  become  fully  satislied  that  this  theory  was 
correct,  and  not  being  rich  enough  to  fit  out  an  expedition 
himself,  endeavored  to  convince  others,  who  had  the  means,  of 
the  truth  of  his  views,  and  to  induce  them  to  aid  him  to  put 
them  to  the  test. 

3.  The  Genoese,  living  by  commerce,  and,  at  that  time 
wealthy  and  powerful,  gave  him  no  encouragement,  Tliey 
even  regarded  him  as  a  madman.  He  applied  to  the  Govern- 
ments of  Portugal,  England,  and  Spain,  but  gained  little 
attention  for  many  years.  At  length  Queen  Isabella,  of  Spain, 
became  interested  in  his  tlieories,  and,  with  much  effort,  as- 

(H8) 


/)ISCOVERY   OF    AMERICA.  149 

fiidted  him  to  put  them  to  proof.  He  set  sail  August  3,  1492, 
with  three  small  vessels,  on  an  unknown  sea.  His  crew  were 
filled  with  fear  to  find  themselves  so  far  from  land,  and  sailing 
toward  unknown  dangers.  He  had  great  difficulty  in  calming 
their  terrors,  and  was  in  great  danger  of  perishing  in  the 
mutiny  they  contemplated.  He  was  saved  by  the  opportune 
*Ypearance  of  land  on  the  11th  of  October.  He  had  reached 
che  group  of  islands  lying  between  North  and  South  America. 
The  one  first  discovered  was  called,  by  the  natives  whom  he 
found  inhabiting  it,  Guanahani.  He  named  it,  in  remem- 
brance of  his  peril,  San  Salvador — St.  Savior.  Supposing  he 
had  reached  the  Indies  lying  to  the  eastward  of  Asia,  and  not 
dreaming  of  a  new  continent,  he  called  the  inhabitants  Indians. 
Ouba  and  Hayti,  larger  islands  lying  further  south,  were  soon 
•Tter  discovered,  and  he  hastened  to  carry  back  the  wonderful 
tidings  of  his  discovery  to  Spain.  He  reached  home  seven 
months  and  eleven  days  after  his  departure. 
'  4.  He  and  his  discoveries  immediately  became  famous.  The 
world  had  never  been  struck  with  a  surprise  so  great,  and  all 
Europe  was  in  a  ferment  at  the  news.  He  soon  returned  as 
Viceroy  of  the  newly  discovered  lands,  to  establish  a  colony 
and  extend  his  researches.  Five  years  later,  in  1498,  he  dis- 
covered the  main  land  near  the  river  Orinoco,  in  the  northern 
part  of  South  America.  He  died  in  1506,  unaware  of  the 
magnitude  of  his  discoveries,  still  believing  he  had  only  reached 
India  from  the  west,  and  treated  with  much  ingratitude  by  the 
government  he  had  so  much  benefited  by  his  bold  genius. 
The  first  published  account  of  the  new  continent  was  by  a 
Florentine,  Amerigo  Yespucci,  who  visited  the  main  land  in 
1499,  claimed  the  merit  of  the  discovery,  and  gave  it  his  name, 
America.  His  claim  has  long  been  disallowed,  and  Columbus 
duly  honored  as  the  real  discoverer,  though  the  name  was  never 
changed. 

5.  It  is  believed  that  North  America  was  known  to  the  mar- 
iners of  the  North  of  Europe  as  early  as  the  tenth  century; 
and  that  settlements,  that  afterwards  perished,  were  made  from 


150  THE   FOOTPKIMTS   OF    TIME. 

Iceland  and  Greenland  as  far  south  as  the  shores  of  New- 
England.  This,  however,  is  only  a  dim  tradition,  there  being 
no  detailed  and  authentic  history  of  these  events  left  on 
record  so  far  as  is  yet  known. 

6.  An  English  mariner,  by  descent  a  Yenitian,  dispute* 
with  Columbus  the  first  sight  of  the  main  continent  in  1498» 
He  first  touched  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  sailed  as  far  south 
as  Florida  in  the  next  year.  It  was  near  a  hundred  years- 
later  before  a  permanent  settlement  was  made  within  the  ter- 
ritory that  is  now  the  United  States,  by  the  English,  though 
the  city  of  St.  Augustine  was  founded  in  Florida  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1565. 

In  1607  a  settlement  was  made  at  Jamestown,  on  the  James, 
river,  in  Virginia,  and  in  1620  the  Puritans  of  England 
persecuted  there  for  their  religious  views,  sought  liberty  of 
worship  in  the  new  world,  establishing  a  colony  at  Plymouth, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  New  England.  Others  followed  in 
succession  until  many  distinct  colonies  had  been  planted  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States ;  all  of  which — except 
Florida,  belonging  to  the  Spaniards,  on  the  south,  and  Canada, 
settled  by  the  French,  on  the  north — were  under  the  control 
of,  and  received  their  laws  from,  England. 


CHAPTER    III. 

iHBONOLOOICAL   HESTOEY  OF   ANGLO   AMERICAN   COLONIZATION  FKOM 

1492  TO  1763. 

1492 — October    12,    Christopher    Columbus  discovered  land 

belonging  the  Western  Hemisphere — one  of  the  Bahama 

Islands.      He  touches  at  Cuba  and  Hayti  before  his 

return. 
1497 — John  Cabot,  master  of  an  English  vessel,  and  his  son 

Sebastian,  touched  at  Newfoundland  in  June,  and  soon 

after  explored  the  coast  of  Labrador. 
1498 — Columbus,  on  his  third  voyage,  discovers  the  American 

Continent,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  river,  in  South 

America. 
— Sebastian  Cabot,  in  a  second  voyage,  first  of  Europeans, 

explores  our  Atlantic  coast  as  far  south  as  Maryland. 
1499 — ^Amerigo  Vespucci,  or  Americus  Yespucius,  a  Floren^ 

tine  merchant,  conducts  a  vessel  to  the  coast  of  South 

America.     Returning  to  Europe  he  publishes  a  book. 

claiming  to  have  first  discovered  the  continent,  and  i^ 

receives  his  name,  America. 
1500 — Columbus  is  sent  to  Spain  in  chains  by  a  Spanish  ofiicel 

whom  the  jealousy  of  Ferdinand,  the  Spanish  King, 

placed  over  him.     Treated  with  injustice  and  neglect, 

he  died  at  Yalladolid,  Spain,  in  1506. 
1612 — Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spaniard  in  search  of  the  "  Fountain 

of  jfouth,"  discovers  Florida,  near  St,  Augustine. 
1524 — John   Verrazani,  a  Florentine,  commanding  a  French 

vessel,  touches  the  coast  near  Wilmington,  North  Oaro- 
(151) 


152  THE   rOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

liuji,  and  explores  it  north  to  Nova  Scotia.     He  wrote  a 
narrative  describing  the  country  and  the  Indians. 

1635~-James  Cartier,  a  French  navigator,  discovers  the  St. 
Lavrrence. 

1541 — ^He  builds  a  Fort  at  Quebec,  but  soon  abandons  it. 

— De  Soto,  a  Spaniard,  discovers  the  Mississippi.  He 
traveled,  with  six  hundred  men,  through  Georgia  and 
Alabama,  and  fought  a  bloody  battle  with  the  Indians 
near  Mobile.  These  Indians  had  a  walled  town  o| 
several  thousand  inhabitants.  Thence  he  traveled  west 
to  the  Mississippi  and  Red  Rivers.  He  died  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Red  river.  May  21,  1542. 

1653 — Persecution  of  the  English  Puritans  commences. 

1562 — French  Huguenots  attempt  a  settlement  in  Florida. 
They  gave  the  name  Carolina  to  the  coast  on  the  north. 
The  first  colony  is  discouraged,  and  returns.  In  the 
year  1564  another  Huguenot  colony  is  founded  on  the 
River  May. 

1565 — Melendez,  a  Spaniard,  founds  St.  Augustine,  September 
8th,  with  five  hundred  colonists.     It  was  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  in  the  United  States. 
— Melendez  destroys  the  French  colony. 

1568 — The  Chevalier  Gourgues  (French)  puts  to  death  four 
hundred  Spaniards  on  the  river  May,  in  retaliation. 

1578 — The  first  English  settlement  contemplated.  Queen 
Elizabeth  grants  a  patent  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  "  to 
Buch  remote,  heathen,  and  barbarous  lands  as  he  should 
find  in  North  America."  He  makes  two  attempts  to 
plant  a  colony — in  1579  and  in  1583 — fails  in  each,  and 
perishes  with  his  vessel,  September  23,  1583. 

1584 — Sir  Walter  Raleigh  receives  a  similar  patent,  and  sends 
two  vessels  to  the  shores  of  Pamlico  Sound.  Queen 
Elizabeth  names  the  country  Virginia. 

1585 — Raleigh  sends  a  colony  to  Roanoke  Island,  but  it  is 
unfortunate,  and  returns  home. 

1587 — ^He  sends  another  colony,   but  the  Spanish  Armada 


ANGLO-AMERICAN   COLONIZATION  153 

threatening  England,  he  could  not  send  it  supplies  for 
some  time,  and  when  visited,  later,  no  trace  of  it  could 
be  found.  Discouraged,  he  gives  up  his  patent  to  a 
London  company  of  merchants,  who  content  themselves 
to  trade  with  the  Indians. 

1602 — Bartholomew  Gosnold  visits  New  England. 

1603 — Henry  lY.,  King  of  France,  grants  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia)  to  Sieur  de  Monts,  who  founds  a  colony  on  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  at  Port  Eoyal  in  1605. 

1606 — James  I.,  King  of  England,  establishes  the  London  and 
Plymouth  companies  for  settling  North  America. 

1607 — ^The  Plymouth  company  land  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kennebec  river.  It  is  unfortunate,  and  returns  to 
England. 
— The  London  company  send  out  an  expedition,  which, 
accidentally  discovering  Chesapeake  Bay,  enter,  and 
found  a  colony  on  James  River,  at  Jamestown.  The 
romantic  Captain  John  Smith  was  one  of  the  colonists. 
This  was  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in 
North  America. 

1608 — Smith  seeking,  by  orders  from  the  London  company,  a 
passage  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  up  the  Chickahominy,  is 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians,  condemned  to  death,  and 
saved  by  Pocahontas. 
— Quebec  founded  by  the  French  under  Champlain; 
— ^The  English  Puritans,  persecuted  in  England,  take 
refuge  in  Holland. 

1609 — Lord  Delaware  is  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia, 
which  receives  a  new  charter,  and  a  considerable  acces- 
sion of  numbers. 
— Part  of  the  expedition,  however,  was  shipwrecked,  and 
the  colony,  embracing  a  large  unruly  and  indolent  ele 
ment,  is  near  perishing.  Pocahontas  repeatedly  saves 
them  from  the  Indians.  Hudson  river  and  Lake  Cham- 
plain  discovered. 

1610 — Lord  Delaware,  having  been  delayed,  arrives  (after  the 


154  THE  rooTPI:I^"TS  or  time. 

discouraged  colonists  had  embarked  to  return  tc   ding* 
land)  with  supplies,  and  saves  the  settlement. 

1613 — Pocahontas  marries  John  Rolfe,  an  Englishman. 
— The  Dutch  erect  a  fort  at  New  York. 

1615 — They  build  Fort  Orange,  near  Albany. 

1619 — The  tirst  General  Assembly  elected  by  the  people  is 
called  in  Virginia,  by  Governor  Yeardley.  Eleven  bor- 
oughs, or  towns,  were  each  represented  by  two  Burgesses,. 
or  citizens.  It  was  the  dawn  of  civil  liberty  in  Virginia,. 
and  a  germ  of  the  future  republic. 

1620 — Convicts  are  sent  to  Virginia,  and  negro  slaves  intro- 
duced. 
— September  6th,  the  Puritans,  discontented  in  Holland^ 
set  sail  in  the  Mayflower,  from  Plymouth,  England,  tor 
America,  undei  the  auspices  of  the  "  Plymouth  Com- 
pany." 
— December  21st  they  land  on  Plymouth  Rock,  and,  amid 

great  hardships,  found  a  religious  colony. 
— James  I.  grants  a  charter  to  the  Grand  Council  of 
Plymouth  for  governing  New  England. 

1621 — A  district  called  Mariana  granted  to  John  Mason. 
— Plymouth  colony  makes  a  treaty  with  Massasoit. 
— Cotton  first  planted  in  Virginia. 

1622 — Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges  and  John  Mason  obtain  a  charter 
of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.  They  plant  a  colony 
on  the  Piscataqua  river. 
— An  Indian  conspiracy  nearly  proves  fatal  to  the  Vir- 
ginia colony.  March  22d,  at  noon,  an  attack  is  made 
on  all  the  settlements,  and  in  an  hour  nearly  a  fourth 
part  of  the  colony  is  massacred.  The  colonists,  in  a 
bloody  war,  thoroughly  chastise  the  Indians. 

1624 — Virginia  becomes  a  royal  province,  but  stoutly  main- 
tains its  legislative  authority. 

1625 — Death  of  Robinson,  the  distinguished  Puritan  diving 
in  Holland. 


ANGLO-AMERICAN    COLON::  ZATION.  165 

1629 — Massacliusetts  colony  patented,  and  settlement  made  at 
Salem,  by  John  Endicott. 
— Charlestown,  Mass.,  founded. 
The  Dutch  colonize  the  west  side  of  Delaware  river. 

1630 — Patent  of  Carolina  made  to  Sir  Robert  Heath. 

1631 — Massachusetts  General  Court  confines  the  privilege  oi 
voting  to  church  members. 
Clayborne  plants  a  colony  on  Kent  Island. 
The  Dutch  erect  a  trading  fort  at  Hartford. 

1632 — Maryland  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore. 

1633 — Connecticut  colony  founded. 

1636 — Roger  Williams  founds  Providence. 

1637 — Pequod  war  in  Connecticut. 

1638 — Rhode  Island  settled  by  followers  of  Anne  Hutchinson. 
— Harvard  college  founded. 
— Swedes  and  Finns  settle  Delaware. 
— Colony  of  Kew  Haven  founded.     Persecution  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

1640 — Montreal,  Canada,  founded. 

1641 — New  Hampshire  united  to  Massachusetts. 

1643 — The  germ  of  the  American  Union  is  planted  by  a  con- 
federation of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  Kew  Haven.  It  was  for  mutual  protection  and 
support,  and  was  kept  alive  about  forty  years. 

1645 — Clayborne  causes  an  insurrection  in  Maryland. 

The  Mohawks  mediate  between  the  Dutch  and  Algon- 
quins. 
■ — Witchcraft  superstition  commences. 

1646 — John  Elliott  becomes  a  missionary  to  the  Indians. 

1649 — The  Mohawk  war  on  the  French  settlements  and 
Jesuits. 

1650 — Common  School  laws  passed  in  Connecticut. 

1651 — English  "  JSTavigatioc  Act  "  forbids  colonists  to  trade 
with  any  country  but  England,  and  restricts  trade 
among  the  colonies.     Thus  the  English  make  all  the 


156  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

profits.     English  merchants  set  the  price  of  purchases 

and  sales. 
1651 — Persecution  of  the  Quakers  in  Massachusetts. 

— Proprietary  government  subverted  in  Maryland. 
1657 — Elliott  translates  the  Bible  into  the  Indian  language. 
1662 — Winthrop  obtains  a  liberal  charter  for  Hartford  and 

New  Haven. 
1663 — Carolina  granted  to  a  company  of  Noblemen. 
1664 — ^The  Dutch  conquer  the  Swedes  on  the  Delaware. 

New  York  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York,  who  sends  a 

force  to   dispossess   the   Dutch.     It  is  done  without 

fighting. 

New  Jersey  granted  to  Berkely  and  Carteret. 
1665 — ^Lake  Superior  discovered  by  Father  AUouez. 
1668 — St.  Mary's,  between  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron,  the 

first  French  settlement  within  the  boundaries  of  the 

United  States,  founded. 
1670 — Mr.  Locke's  philosophical  constitution   introduced  in 

Carolina.     It  soon  proved  an  absurd  failure. 
1673 — The  Upper  Mississippi  discovered  by  Marquette. 
1675 — King  Philip's  war  in  New  England.     He  was  a  warrior 

of    great  ability  and  activity.      Fourteen   town  were 

destroyed  by  the  Indians,  and  six  hundred  inhabitants 

killed.     Philip  is  killed  August  12, 1676,  and  the  Indian 

tribes  very  nearly  destroyed. 
1676 — ^Three  of  the  Regicides  (Judges  of  Charles  I.,  King  of 

England)  came  to  New  England. 
— New  Jersey  divided  into  East  and  "West  Jersey,  at  the 

suggestion  of  Wm.  Penn. 

Bacon's  rebellion  in  favor  of  popular  rights,  ixi  Yir- 

ginia. 
1677 — Virginia  obtains  a  new  charter. 

Massachusetts  purchases  Maine. 
1678 — Sir   Edmund  Andross,  royal  governor  of  New  York, 

usurps  the  government  of  the  Jerseys. 
1679 — New   Hampshire  becomes  a  royal  province,  but   the 


ANGLO-AMERICAN    COLONIZATION.  157 

people  make  a  successful  stand  for  their  legislative 
privileges. 
— Massachusetts  having  disregarded  the  Navigation  Act, 
Edward  Randolph  was  sent  as  Inspector  of  Customs. 
He  failed  to  enforce  tne  act,  and  in  1682  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts  was  annulled. 

1680 — Charleston,  South  Carolina,  founded. 

1681 — Wm.    Fenn   receives   a  grant  of    Pennsylvania  from 
Charles  II. 
— Penn  restores  the  proprietary  government  in  the  Jerseys. 
— He  founds  Philadelphia;  makes  a  treaty  with  the  Indi- 
ans ;  and  governs  East  Jersey. 

1682 — La  Salle  visits  and  names  Louisiana. 

1686 — Sir  Edmund  Andross  being  made  Governor-General 
over  New  England,  proceeds  in  a  very  tyrannical  man- 
ner. He  endeavored  to  get  possession  of  the  charter  of 
Connecticut,  but  failed,  though  he  took  possession  of 
the  government. 

1688 — NtiW  York  and  New  Jersey  came  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Andross;  but  James  II.,  the  tyrannical  King  of 
England,  being  deposed,  Massachusetts  imprisoned 
Andross.  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  resumed  their 
charter  governments;  but  Massachusetts,  having  given 
oifense  by  resistance  to  the  Navigation  Act,  never 
recovered  her  original  charter. 
— France  having  espoused  the  cause  of  the  dethroned 
king,  a  war  broke  out  between  France  and  England, 
known  as  "  King  William's  "  war. 

1689 — ^The  government  of  New  York  is  seized  by  Jacob  Leis- 
ler  for  King  William. 

1690 — May  1st,  a  Congress  of  colonial  delegates  meets  at  New 
York  to  concert  measures  for  the  common  defense. 
February  18th,  destruction  of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and 
mas8at!re  oi  tiie  innaDitants  by  the  Indians,  sent  by 
the  French,  from.  Ca.aada. 
— March    18th,  Salmon  Falls,    New  Bampshire,  on  the 


168  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

Piscataqua  river,  is  destroyed  by  the  French  and  Indi» 
ans.     Casco,  Maine,  is  also  destroyed. 
— Sir  William  Pbippo,  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  invades 

Canada,  unsuccessfully. 
— French  Protestants  settle  in  Virginia  and  Carolina. 

1691 — Slaughter  becomes  Governor  of  New  York.     He  exe- 
cutes Leisler. 

1692 — Massachusetts  receives  a  new  charter.     Her  limits  are 
enlarged,  but  her  privileges  restricted. 
— Texas  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  at  Bexar. 

1695 — Pice  brought  to  Carolina,  from  Africa. 

1697 — The  Peace  of  Pyswick  terminates  King  William's  war. 

1698 — Piracies  of  Captain  Kidd.     He  was  tried  and  executed 
in  England,  in  1701. 

1699 — Pensacola  is  settled  by  the  Spaniards. 

1701 — William  Penn  grants  a  new  charter  to  Pennsylvania. 

1702 — The  Jerseys  united  and  joined  to  New  York. 

"  Queen  Anne's  war  "  breaks  out.     New  England  suf- 
fered much  from  the  ravages  of  the  Indians. 
— Governor  Moore,  of  South  Carolina,  attacks  St.  Augus- 
tine, but  without  success. 
• — Mobile  founded  by  d'Iberville,  with  a  colony  of  Cana- 
dian French. 
— The  Massachusetts  Assembly  contend  with  the  royal 
governor  for  their  former  liberties.     Their  charter  is 
still  further  restricted. 

1703 — Delaware   (called   The  Territories)  is  separated  from 
Pennsylvania. 

1706 — ^The  French  and  Spaniards  invade  Carolina.     They  are 
repulsed  with  loss. 

1707 — Detroit,  Michigan,  settled  by  the  French. 

1710 — Many  thousand  Germans,  from  the  Palatinate,  settle 
in  the  colonies,  from  New  York  to  the  Carolinas, 

1712 — A  war  with  the  Tuscaroras,  in  North  Carolina,  results 
in  their  complete  defeat.     They  unite  with  the  Iroquois. 


ANGLO-AMERICAN    COLONIZATION.  159 

ItlS — Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Cliamplain,  and  !N^iagara,  are 
fortified  by  the  French. 
The  Peace  of  Utrecht  closes  Queen  Anne's  war. 

1715 — In  a  war  with  the  Yamassees,  South  Carolina  loses  foui 
hundred  inhabitants,  but  expels  the  Indians. 

1716 — Natchez  founded  by  the  French. 

1717 — Father  Kasles,  a  Jesuit  Missionary  at  Norridgwock, 
Maine,  excites  the  Indians  to  drive  out  the  English 
i'roin  Maine.  He  is  the  last  oi  the  Jesuit  missionaries, 
and  is  slain  in  the  capture  of  Norridgwock,  in  August, 
1724,  by  New  England  troops. 

1718 — New  Orleans  founded  by  the  French. 

1720 — A  royal  government  supercedes  the  proprietary,  in  Car- 
olina. 

1723 — First  settlement  made  in  Vermont. 

1729 — North  and  South  Carolina  erected  into  separate  gov- 
ernments. 

1732 — A  company  in  England  prepare  to  settle  Georgia. 

1733 — General  Oglethorpe,  with  a  colony,  arrives  in  Georgia. 

1736 — Maay  Scotch  Highlanders  and  Germans  settle  in 
Georgia. 

1738 — Insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  South  Carolina. 

1740 — General  Oglethorpe  invades  Florida.  He  is  repulsed. 
The  Moravians  settle  in  Pennsylvania, 

1742 — The  Spanish  invade  Georgia,  but  retire  with  loss. 

1744—"  The  Old  French  War  "  begins. 

1745 — The  New  England  colonies  raise  a  force  and  capture 
Louisburg,  the  "  Gibralter  of  America,''  from  the 
French. 

1748 — ^The  treaty  of  peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  restores  Louis- 
berg  to  France,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the  colonies. 

1750 — The  French  and  English  both  claim  the  Mississippi 
and  Ohio  valleys.  Lawrence  Washington,  and  others 
form  the  Ohio  Company.  Parliament  grants  it  six  hun- 
dred thousand  acres  of  lana  on,  or  near,  the  Ohio  river. 


160  THE   FOOTFKINTS   OF   TIME. 

The  Frencli  dispute  tlie  possession,  and  tlireaten  Bom- 
mary  ejectment. 

1753 — George  Washington  is  sent  by  Governor  Dinwiddle,  ot 
Yirginia,  as  an  envoy  to  the  French  and  Indians  in 
Ohio. 

1754 — The  French  build  Fort  Du  Quesne  (now  Pittsburgh); 
Washington  defeats  a  French  party  headed  by  De 
Juinonville.  The  French  are  reinforced  by  fifteen 
hundred  men,  and  Washington  with  four  hundred  mei^ 
after  defending  himself  one  day,  capitulates. 
— ^The  British  government,  in  expectation  of  a  speedy  war 
with  France,  recommend  the  colonies  to  form  a  Union 
for  defense.  Delegates  from  seven  colonies  meet  at 
Albany,  June  14,  1754.  A  plan  of  Union  was  drawn 
up  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Connecticut  rejected  it  as 
giving  too  much  power  to  the  English  government. 
Parliament  rejected  it  as  giving  too  much  to  the  colo- 
nies. 

1755 — Bradcock'c  defeat  in  Pennsylvania. 

— War  with  the  Gherokees,  in  Tennessee. 
— The    I'rench,   under  Dieskau,  are    defeated  at  Lake 
George. 

1766 — Wai  was  formally  declared,  two  years  after  it  actually 
begun. 

1757 — 1  ort  William  Henry,  being  attacked  by  an  overwhelm- 
ing force  of  French  and  Indians,  surrenders,  and  the 
garrison  are  massacred  oy  the  Indians. 

1158 — July  6,  Louisburg  captured  by  the  English  under  Gen- 
eral Amherst. 
— General  Abercrombie  is  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  For.. 
Ticonderoga,  and  Lord  Howe,  much  liked  m  the  cOxO- 
nies,  is  killed. 
—August  21,   Fort  Frontenac,  now  Kingston,  Canada 

taken  by  CoL  Bradstreet 
^^November  25,  Fort  Du  Quesne  taken  by  ths  English, 
under  General  Forbes. 


AIIQLO- AMERICAN   COLONIZATION.  161 

1769 — General  Wolfe,  commander  of  the  English,  and  General 
Montcalm,  of  the  French  army,  meet  in  battle  on  the 
Heights  of  Abraham,  near  Quebec.  "Wolfe's  army 
conquered,  but  both  commanders  lost  their  lives.  Que- 
bec capitulated. 

1760 — George  III.  ascends  the  throne  of  England. 

September  8th,  Canada  surrendered  to  the  English. 
Massachusetts  vigorously  opposes  "  Writs  of  Assist- 
ance "  (search  warrants  for  goods  that  had  not  paid  the 
duty). 

1761— The  Cherokees  reduced  to  peace  by  Colonel  Grant. 

In  October,   Mr.   Pitt,   the  English  Prime  Minister, 
always  a  friend  of  the  colonies,  resigns. 
11 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CHRONOLOGICAL    HISTOEY   OF   THE  ANGLO-AMERICAN   COLONPES, 

FBOM  1763  fo  JULY  4,  1776. 

In  February,  1763,  The  Peace  of  Paris,  concluded  between 
tbe  governments  of  England  and  France,  closed  the  war  in 
America  that  had  been  so  painful  to  the  colonies  from  the 
part  which  the  French  persuaded  the  Indians  to  take  in  it. 
But,  while  the  colonies  bore  a  large  part  of  the  burden,  (they 
had  raised  $16,000,000  of  its  expenses,  and  had  lost,  in  battle 
or  in  hospital,  30,000  men,)  of  a  war  that  drove  the  French 
out  of  all  their  possessions  in  Canada  and  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river;  they  were,  at  the  same  time,  trained  to  act  in  con- 
cert, which  paved  the  way  for  a  future  confederation,  and 
hardened  them  to  war.  Being  called  into  battle  under  celebrated 
English  commanders,  and  to  fight  side  by  side  with  European 
veterans,  they  had  opportunity  to  learn  the  art  of  war,  as  well 
as  to -compare  themselves  with  the  soldiers  of  the  mother  coun- 
try and  of  France.  Tliis  comparison  was  favorable  to  them, 
and  inspired  them  with  confidence  in  their  own  ability. 

Tlie  fatal  blunders  of  Gen.  Braddock,  and  the  skill  and  bra- 
very of  Washington  and  his  provincial  troops  which,  alone, 
saved  the  British  army  from  entire  annihilation  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania wilderness,  was  never  forgotten.  They  felt  them- 
selves, even  as  raw  militia,  equal  to  the  best  European  soldiers, 
when  on  their  own  ground. 

It  was  a  great  mistake  of  the  Home  Government  to  put  on 
an  arrogant  tone  with  them  just  when  they  had  learned  their 
strength.  In  the  year  1764  that  government,  plunged  in  debt 
by  its  long  wars  with  the  continental  powers,  (it  amounted  to 

(162) 


THE   ANGLO-AMERICAN   COLONIES.  X(i$ 

$700,000,000,)  and  on  the  plea  that  the  colonies  who  had  been 
protected,  should  bear  a  fair  share  of  the  pecuniary  burden, 
determined  to  impose  taxes  on  them.  Previously  they  had 
restricted  their  commerce  to  English  ports,  had  laid  duties  on 
various  imports,  and  assumed  authority  to  change  the  govern- 
ments of  the  colonies  without  their  consent.  This  had  pro- 
duced much  dissatisfaction,  but  had  no  further  immediate  effect 
than  to  lead  them  to  remonstrance,  evasion,  or  legal  resistance. 
The  proposal  to  lay  internal  taxes  was  quite  another  affair. 
Submission  to  this  they  thought  would  be  fatal  to  their  liber- 
ties. They  resisted  with  general  moderation,  respectfully,  but 
with  determined  resolution. 

The  British  ministry  were  provoked  by  this  resistance,  hold- 
ing it  to  be  rebellion ;  and  determined  to  put  it  down,  by  force, 
if  need  be.  The  struggle  continued  for  ten  years  with  grow- 
ing obstinacy  on  either  side.  The  home  government  was 
exceedingly  obtuse  or  it  would  have  either  proceeded  to  ex- 
tremes at  once  or  yielded  the  whole  case,  as  it  finally  deter- 
mined to  do  in  1776,  when  it  was  too  late.  In  this  period  of 
lively  discussion,  and  of  organization  to  secure  the  strength  of 
union  in  resistance,  the  separate  colonies  were  gradually 
moulded  into  a  nation,  imbued  with  common  sympathies  and 
ideas,  and  moved  by  common  interests.  They  had  not  thought 
of  independence  during  all  this  preliminary  struggle.  The 
war  had  lasted  a  year  before  that  idea  became  prominent. 
That  was  not,  even  then,  regarded  as  an  end,  so  much  as  an 
indispensable  Tneans  to  secure  their  liberties.  Thus  we  see 
that  no  taint  of  conspiracy  attached  to  the  revolutionary 
struggle.  The  colonies  were  thoroughly  loyal,  until  loyalty 
came  to  mean  loss  of  liberty,  and  the  rights  enjoyed  by  Eng- 
lishmen in  England.  The  exercise  of  arbitrary  power  they 
felt  it  right  to  resist;  but  they  exhausted  all  other  modes  and 
means  of  resistance  before  they  resorted  to  arms. 

Tliey  did  not  even  make  a  first  attack.  They  waited  til] 
armies  were  sent  to  subjugate  them,  and  until  those  armies 


IM  THE  rOOTPKINTS   OF    TIME. 

commenced  tlie  attack;  then  the  whole  country  rose  in  the 
stern  resolve  to  right  their  wrongs. 

1763. 
The  Peace  of  Paris  was  signed  in  February  of  this  year. 
July  7th  began  "  Pontiac's  War,"  with  the  simultaneous  attack 
on  all  the  forts  in  the  peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  the  whole 
frontier  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  Pontiac  was  an 
Ottawa  chief,  of  great  ability,  and  had  drawn  many  Indian  tribes 
into  the  war.      It  was  virtually  ended  in  September  of  the 

same  year. 

1764. 

April  5. — "  The  Sugar  Act "  was  passed  in  the  English  Parlia- 
ment. This  levied  duties  on  coffee,  pimento,  French 
and  East  India  goods,  and  forbade  iron  and  lumber 
to  be  exported  except  to  England.  It  was  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue,  and  raised 
instead  a  storm  of  indignation.  The  Massachusetts 
House  of  Eepresentatives  said:  "If  we  are  taxed 
and  not  represented,  we  are  slaves." 
1765. 

Feb.  27 — Was  passed  the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act.  Also  the 
military  law  was  made  to  authorize  the  ministry  to 
send  any  number  of  troops  to  the  colonies,  for  whom 
the  colonists  were  to  find  "  quarters,  fire- wood,  bed- 
ding, drink,  soap,  and  candles." 

May  29^Patrick  Henry  introduced  five  "  Eesolutions  "  into  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  claiming  for  Virgin- 
ians the  rights  of  British  subjects;  that  only  their 
ovra  representatives  could  lawfully  tax  them ;  declar- 
ing the  attempt  to  vest  that  power  in  any  other 
hands  subversive  of  both  British  and  American 
liberty. 

Sept.  1  — The  Pennsylvania  Assembly  passed  similar  resolu- 
tions. 

Oct.  7  —  A  congress  of  delegates,  or  committees,  from  nine 
colonies,  met  in  New  York.     It  was  the  first  Con- 


THE  ANGLO-AMEKICAN   COLONIES.  165 

tinental  Congress.     Its  spirit  harmonized  with  that 
of  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
its  "  Declaration  of  E-ights  and  Grievances"  was  cor- 
dially approved  by  all  the  colonial  assemblies. 
1766. 

Mar.  29 — ^The  Stamp  Act  could  not  be  enforced  in  America, 
and  it  was  repealed  by  Parliament;  but  the  repeal 
\/SiZ  followed  by  another  act  asserting  the  power  and 
right  of  Parliament  "to  bind  the  colonies  in  all 
cases  whatsoever."  Thus  yielding  the  thing  and  as- 
serting the  principle,  they  both  strengthened  the 
colonies  by  a  sense  of  their  power,  and  exasperated 
them  by  a  total  denial  of  their  Declaration  of  Eights. 

May  —  Yet  their  triumph  filled  the  colonies  with  joy,  and 
gratitude  toward  the  King  and  their  English  friends. 
Virginia  voted  the  King  a  statue. 
1767. 

June  — But  their  exultation  was  short-lived.  In  this  year 
taxes  were  levied  on  tea,  paints,  paper,  glass,  and 
lead.  This  led  to  the  determination,  on  the  part  of 
the  colonies,  to  pay  no  more  taxes  or  duties  at  all. 

Oct.  28  — The  Governor  of  Massachusetts  having  refused  to 
call  the  General  Court  (or  legislative  body  of  the  col- 
ony) together,  a  public  meeting  was  held  and  reso- 
lutions passed  to  encourage  "  economy,  industry,  and 
manufactures,"  and  a  committee  appointed  to  get 
subscribers  to  an  agreement  to  discontinue  the  im- 
portation of  British  goods  not  absolute  necessaries. 
This  was  imitated  in  other  colonies. 
1768. 

Feb.  11  — Massachusetts  General  Court  issues  a  general  circu- 
lar to  other  colonial  assemblies,  inviting  cooperation 
for  the  defense  of  colonial  rights.  Those  bodies 
mostly  gave  cordial  replies.  This  General  Court  hav- 

July  ing  been  dissolved,  the  new  one  being  called  on  to 

rescind  this  circular,  refused  by  a  vote  of  ninetjy-two 


IQQ  THE  FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

to  seventeen.     These  seventeen  became  the  butt  of 
public  scorn, 
Sept.  12 — Four  regiments  of  British  troops  ordered  to  Boston. 

"  22  The  governor  had  been  desired,  by  a  Boston  "  town 
meeting,"  to  call  a  General  Court.  He  refused,  and 
the  "meeting"  issued  a  call  for  delegates  from  the 
towns  to  a  colonial  convention.  More  than  a  hun- 
dred towns  were  represented  in  the  convention  meet- 
ing this  day.     Their  main  eifort  was  to  vindicate  the 

"  28  colony  from  the  charge  of  a  rebellious  spirit.  The 
day  after  this  meeting  adjourned  two  regiments  of 
British  troops  arrived  in  Boston. 

1769. 

Jan*y  — Parliament  severely  censures  all  the  colonial  acts,  and 
directs  that  persons  arrested  in  the  colonies  for  treason 
be  sent  to  England,  to  be  tried. 

May  —  The  Virginia  Assembly  take  strong  ground  against 
this,  and  agree  with  the  Massachusetts  Convention. 
"  31 — ^The  Massachusetts  General  Court  assembles,  but 
refuses  to  transact  business  in  the  midst  of  an  armed 
force.  After  long  contest  with  them  the  Governor 
adjourned  them  to  Cambridge. 

June  13— Required  to  support  the  troops,  they  respectfully  and 
temperately,  but  firmly,  refuse,  and  decline  to  vote 
any  supplies  for  government  till  their  grievances  are 
redressed. 

July  15 — ^All  the  colonies  manifest  the  same  spirit. 

1770. 

Mar.  5 — The  indignation  of  Boston  at  the  presence  of  troops 
breaks  out  into  an  affray.  The  troops  fire  on  the  citi- 
zens. Three  are  killed  and  five  wounded.  It  was 
called  the  "  Boston  Massacre." 

A.pril  —  British  Parliament  repeals  the  last  tax  on  all  articles 
but  tea.  The  non-importation  agreements  had  exerted 
a  great  influence  in  promoting  economy,  encouraging 
manufactures,  and  bringing  "  home-made  "  into  fash- 


THE  ANGLO-AMEEICAIT   COLONIES.  1^7 

ion.    The  graduating  class  in  Harvard  College  took 
their  degrees  in  "  home-spun  "  this  year. 

1771. 
Throughout  this  year  the  same  disputes  were  main- 
tained between  the  governors  and  colonial  legislatures 
as  formerly;  but  as  the  home  government  did  not 
push  the  struggle  to  an  issue,  there  was  comparative 
quiet,  but  no  yielding, 

1772. 

June  10— The  Gaspe,  a  British  revenue  schooner,  burned  by 
a  party  from  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  Parliament 
offers  six  hundred  pounds  sterling  and  a  pardon  to 
any  accomplice  who  will  confess  and  give  up  the 
offenders.  They  were  well  known  by  colonists,  but 
no  legal  evidence  could  ever  be  obtained. 

Oct.  28 — ^A  committee  appointed  in  Boston  to  state  the  rights 
of  the  colonists  and  correspond  with  other  sections 
on  this  subject.  They  publish  an  address,  which  is 
extensively  circulated.  Franklin,  agent  for  the  colo- 
nies in  England,  republishes  it  there. 
1773. 

March — This  address  led  to  the  first  measures  for  a  political 
union  of  the  colonies. 

July  —  The  British  ministry  attempt  to  import  tea  into  the 
colonies. 

Oct.  2  —  The  people  of  Philadelphia  declare  that  any  one  who 
shall  "  aid  or  abet  in  unloading,  receiving,  or  vending 
the  tea  is  an  enemy  to  his  country." 

Nov.  3 — The  Boston   consignees   required  by  the  people  to 

resign.     They  refuse. 
"  5- 19 — A  legal  town  meeting  takes  them  in  hand,  and  at 
length  they  resign. 

Deo^v  —  Three  ships  loaded  with  tea  having  arrived,  the  people 
labor  for  near  a  month  to  have  them  sent  back.  Not 
succeeding,  the  cargoes  are  all  emptied  into  the  sea. 


168  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

1774. 

Mar. 25 — Parliament  retaliated  by  the  "Boston  Port  Bill," 
closing  it  to  commerce. 

May  13-20 — Meetings  held  in  the  principal  cities  to  consider 
the  state  of  affairs,  recommended  the  assembly  of  a 
Continental  Congress.  This  body  was  appointed  in 
all  the  provinces  but  Georgia.  There  were  fifty-three 
delegates. 

Sept.  4 — ^These  assemble  at  Philadelphia,  and  Peyton  Eandolph, 
of  Virginia,  is  chosen  President.  They  publish  a 
"  Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights."  They  agree  on 
fourteen  articles  as  the  basis  of  an  "  American  Asso- 
ciation" to  support  these  rights.  This  body  was 
henceforth  the  real  government,  all  their  directions 
being  obeyed  by  the  people.  They  completed  the 
organization  of  the  Union  and  took  preliminary 
measures  for  defense  in  case  of  attack. 
1775. 

Feb.  1  —  Lord  Chatham  introduced  a  bill  in  Parliament  which 
might  have  accommodated  all  differences,  but  it  was 
treated  with  great  discourtesy.  Parliament  deter- 
mines to  humble  and  subdue  the  colonies. 

April  19 — Battle  of  Lexington.  General  Gage  sends  eight 
hundred  British  troops  to  destroy  some  colonial  mili- 
tary stores  at  Concord,  twenty  miles  from  Boston. 
The  "  minute  men  "  assembled  at  Lexington,  are  fired 
on  and  dispersed.  The  troops  march  to  Concord, 
destroy  the  stores,  and  hastily  retreat  before  the  gath- 
ering minute  men,  who  assail  them  on  all  sides.  They 
would  have  been  completely  destroyed  but  for  a  timely 
reinforcement  at  Lexington  of  nine  hundred  men  and 
two  cannon.  The  loss  of  British  killed  and  wounded 
was  nearly  three  hundred;  of  the  provincials  eighty- 
five.  Boston  is  immediately  beleagured  by  some 
twenty  thousand  minute  men. 
**  22 — Massachusetts  Legislature  assembles.     It  sends  depo- 


THE  ANGLO-AMERICAN   COLONIES.  109[ 

sitions,  proving  that  the  soldiers  fired  first,  to  Eng- 
land, with  an  address  to  the  English  people,  declaring 
that  the  J  will  "  die  or  be  free."  This  body  voted  a 
levy  of  thirteen  thousand  men  for  the  protection  of 
the  colony. 
May  10 — The  second  Continental  Congress  assembled  at  Phil- 
adelphia. 

Colonels  Ethan  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold  surprise 
the  fortress  of  Ticonderoga,  on  Lake  George,  N^ew 
York.  Its  small  force  of  three  officers  and  forty-four 
privates  cannot  defend  it,  and  they  surrender  without 
fighting.  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain,  is  occu- 
pied without  resistance. 
Peyton  Randolph  again  chosen  President  of  Congress. 

*'  24 — Peyton  Randoph  being  called  home,  John  Hancock, 
of  Massachusetts,  is  chosen  President  of  Congress. 

"   25 — Generals  Howe,  Clinton,  and  Bargoyne,  with  large 
British  reinforcements,  arrived  at  Boston. 
Jmie  15 — George  Washington  unanimously  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Continental  forces. 

«  17— The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (or  Breed's  Hill),  near  Bos- 
ton. The  British  were  twice  repulsed,  with  great 
loss,  when  the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  failing, 
they  retreated  in  safety.  British  loss  over  one  thou- 
sand ;  American,  four  hundred  and  fifty.  British 
forces  engaged,  three  thousand  ;  American,  less  than 
fifteen  hundred.  The  British  commander  burned 
Charlestown  during  the  battle.  General  Warren, 
American,  was  killed. 

«  23— Congress  issue  bills  of  credit  for  $2,000,000. 

"  30 — Articles  of  War  aro  agreed  to  in  Congress. 
July  8 — A  last  petition  to  the  King  is  sent  by  Richard  Penn, 
grandson  of  William  Penn. 

"  17 — ^Another  million  dollars  in  bills  of  credit  is  issued. 
The  liability  for  these  was  distributed  among  the 
Colonies. 


170  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

July  26 — ^Benjamin  Franklin  appointed  first  Postmaster  Gen- 
eral. 

Aug.  30 — General  Schuyler  embarks  on  Lake  Champlain,  for 
an  expedition  against  Canada.     He  leaves  the  com- 
mand with  General  Montgomery.     Early  in  Septem 
ber  General  Arnold  starts  with  eleven  hundred  men 
to  Canada  by  Maine. 

Sept.  24 — Ethan  Allen  is  taken  prisoner,  near  Montreal. 

Oct.  18 — Falmouth   (now  Portland,  Maine)   burned    by  the 
British. 
"  22 — Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  died.    He  was  the  first 
President  of  Congress. 

Kov.  3 — ^Montgomery  captures  St.  Johns,  Canada. 

"  13 — Montreal  surrendered  to  the  Americans  under  Mont- 
gomery. 
"  20 — $3,000,000  more  in  bills  of  credit  issued  by  Congress, 
payable  in  eight  years. 

Dec.   7 — Lord  Dunmore,  British  Governor  of  Yirginia,  defeated 
near  Norfolk,  Virginia. 
"  13 — A  navy  of  thirteen  vessels  created  by  Congress.   Let- 
ters of  marque  and  reprisal  granted. 
"  21 — The  British  Parliament  pass  a  bill  declaring  all  Amer- 
ican vessels  and  goods,  and  those  of  all  persons  trad- 
ing witli  them,  a  lawful  prize,  and  authorizing  the 
impressment  of  American  sailors  into  the  royal  navy, 
where  they  might  be  required  to  fight  against  their 
own  cause  and  friends. 
"  31 — General  Montgomery  and  Colonel  Arnold  make  an 
unsuccessful  attack  on  Quebec.  Montgomery  is  killed, 
Arnold  wounded,    and    four   hundred    men    killed, 
wounded,  or  taken  prisoners,     Arnold  withdrew,  but 
kept  Quebec  blockaded  through  tho  winter. 

1776. 
Jan*   1 — Lord  Dunmore,  Royal  Governor  of  Virginia,  ravages 
the  coast  and  bums  Norfolk,  but  is  obliged  to  fly  to 
Bermuda. 


THE  ANGLO-AMERICAN   COLONIES.  ^^-J 

.fan.  20 — Georgia  prepares  to  join  the  other  twelve  colonies. 
Feb.   4 — Mcintosh,  with  an  American  force,  destroys  several 
vessels  loading  for  England,  near  Savannah,  Georgia. 

"  17 — Four  millions  more  of  paper  money  isssued  by  Con- 
gress. 
March  4 — Washington  fortifies  Dorchester  Heights,  overlook- 
ing Boston,  which  renders  it  untenable  by  the  British. 

"  10 — ^The  inhabitants  and  merchants  of  Boston  plundered 
of  their  lighter  property  by  the  British  army. 

"  17 — ^The  British  embark  for  Halifax,  and  Washington 
occupies  the  town. 

"  18 — Sir  Archibald  Campbell  sails  into  Boston,  and  his 
whole  force  of  seventeen  hundred  men  are  taken  pris- 
oners. 

"  23 — Congress  declares  all  British  vessels  a  lawful  prize. 
April  26 — ^Washington  removes  his  army  to  New  York. 
May   3 — Sir  Peter  Parker,  with  ten  ships  of  war  and  seven 
regiments,  joins  the  force  from  Boston  under  General 
Clinton,  at  Cape  Fear. 

"  16 — Congress  declared  that  all  authority  under  the  British 
crown  ought  to  be  totally  suppressed  and  government 
conducted  by  colonial  representatives  alone.  This 
was  only  an  expression  of  their  sense  of  the  danger 
to  their  interests  and  liberties  of  allowing  British 
agents  to  act. 
Time  7 — ^Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  moved  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence. 

"  8 — ^American  army  in  Canada,  under  General  Sullivan, 
make  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  enemy.  They 
are  pressed  by  superior  numbers,  and  retreat  in  good 
order,  though  with  a  loss  of  ono  thousand  men  pris- 
oners, out  of  Canada,  losing  all  their  conquests. 

"  11 — Congress  appointed  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston  a  com- 
mittee to  prepare  the  Declaration  of  Independent^. 


172  THE   FOOTPEINTS   OF  TIME. 

Jmi.28 — ^British  fleet  attack  Fort  Moultrie,  on  Sullivan's 
Island,  near  Charleston,  South.  Carolina,  but  were 
defeated  with  loss  of  two  hundred  men,  one  vessel, 
and  death  of  Lord  Campbell,  the  ex-royal  Grovernor. 

July  ^--Declaration  of  Independence  by  the  Congress  at 
Philadelphia. 


CHAPTEE    V. 

FORMATION    OF   THE   ORIGINAL  UNION. 

"The  Boston  Tea  Party"  provoked  the  English  Parliament 
into  passing  "The  Boston  Port  Bill,"  closing  that  city  to  com- 
merce. This  act  led  to  immediate  measures  for  assembling 
delegates,  representing  twelve  colonies  in  North  America 
(Georgia,  only,  was  not  represented),  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sultation on  the  measures  required  for  the  protection  of  colonial 
rights.  This  body,  called  "  The  Continental  Congress,"  assem- 
bled in  Philadelphia,  September  5,  1774.  It  drew  up  a 
"Declaration  of  Colonial  Eights;"  and,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  them,  agreed  to  accept  as  a  basis  of  common  action 
fourteen  articles,  known  as  "  The  American  Association." 

This  was  the  origin  of  the  American  Union.  Though  it  did 
not  assume  organic  political  power,  and  its  ordinances  were 
only  advisory  in  form,  it  was  better  obeyed  than  most  govern- 
ments. Arrangements  were  made  for  another  Congress  in  May 
following.  Its  day  of  meeting  was  hastened  by  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  and  it  immediately  proceeded  to  assume  the  pow- 
ers of  a  General  Government,  at  the  request  of  some  of  the 
provincial  Legislatures,  and  with  the  tacit  consent  of  all.  It 
received  its  authority  from  its  representative  character;  from 
the  imperious  necessity  of  a  head  to  organize  and  direct;  and 
from  the  voluntary  obedience  rendered  to  its  mandates.  It 
performed  all  the  functions  of  a  government  until  all  prospect 
of  reconciliation  with  Great  Britain  was  lost,  when,  June  11, 
1776,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  "  A  Declaration 
of  Independence."  This  was  adopted  and  signed  July  4, 
1776. 

(173) 


174  THK    FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

On  the  12th  of  Julj,  a  committee  of  one  from  each  State 
reported  on  the  terms  of  confederation,  and  the  powers  of  Con- 
gress; but  differences  of  opinion,  and  the  pressure  of  military 
affairs  prevented  action  on  it.  On  the  9th  of  September,  1776, 
The  name  "  United  Colonies  of  America"  was  discarded  for 
that  of  "  United  States  of  America."  Georgia  had  appointed 
delegates  on  the  4:th  of  July,  so  that  there  were  "  Thirteen 
United  States." 

On  Saturday,  November  15, 1777,  "  Articles  of  Confederation 
and  Perpetual  Union  of  the  United  States  of  America  "  were 
agreed  to  in  Congress,  and  sent  to  the  States  for  approval. 
Eight  of  the  State  Legislatures  had  ratified  these  articles  on 
the  9th  of  July,  1778;  one  ratified  July  21st;  one  July  24:th; 
one  IS'ovember  26th,  of  this  year;  one  February  22d,  1779; 
and  the  last,  March  1,  1781. 

This  document  was  little  more  than  a  digest  of  the  powers 
before  assumed  by  Congress,  and  tacitly  acknowledged  by  the 
States  from  the  commencement  of  the  war.  This,  now  legal, 
bond  had  existed  before  as  a  free,  though  unspoken,  submis- 
sion to  the  dictates  of  prudence  and  patriotism. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 


DECLARATION   OF   INUEPENDENOE. 


This  immortal  state  paper — '"  the  general  effusion  of  the  soul 
of  the  country  "  at  the  imperiled  state  of  liberty,  and  of  the 
rights  of  Englishmen — was  given  to  the  world  on  the  ith  of 
July,  1776.  The  war  of  the  Kevolution  had  been  raging  more 
than  a  year,  and  many  of  the  leading  minds  of  the  country 
had  been  actuated  by  the  hope  that  their  wrongs  would  be 
redressed,  and  the  mother  country  and  her  colonies  reconciled. 
The  course  of  events  had  convinced  them,  however,  that  there 
would  be  no  redress,  and  that  no  reconciliation  was  possible 
other  than  that  based  on  a  slavish  surrender  of  rights  and  priv- 
ileges dear  to  free  men. 

And  hence  a  more  decided  course  was  approved  by  the 
people,  and  finally  adopted  by  their  delegates  in  Congress,  on 
the  2d  day  of  July,  1776.  This  resolution  changed  the  old 
thirteen  British  colonies  into  free  and  independent  States. 
And  now  it  remained  to  set  forth  the  reason  for  this  act, 
together  with  the  principles  that  should  govern  this  new  peo- 
ple. By  this  declaration  the  new  Republic,  as  it  took  its  place 
among  the  powers  of  the  world,  proclaimed  its  faith  in  the 
truth,  reality,  and  unchangableness  of  freedom  and  virtue. 
And  the  astonished  nations,  as  they  read  that  all  men  are  cre- 
-ated  equal,  started  out  of  their  lethargy,  like  those  who  have 
been  exiled  from  childhood  when  they  suddenly  hear  the  dimly 
remembered  accents  of  their  mother  tongue. 

(175) 


176  THE    FOC/TPKINTS   OF.  TIME. 

THE  DECLAEATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

When,  in  tlie  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary 
for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  whicli  have  con- 
nected them  with  another,  and  to  assume  among  the  powers  of 
the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of 
nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to 
the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the 
causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  cre- 
ated equal;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to  secure  these  rights,  govern- 
ments are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed ;  that,  whenever  any  form  of 
government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new 
government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and 
organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  mosfr 
likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed, 
will  dictate  that  governments  long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes;  and,  accordingly,  all 
experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to 
suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  them  by  abolish- 
ing the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long 
train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same 
object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  des- 
potism, it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty  to  throw  off  such 
government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future 
security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colo- 
nies, and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to 
alter  their  former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of  the 
present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries 
and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment 
of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  States.  To  prove  this,  let 
facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world: 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE.  177 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesoine  and 
necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate 
and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation 
till  his  assent  should  be  obtained;  and  when  so  suspended,  he 
has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  aws  for  the  accommodation  of 
large  districts  of  people,  unleso  those  people  would  relinquish 
the  right  of  representation  in  the  legislature ;  a  right  inestima- 
ble to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislativo  bodies  at  places  unusual, 
uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public 
records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance 
with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly  for  oppos- 
ing, with  manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  ot  the 
people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolution,  to 
cause  others  to  be  elected;  whereby  the  legislative  powers, 
incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at  large 
for  their  exercise;  the  State  remaining,  in  the  meantime, 
exposed  to  all  the  danger  of  invasion  from  without,  and  con- 
vulsions within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States; 
for  that  purpose,  obstructing  the  laws  for  naturalization  of 
foreigners;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migra- 
tion hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appropriations 
of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing 
his  assent  to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone,  for  the 
tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their 
salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither 
swarms  of  officers  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  sub- 
stance. 

12 


178  THE   FOOTPKLNTS   OF   TIME. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies, 
without  the  consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and 
superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others,  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction 
foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  bj  our  laws; 
giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation. 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us: 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for 
any  murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of 
these  States: 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world: 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent: 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by 
jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended 
offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neigh- 
boring province,  establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government, 
and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an 
example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute 
rule  into  these  colonies: 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable 
laws,  and  altering  fundamentally,  the  powers  of  our  government: 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  them- 
selves invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  what- 
soever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of 
his  protection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our 
towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mer- 
cenaries to  complete  the  work  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny, 
already  begun,  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barberous  ages,  and  totaliy 
unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  179 

Re  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the 
high  seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the 
executioners  of  their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves 
•by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has 
endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the 
merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an 
undistinguished  destruction  oi  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions,  we  have  petitioned  for 
redress,  in  the  most  humble  terms;  our  repeated  petitions  have 
been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince,  whose 
character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a 
tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British 
brethren.  "We  have  warned  them  from  time  to  time,  of 
attempts  made  by  their  Legislature  to  extend  an  unwarranta- 
ble jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the 
circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We 
have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we 
have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to 
disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt 
our  connections  and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been 
deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity.  We  must, 
therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  sep- 
aration, and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind, 
enemies  in  war,  in  peace,  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  UNITED  STATES 
OF  AMERICA,  in  GENERAL  CONGRESS  assembled, 
appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  World  for  the  recti- 
tude of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name,  and  by  the  authority 
of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and 
declare:  Tliat  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to 
be,  FREE  AND  INDEPENDENT  STATES;  that  they  are 
absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all 
political  connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great 
Britain,  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved;    and  that,  as 


180 


THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 


FEEE  AND  INDEPENDENT  STATES,  they  have  fuU 
power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish 
commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  INDE- 
PENDENT STATES  may  of  right  do.  And,  for  the  support 
of  this  declaration,  and  in  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of 
DIYINE  PEOVIDENOE,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other 
our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

The    foregoing    declaration    was,   by    order    of    Congress, 
engrossed,  and  signed  by  the  following  members: 

JOHN  HANCOCK. 


New  Hampshire. 

JOSIAH   BaRTLETT, 

William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

Rhode  Island. 
Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

Gonnecticut. 
Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 

New  York. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 

New  Jersey. 
Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
.i^RAHAM  Clark. 

Pennsylvania. 
Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Frankmn, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson. 
Gbobge  Ross. 


Massachusetts  Bay. 
Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridqe  Gerry. 
Delaware. 
C^SAR  Rodney, 
George  Reed, 
Thomas  M'Kean. 
Maryland. 
Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone, 
Charles  Carroll,  of  CarroUtoa 

Virginia. 
George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jun., 
Francis  Lightpoot  Leb, 
Carter  Braxton. 

North  Carolina. 
William  Hooper 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

South  Carolina, 
Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heywood,  P*n», 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jun., 
Arthur  Middleton. 

Georgia. 
Button  Gwinnett. 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


CHAPTEE    VII. 

A.RTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATIOlsr  AND  PEEPETUAL 
UNION  BETWEEN  THE  STATES. 

To  all  whom  these  Presents  shall  come,  We,  the  undersigned 
Delegates  of  the  States  affixed  to  our  names,  send  greeting — 
Whereas,  the  Delegates  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
Congress  assembled,  did,  on  the  15th  day  of  November,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  1777,  and  in  the  Second  Year  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  America,  agree  to  certain  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion and  Perpetual  Union  between  the  States  of  New  Hamp- 
shire,  Massachusetts    Bay,    Ehode    Island    and    Providence 
Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,    North   Carolina,    South 
Carolina,  and  Georgia,  in  the  words  following,  viz.: 
Articles   of   Confederation  and  Perpetual    Union   between 
the  States    of  New   Hampshire,   Massachusetts    Bay, 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  Connecti- 
cut, New  York,  New  Jerseij,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Ca/rolina,  South  Carolina, 
and  Georgia. 
Article  1.     The  style  of  this  Confederacy  shall  be  "  The 
United  States  of  America." 

Art.  2.  Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty,  freedom,  and 
independence,  and  every  power,  jurisdiction,  and  right,  which 
is  not  by  this  confederation  expressly  delegated  to  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled. 

Art.  3.  The  said  States  hereby  severally  enter  into  a  firm 
league  of  friendship  with  each  other,  for  their  common  defense, 

(181) 


182  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

the  securitj  of  their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and  general 
welfare,  binding  themselves  to  assist  each  other  against  all 
force  offered  to,  or  attacks  made  upon  them,  or  any  of  them,  on 
account  of  religion,  sovereignty,  trade,  or  any  other  pretense 
whatever. 

Art.  4.  The  better  to  secure  and  perpetuate  mutual  friend- 
ship and  intercourse  among  the  people  of  the  different  States 
in  this  Union,  the  free  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  States  — 
paupers,  vagabonds,  and  fugitives  from  justice  excepted — -  shall 
be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  free  citizens  ir 
the  several  States ;  and  the  people  of  each  State  shall  have  free 
ingress  and  egress  to  and  from  any  other  State,  and  shall  enjoy 
therein  all  the  privileges  of  trade  and  commerce,  subject  to  the 
same  duties,  impositions,  and  restrictions,  as  the  inhabitants 
thereof  respectively,  provided  that  such  restriction  shall  not 
extend  so  far  as  to  prevent  the  removal  of  property,  imported 
into  any  State,  to  any  other  State  of  which  the  owner  is  an 
inhabitant;  provided,  also,  that  no  imposition,  duties,  or  restric- 
tion shall  be  laid  by  any  State  on  the  property  of  the  United 
States,  or  either  of  them. 

If  any  person  guilty  of  or  charged  with  treason,  felony,  or 
other  high  misdemeanor  in  any  State,  sliall  flee  from  justice, 
and  be  found  in  any  of  the  United  States,  he  shall,  upon  demand 
of  the  Governor,  or  executive  power  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up  and  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  his  offense. 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  of  these  States, 
to  the  records,  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  the  courts  and 
magistrates  of  every  other  State. 

Art.  5.  For  the  more  convenient  management  of  the  gene 
ral  interest  of  the  United  States,  Delegates  shall  be  annually 
appointed,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  of  each  State  shall 
direct,  to  meet  in  Congress  on  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
in  every  year,  with  a  power  reserved  to  each  State,  to  recall  its 
Delegates,  or  any  of  them,  at  any  time  within  the  year,  and  tc 
send  others  in  their  stead,  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 


ARTICLES   OF    CONFEDERATION.  188 

No  State  shall  be  represented  in  Congress  by  less  than 
Vo,  nor  more  than  seven  members;  and  no  person  shall  be 
capable  of  being  a  Delegate  for  more  than  three  years  in  any 
erm  of  six  years;  nor  shall  any  person,  being  a  Delegate,  be 
capable  of  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States,  for  which 
he,  or  another  for  his  benefit,  receives  any  salary,  fees  or 
emolument  of  any  kind. 

Each  State  shall  maintain  its  own  Delegates  in  any  meeting 
of  the  States,  and  while  they  act  as  members  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  the  States. 

In  determining  questions  in  the  United  States  in.  Congress 
assembled,  each  State  shall  have  one  vote. 

Freedom  of  speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall  not  be 
impeached  or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place,  out  of  Congress, 
and  the  members  of  Congress  shall  be  protected  in  their  per- 
sons from  arrests  and  imprisonments,  during  the  time  of  their 
going  to  and  from,  and  attendance  on  Congress,  except  for 
treason,  felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace. 

Art.  6.  No  State,  without  the  consent  of  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled,  shall  send  an  embassy  to,  or  receive  an 
embassy  from,  or  enter  into  any  conference,  agreement,  alliance, 
or  treaty  with  any  King,  Prince,  or  State ;  nor  shall  any  per- 
son holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  the  United  States, 
or  any  of  them,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or 
title  of  any  kind  whatever  from  any  King,  Prince,  or  Foreign 
State;  nor  shall  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  or 
any  of  them,  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  two  or  more  States  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  confeder- 
ation, or  alliance  whatever  between  them,  without  the  consent 
of  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  specifying  accu- 
rately the  purposes  for  which  the  same  is  to  be  entered  into, 
and  how  long  it  shall  continue. 

No  State  shall  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  which  may  interfere 
with  any  stipulation  in  treaties,  entered  into  by  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled,  with  any  King,  Prince,  or  State, 


184  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF    TIME. 

in  pursuance  of  any  treaties  already  proposed  by  Congress,  to 
the  Courts  of  France  and  Spain. 

'No  vessels  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in  time  of  peace  by  any 
State  except  such  number  only,  as  shall  be  deemed  necessary 
by  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  for  the  defense  of 
such  State,  or  its  trade;  nor  shall  any  body  of  forces  be  kept 
up  by  any  State  in  time  of  peace,  except  such  number  only,  as 
in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled, 
shall  be  deemed  requisite  to  garrison  the  forts  necessary  for  the 
defense  of  such  State;  but  every  State  shall  always  keep  up  a  well 
regulated  and  disciplined  militia,  sufficiently  armed  and  accou- 
tred, and  shall  provide  and  have  constantly  ready  for  use,  in 
public  stores,  a  due  number  of  field-pieces  and  tents,  and  a 
proper  quantity  of  arms,  ammunition,  and  camp  equipage. 

No  State  shall  engage  in  any  war  without  the  consent  of  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such  State  be  actu- 
ally invaded  by  enemies,  or  shall  have  received  certain  advice 
of  a  resolution  being  formed  by  some  nation  of  Indians  to 
invade  such  a  State,  and  the  danger  is  so  imminent  as  not  to 
admit  of  a  delay,  till  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled 
can  be  consulted ;  nor  shall  any  State  grant  commissions  to  any 
ships  or  vessels  of  war,  nor  letters  of  marque  or  reprisal,  except 
it  be  after  a  declaration  of  war  by  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled,  and  then  only  against  the  Kingdom  or 
State,  and  the  subjects  thereof,  against  which  war  lias  been  so 
declared,  and  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  established  by 
the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such  State  be 
infested  by  pirates,  in  which  case  vessels  of  war  ma}^  be  fitted 
out  for  that  occasion,  and  kept  so  long  as  the  danger  shall  con- 
tinue, or  until  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall 
determine  otherwise. 

Art.  7.  When  land  forces  are  raised  by  any  State  for  thee 
common  defense,  all  officers  of,  or  under  the  rank  of  colonel, 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  legislature  of  each  State  respectively, 
by  whom  such  forces  shall  be  raised,  or  in  such  manner  as  such 


ARTICLES    OF    CONFEDERATION.  185 

State  shall  direct,  and  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled  up  by  the 
State  which  first  made  the  appointment. 

Art.  8.  All  diaries  of  war,  amd  all  other  expenses  that 
shall  be  incurred  for  the  common  defense  or  general  welfare, 
and  allowed  by  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  shall 
be  defrayed  out  of  a  common  treasury,  which  shall  be  supplied 
by  the  several  States,  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  all  land 
within  each  State,  granted  to  or  surveyed  for  any  person,  as 
such  land  and  the  buildings  and  improvements  thereon  shall  be 
estimated  according  to  such  mode  as  the  United  States  in  Con- 
gress assembled  shall,  from  time  to  time,  direct  and  appoint. 
The  taxes  for  paying  that  proportion  shall  be  laid  and  levied 
by  the  authority  and  direction  of  the  legislatures  of  the  seve- 
ral States,  within  the  time  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled. 

Art.  9.  The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall 
have  the  sole  and  exclusive  right  and  power  of  determining 
on  peace  and  war,  except  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  the  sixth 
article — of  sending  and  receiving  embassadors — entering  into 
treaties  and  alliances  :  provided  that  no  treaty  of  commerce 
shall  be  made  whereby  the  legislative  power  of  the  respective 
States  shall  be  restrained  from  imposing  such  imposts  and 
duties  on  foreigners  as  their  own  people  are  subjected  to,  or  from 
prohibiting  the  exportation  or  importation  of  any  species  of 
goods  or  commodities  whatsoever  —  of  establisliing  rules  for 
deciding  in  all  cases  what  captures  on  land  or  water  shall  be 
legal,  and  in  what  manner  prizes  taken  by  land  or  naval  forces 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States  shall  be  divided  or  appro- 
priated —  of  granting  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  times 
of  peace — appointing  courts  for  the  trial  of  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  establishing  courts  for  receiv- 
ijlg  and  determining  finally  appeals  in  all  cases  of  captures, 
provided  that  no  member  of  Congress  shall  be  appointed  a 
judge  of  any  of  the  said  courts. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  also  be  the 
last  resort  on  appeal  in  all  disputes  and  differences  now  sub- 


386  THE   rOOTPBIJS'TS   OF   TIME. 

sisting,  or  that  hereafter  may  arise,  between  two  or  more  States 
concerning  boundary,  jurisdiction,  or  any  other  cause  whatever, 
which  authority  shall  always  be  exercised  in  the  manner  fol- 
lowing :  Whenever  the  legislative  or  executive  authority  or 
lawful  agent  of  any  State  in  controversy  with  another  shall 
present  a  petition  to  Congress,  stating  the  matter  in  question, 
and  praying  for  a  hearing,  notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by 
order  of  Congress,  to  the  legislative  or  executive  authority  of 
the  other  State  in  controversy,  and  a  day  assigned  for  the 
appearance  of  the  parties  by  their  lawful  agents,  who  shall  then 
be  directed  to  appoint,  by  joint  consent,  commissioners  or 
judges  to  constitute  a  court  for  hearing  and  determining  the 
matter  in  question  ;  but  if  they  cannot  agree,  Congress  shall 
name  three  persons  out  of  each  of  the  United  States,  and  from 
the  list  of  such  persons  each  party  shall  alternately  strike  out 
one,  the  petitioners  beginning,  until  the  number  shall  be  reduced 
to  thirteen,  and  from  that  number  not  less  than  seven  nor  more 
than  nine  names,  as  Congress  shall  direct,  shall,  in  the  presence 
of  Congress,  be  drawn  out  by  lot,  and  the  persons  whose  names 
shall  be  so  drawn,  or  any  five  of  them,  shall  be  commissioners 
or  judges  to  hear  and  finally  determine  the  controversy,  so 
always  as  a  major  part  of  the  judges  who  shall  hear  the  cause 
shall  agree  in  the  determination  ;  and  if  either  party  shall 
neglect  to  attend  at  the  day  appointed,  without  showing  rea- 
sons which  Congress  shall  judge  sufiicient,  or,  being  present, 
shall  refuse  to  strike,  the  Congress  shall  proceed  to  nominate 
three  persons  out  of  each  State,  and  the  Secretary  of  Congress 
shall  strike  in  behalf  of  such  party  absent  or  refusing ;  and 
the  judgment  and  sentence  of  the  court  to  be  appointed,  in 
the  manner  above  prescribed,  shall  be  final  and  conclusive ; 
and  if  any  of  the  parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the  authority 
of  such  court,  or  to  appear  or  defend  their  claim  or  cause,  the 
court  shall,  nevertheless,  proceed  to  pronounce  sentence  or 
judgment,  which  shall  in  like  manner  be  final  and  decisive, 
the  judgment  or  sentence  and  other  proceedings  being  in  either 
case  transmitted  to  Congress  and  lodged  among  the  acts  of 


ARTICLES    OF   CONFEDERATION.  187 

Congress  for  the  security  of  the  parties  concerned  :  provided 
that  every  commissioner,  before  he  sits  in  judgment,  shall  take 
an  oath,  to  be  administered  by  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Su- 
preme or  Superior  Court  of  the  State  v^here  the  cause  shall  be 
tried,  "  well  and  truly  to  hear  and  determine  the  matter  in 
question,  according  to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  without  favor, 
affection,  or  hope  of  reward  :"  provided  also  that  no  State  shall 
be  deprived  of  territory  for  the  benefit  of  the  United  States. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  private  right  of  soil  claimed 
under  different  grants  of  two  or  more  States,  whose  jurisdic- 
tions, as  they  may  respect  such  lands  and  the  States  which 
passed  such  grants,  are  adjusted,  the  said  grants,  or  either  of 
them,  being  at  the  same  time  claimed  to  have  originated  anve- 
cedent  to  such  settlement  of  jurisdiction,  shall,  on  the  petition 
of  either  party  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  be  finally 
determined,  as  near  as  may  be,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  before 
prescribed  for  deciding  disputes  respecting  territorial  jurisdic- 
tion between  different  States. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  also  have  the 
sole  exclusive  right  and  power  of  regulating  the  alloy  and  value 
of  coin  struck  by  their  own  authority,  or  l)y  that  of  the  respec- 
tive States  ;  fixing  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures 
throughout  the  United  States  ;  regulating  the  trade  and  man- 
aging all  affairs  with  the  Indians  not  members  of  any  of 
the  States  —  provided  that  the  legislative  right  of  any  State 
within  its  own  limits  be  not  infringed  or  violated  ;  establishing 
or  regulating  post  offices  from  one  State  to  another,  throughout 
all  the  United  States,  and  exacting  such  postage  on  the  papers 
passing  through  the  same  as  may  be  requisite  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  said  office  ;  appointing  all  ofiicers  of  the  land 
forces  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  except  regimental 
ofiicers  ;  appointing  all  the  oflScers  of  the  naval  forces,  and 
commissioning  all  officers  whatever  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States;  making  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
said  land  and  naval  forces,  and  directing  their  operations. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  have  author- 


188  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

itj  to  appoint  a  committee  to  sit  in  the  recess  of  Congress,  to 
be  denominated  "  A  Committee  of  the  States,"  and  to  consist 
of  one  delegate  from  each  State,  and  to  appoint  such  other 
committees  and  civil  officers  as  may  be  necessary  for  managing 
the  general  affairs  of  the  United  States  under  their  direction  ; 
to  appoint  one  of  their  number  to  preside — provided  that  no 
person  be  allowed  to  serve  in  the  office  of  president  more  than 
one  year  in  any  term  of  three  years  ;  to  ascertain  the  necessary 
sums  of  money  to  be  raised  for  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  appropriate  and  apply  the  same  for  defraying  the 
public  expenses  ;  to  borrow  money  or  emit  bills  on  the  credit 
of  the  United  States,  transmitting  every  half  year  to  the  respec- 
tive States  an  account  of  the  sums  of  money  so  borrowed  or 
emitted;  to  build  and  equip  a  navy;  to  agree  upon  the  number 
of  land  forces,  and  to  make  requisitions  from  each  State  for  its 
quota,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  white  inhabitants  in 
such  State,  which  requisition  shall  be  binding  ;  and  thereupon 
the  legislatures  of  each  State  shall  appoint  the  regimental  offi- 
cers, raise  the  men,  and  clothe,  arm  and  equip  them  in  a  sold- 
ierlike manner,  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States  ;  and  the 
officers  and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and  equipped,  shall  march 
to  the  place  appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed  on  by  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled;  but  if  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled  shall,  on  consideration  of  circumstances, 
judge  proper  that  any  State  should  not  raise  men,  or  should 
raise  a  smaller  number  than  its  quota,  and  that  any  other  State 
should  raise  a  greater  number  of  men  than  the  quota  thereof, 
such  extra  number  shall  be  raised,  officered,  clothed,  armed 
and  equipped  in  the  same  manner  as  the  quota  of  such  State, 
unless  the  legislature  of  such  State  shall  judge  that  such  extra 
number  cannot  be  safely  spared  out  of  the  same,  in  which  case 
they  shall  raise,  officer,  clothe,  arm  and  equip  as  many  of  such 
extra  number  as  they  judge  can  be  safely  spared ;  and  the  officers 
and  men  so  clothed,  armed  and  equipped  shall  march  to  the 
place  appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed  on  by  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled. 


ARTICLES   OF   CONFEDERATIOiT.  189 

The  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  shall  never  engage 
in  a  war,  nor  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  in  time  of 
peace,  nor  enter  into  any  treaties  or  alliances,  nor  coin  money, 
nor  regulate  the  value  thereof,  nor  ascertain  the  sums  and 
expenses  necessary  for  the  defense  and  welfare  of  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them,  nor  emit  bills,  nor  borrow  money  on 
the  credit  of  the  United  States,  nor  appropriate  money,  nor 
agree  upon  the  number  of  vessels  of  war  to  be  built  or  pur- 
chased, or  the  number  of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be  raised,  nor 
appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  or  navy,  unless 
nine  States  assent  to  the  same  ;  nor  shall  a  question  on  any 
other  point,  except  for  adjourning  from  day  to  day,  be  deter- 
mined unless  by  the  votes  of  a  majority  of  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  shall  have  power  to  ad- 
journ to  any  time  within  the  year,  and  to  any  place  within  the 
United  States,  so  that  no  period  of  adjournment  be  for  a  longer 
Juration  than  the  space  of  six  months;  and  shall  publish  the 
journal  of  their  proceedings  monthly,  except  such  parts  thereof 
relating  to  treaties,  alliances,  or  military  operations,  as  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  dele- 
gates of  each  State  on  any  question  shall  be  entered  on  the 
journal  when  it  is  desired  by  any  delegate;  and  the  delegates 
of  a  State,  or  any  of  them,  at  his  or  their  request,  shall  be  fur- 
nished with  a  transcript  of  the  said  journal,  except  such  parts 
as  are  above  excepted,  to  lay  before  the  legislatures  of  the 
several  States. 

Art.  10.  The  committee  of  the  States,  or  any  nine  of  them, 
shall  be  authorized  to  execute,  in  the  recess  of  Congress,  such 
of  the  powers  of  Congress  as  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled,  by  the  consent  of  nine  States,  shall,  from  time  to 
time,  think  expedient  to  vest  them  with  ;  provided  that  no 
power,  be  delegated  to  the  said  committee,  for  the  exercise  of 
which,  by  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  the  voice  of  nine  States 
in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  assembled  is  requisite. 

Art.  11.  Canada,  acceding  to  this  confederation  and  join- 
ing in  the  measures  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  admitted 


190  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

into,  and  entitled  to  all  the  advantages  of,  this  union  ;  but  no 
other  colony  shall  be  admitted  into  the  same  unless  such  admis- 
sion be  agreed  to  by  nine  States. 

Akt.  12.  All  bills  of  credit  emitted,  moneys  borrowed,  and 
debts  contracted  by  or  under  the  authority  of  Congress,  befort 
the  assembling  of  the  United  States,  in  pursuance  of  the  pres- 
ent confederation,  shall  be  deemed  and  considered  as  a  charge 
against  the  United  States,  for  payment  and  satisfaction  whereof, 
the  said  United  States  and  the  public  faith  are  solemnly  pledged. 

Art.  13.  Every  State  shall  abide  by  the  determinations  of 
the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  on  all  questions  which, 
by  this  confederation,  are  submitted  to  them.  And  the  articles 
of  this  confederation  shall  be  inviolably  observed  by  every 
State,  and  the  union  shall  be  perpetual ;  nor  shall  any  alteration 
at  any  time  hereafter  be  made  in  any  of  them,  unless  such 
alteration  be  agreed  to  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
be  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  legislatures  of  every  State. 

And  whereas,  It  hath  pleased  the  Great  Governor  of  the 
World  to  incline  the  hearts  of  the  legislatures  we  respectively 
represent  in  Congress  to  approve  of  and  to  authorize  us  to  ratify 
the  said  Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual  union:  Know 
ye  that  we,  the  undersigned  delegates,  by  virtue  of  the  power 
and  authority  to  us  given  for  that  purpose,  do  by  these  pres- 
ents, in  the  name  and  in  behalf  of  our  respective  constituents, 
fully  and  entirely  ratify  and  confirm  each  and  every  of  the  said 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union,  and  all  and 
singular  the  matters  and  things  therein  contained.  And  we 
do  further  solemnly  plight  and  engage  the  faith  of  our  respec- 
tive constituents,  that  they  shall  abide  by  the  determinations 
of  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  on  all  questions 
which,  by  the  said  confederation,  are  submitted  to  them  ;  and 
that  the  articles  thereof  shall  be  inviolably  observed  by  the 
States  we  respectively  represent,  and  that  the  union  shall  be 
perpetual.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands 
In  Congress.  Done  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  ninth  day  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1778,  and 
In  the  third  year  of  the  Independence  of  America. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE   EEVOLTJTIONABY   WAR   FEOM    1776    TO    1783. 

Julj  4 — The  British  troops  had  been  driven  from  Boston  about 
the  middle  of  March.  From  that  time  to  the  last  of 
June  no  British  soldiers  had  a  foothold  anywhere  in 
the  thirteen  colonies.  England  had  been  preparing, 
however.  The  aid  of  German  troops  had  been 
secured,  and  an  expedition  made  ready.  It  was  a  for- 
tunate respite,  after  a  great  success,  and  finding  the 
mother  country  inexorable  in  her  determination,  in 
which  to  carefully  consider  the  situation.  That  con- 
sideration had  produced  that  noble  protest  of  freemen 
against  tyranny  —  The  Declaration  of  Independence. 
It  now  remained  to  make  it  good  by  force  of  arms 
against  a  rich  and  powerful  European  empire,  which 
was  summoning  its  energies  to  the  work  of  subjuga- 
tion. On  the  28th  of  June  General  Howe  landed  the 
late  garrison  of  Boston,  and  other  troops,  on  Staten 
Island. 

July  12 — ^Lord  Howe  arrived  from  England;  Gen.  Clinton 
returned  from  his  repulse  at  Fort  Moultrie,  several 
Hessian  regiments  soon  after  arrived,  and  the  British 
force  amounted  to  24,000;  Gen.  Carleton  was  near 
Lake  Champlain  with  13,000  men.  The  forces  under 
Washington  did  not  amount  to  half  as  many,  but  the 
British  had  a  salutary  respect  for  American  prowess, 
and  were  laboring  to  win  the  American  leaders  back 
by  promises  of  pardon. 
a91^ 


192  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIMR. 

Aug.  27 — The  battle  of  Long  Island.  The  Americans,  9,000 
strong,  are  attacked  by  the  British,  15,000  strong. 
The  Americans  are  worsted,  but  hold  their  intrenched 
camp.  Washington  silently  and  safely  retreats  during 
the  night.  The  Americans  lost  1,600  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners.  British  killed  and  wounded, 
400. 

Sept.  1 — General  Howe  sends  General  Sullivan  (American, 
taken  prisoner  in  the  late  battle),  to  Congress  to  dis- 
cuss a  compromise  of  the  dispute  between  England 
and  the  Colonies.  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams, 
and  Edward  Rutledge,  are  appointed  to  meet  English 
commissioners.  They  meet  on  Staten  Island,  but  can 
make  no  arrangements. 

Sept.  15 — British  army  takes  possession  of  New  York.  Gen- 
eral Washington's  army  being  largely  made  up  of 
militia,  which  come  and  go,  he  adopts  "  The  Fabian 
policy "  of  avoiding  general  engagemcts,  keeping 
the  enemy  harrassed  and  in  constant  movement 
This  saved  the  American  cause. 

Sept.  26 — Benjamin  Franklin,  Silas  Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee 
appointed  commissioners  to  France. 

Nov.  1 — Henry  Laurens,  of  South  Carolina,  chosen  President 
of  Congress. 

Kov.  16 — Fort  Washington,  at  the  north  end  of  Manhattan 
Island,  assaulted  by  the  British,  in  force.  The  fori 
was  taken  with  2,000  prisoners.  The  British  loss  was 
1,200  in  killed  and  wounded. 

Nov.  18 — Americans  evacuate  Fort  Lee,  on  the  Hudson,  above 
New  York. 

Nov.  28 — Washington  retreats  across  the  Delaware  into  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Dec.  7 — Gen.  Lee  disobeys  the  instructions  of  Washington 
and  is  taken  prisoner  by  the  British. 

Dec.  8  — A  British  naval  force  takes  possession  of  Newport. 
Ehode  Island. 


THE   REVOLUTIONARY    WAS.  193 

Dec.  12 — The  British  army  being  stationed  along  the  Dela- 
ware, in  New  Jersey,  Congress  adjourns  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Baltimore. 

Dec.  26-27 — Washington  suddenly  crosses  the  Delaware  and 
surprises  Trenton.  He  captures  1,000  Hessians  and 
six  cannon,  with  a  loss  of  four  killed.  In  this  year 
about  350  British  merchant  vessels  had  been  taken 
by  Americans. 

1777. 

Jan.  2 — Washington  having  re-occupied  Trenton,  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  marches  a  strong  force  to  attack  him. 

Jan.  3 — The  American  army  silently  retreat  in  the  night  and 
capture  Princeton,  with  300  prisoners.  British  loss 
in  killed  and  wounded,  100.  American  loss  about 
the  same.     General  Mercer  killed. 

Feb.  6  — Letters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal  granted  by  the  Eng- 
lish against  American  commerce. 

March  4 — Congress  returns  to  Philadelphia. 

23 — American  stores  destroyed  at  Peekskill,  New  York. 

April  26 — Danbury,  Connecticut,  burned  by  the  British. 

May  24  — ^This  outrage  is  retaliated  by  Colonel  Meigs,  of  Con- 
necticut, who  lands  on  Long  Island  with  200  men, 
destroys  twelve  vessels,  large  quantities  of  provision 
and  forage,  takes  ninety  prisoners,  and  retreats  with- 
out the  loss  of  a  man. 

May  27  — Button  Gwinnett,  of  Georgia,  one  of  the"  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  is  killed  in  a  duel. 

June  22 — Gen.  Howe  evacuates  New  Brunswick,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  retires  in  order  to  draw  Washington  into  a 
battle.  Washington  advances  till  he  penetrates  the 
design  of  the  enemy,  when  he  retreats  to  a  strong 
position  and  foils  the  British. 

June  30 — General   Howe  embarks   16,000    troops    at   Staten 
Island  for  Philadelphia.     About  this  time  the  French 
Marquis  De  Lafayette,  a  youth  of  nineteen,  arrived 
13 


194  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF  TIME. 

in  America,  with  twelve  other  foreign  officers,  to  aid 
the  American  cause. 
July  1— British  Gen.  Burgoyne  appears  before  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga. 

"     5  — ^Americans  evacuate  Ticonderoga. 

^  7  Americans  retreating  from  Ticonderoga,  are  defeated 
at  Hubbard  ton. 

**  7  United  States  frigate  Hancock  captured  by  three 
English  vessels. 

"  29    Burgoyne's  army,  constantly  victorious,  reaches  the 
Hudson. 
Aug.  3 — British  Gen.  St.  Leger  invests  Fort  Stanwix  (Utica 
New  York). 

"  6  American  Gen.  Herkimer  defeated  near  Fort  Stan- 
wix.    American  loss  400.     Gen.  Herkimer  killed. 

"  16  Battle  of  Bennington,  Yermont.  A  victory  for  the 
"Green  Mountain  Boys."  British  lost  200  killed, 
600  prisoners,  1,000  stand  of  arms,  1 ,000  swords,  and 
ionr  cannon.  American  loss  fourteen  killed  and 
forty-two  wounded.  This  turned  the  tide  against 
Burgoyne. 

*  22     Gen.  Arnold  raises  the  siege  of  Fort  Stanwix.    St. 

Leger  loses  his  artillery,  tents,  and  stores. 
**  11    Washington's  army  defeated  by  the  British  at  the 
battle  of  the  Brandywine,  near  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware.    Washington  retreats  in  good  order. 

*  18     Congress  adjourns  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster^ 

Pennsylvania 
**  19  Battle  of  Stillwater  between  Gates,  American,  and 
Gen.  Burgoyne.  Burgoyne  held  the  field,  but  lost 
500  men;  Gates  300. 
Sept.  16 — Washington  advances  across  the  Schuylkill  to  attack 
the  British,  when  a  violent  storm  stops  the  conflict. 
The  arms  of  the  Americans  are  rendered  unservicea- 
ble by  the  rain. 


THE   EEVOLUTIONARY    WAR.  195 

fiept.20 — Gen.  "Wayne,  surprised  at  Paoli,  retreats  with  loss 
of  300  men. 
26     The  British  enter  Philadelphia. 

Oct.  4  —  Battle  of  Germantown.  Washington,  with  an  infe- 
rior army,  is  again  defeated.  British  loss  600. 
American  loss  over  1,000. 
7  Battle  of  Saratoga.  Burgoyne  is  defeated,  and  part 
of  his  camp  with  stores  and  ammunition,  much 
needed  by  the  Americans,  captured.  British  loss  400. 
They  retreated  in  the  night. 
15  Kingston,  'New  York,  burned  by  the  British.  They 
had  taken  forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery,  defending 
the  river  below,  October  6th.  This  was  an  effort  to 
aid  Burgoyne,  but  it  failed,  being  too  late,  and  they 
retreated  down  the  river. 
17  Gen.  Burgoyne  surrenders  his  whole  army  to 
Gen.  Gates.  The  prisoners  amounted  to  5,647. 
Burgoyne  had  lost  about  4,000  since  his  capture  of 
Ticonderoga.  Thirty-five  brass  field-pieces  and  5,000 
stand  of  arms  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans. 
Washington,  as  commander-in-chief,  had  diminished 
his  own  army  till  it  was  much  inferior  to  the  British 
he  was  facing,  to  secure  the  success  of  the  northern 
array  against  Burgoyne.  This  was  the  turning  point 
of  the  war.  Its  immediate  result  was  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  France. 
22  Count  Donop,with  1,200  Hessians,  attacks  the  Amer- 
ican fort  at  Red  Bank,  below  Philadelphia,  and  is 
repulsed  by  Colonel  Green  with  400  men.  Donop  is 
killed,  and  the  British  retire  with  a  loss  of  500  men 
and  two  vessels  of  war. 

Nov.  15 — "  Tlie  Articles  of  Confederation  "  adopted  by  Con- 
gress. 
16-18     Americans  abandon  Mud  Island,  and  Fort  Mercer, 
below  Philadelphia. 

Dec.  11 — ^Washington  establishes  his  army  in  winter  quarters 


1^  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

at  Valley  Forge.  During  this  year  American  prison- 
ers were  treated  with  great  cruelty  at  ISTew  York. 
General  Gates,  who  had  really  succeeded  in  capturing 
Burgoyne  only  by  the  aid  of  Generals  Schuyler  and 
Arnold,  intrigues  against  Washington.  When  this 
became  known  the  general  indignation  killed  the 
scheme. 

1778. 
The  American  cause  was  really  gained  by  the  war  of  the  pre. 
vious  year.  The  Americans  were  so  far  unanimous,  and  sa 
spirited,  that  the  British  had  not  been  able  to  get  a  perma- 
nent hold  on  any  part  of  the  country,  save  what  was  occupied 
by  their  armies  in  force. 

Jan.  30 — A  treaty  of  alliance  is  made  with  France. 
Mar.  4 — ^The  American  frigate  Alfred,  of  twenty  guns,  cap- 
tured by  two  English  vessels  of  war. 
20 — ^The  American  Minister  presented  at  the  French  Court. 
Apr.18: — Count    d'  Estaing   leaves  Toulon,  France,   with    a 

fleet  to  aid  the  Americans  in  the  war. 
Jun.  12 — Philip  Livingston,  of  New  York,  one  of  the  signers- 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died. 
17 — The  British  Parliament  having  appointed  three  Com- 
missioners, the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  Lord  Auckland,  and 
Governor  Johnstone,  to   treat   for  peace   with   the 
colonies,  on  the  basis  of  granting  everything  they 
had   asked,   except  independence.  Congress  replies, 
refusing  all  intercourse  unless  the  independence  of 
«  the  States  were  first  recognized,  and  the  English  army 

/?  withdrawn.     Two  years  before,  this  would  have  been 

eagerly  accepted.  England  had  lost,  at  the  beginning 
of  this  year,  twenty  thousand  men,  and  550  vessels, 
taken  by  American  cruisers,  worth  twelve  millioa 
dollars,  and  had  spent  one  hundred  million  dollars 
on  military  armaments  in  America. 
l8_The  English,  afraid  of  being  blockaded  in  the  Dela- 
ware river,  by  the  French  fleet,  evacuate  Philadelphia. 


THE    KEVOLUTIONAKY   WAR.  197 

Jun.  28 — Battle  of  Morristown ;  Washington  wins.  The  Brit- 
ish retreat  in  the  night.    Lord  Cornwallis  commanded. 

July  4r-5 — "  The  massacre  of  Wyoming  "  by  the  Indians,  under 
Tory  influence.  About  400  troops,  and  most  of  the 
inhabitants  killed. 

Aug.  15 — General  Sullivan  besieges  the  English  in  Newport. 
28-29 — Count  d'  Estaing,  who  was  to  have  supported  Gen- 
eral Sullivan  by  a  naval  attack  on  Newport,  Ehode 
Island,  having  suffered  severe  loss  in  an  engagement 
with  the  English  fleet,  and  withdrawn  to  Boston  to 
refit,  Sullivan  retires,  but  is  attacked  by  the  British. 
He  repulses  them,  and  retreats  from  Rhode  Island. 

Dec.  29 — Savannah,  Geo.,  taken  by  the  British. 

1779. 
The  British  direct  their  main  eftbrts,  this  year,  to  the  South- 
ern States,  and  overrun  Georgia  and  part  of  South  Carolina. 

Mar.  3 — American  force  under  Ashe  surjjrised  by  Brigadier- 
General  Prevost;  loss  1,600. 

May  2 — Yerplank's  Point,  on  the  Hudson  river,  surrenders  to 
British  forces. 
10 — Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  taken  and  partially  burned 
by  the  British. 

Stony  Point,  on  the  Hudson,  evacuated  by  the  Amer- 
icans and  occupied  by  the  British. 
12 — Prevost  makes  an  attempt  on  Charleston,  South  Car- 
-olina,  but  fails. 

^nne  6 — In  this  month  Spain  declared  war  against  England. 
20 — Gen.  Lincoln,  American,  attacks  Prevost,  at  Stone 
Eiver.      He    is    repulsed,   and   Prevost  retires    to 
Georgia. 

July  4 — Governor  Tryon  makes  a  descent,  in  Connecticut, 
destroys  the  shipping  at  New  Haven,  and  burns  Fair- 
field, Norwalk,   and  Greenwich.     He  is  called  off 

July  16 — from  this  barbarous  work  by  the  alarm  of  Gen. 
Clinton  at  the  attack   of  Gen.  Wayne    on   Stonj 


198  THE   FOOTPKINTS   OF   TIME. 

Point.  It  was  a  complete  surprise.  Sixty  of  the 
British  were  killed  and  550  made  prisoners.  Amer- 
ican loss,  100. 
19 — Major  Lee  ("  Light  Horse  Harry  ")  captured  the  gar- 
rison at  Paulus'  Hook  (Jersey  City).  The  British  lost 
30  killed,  and  159  prisoners. 

Aug.  29 — Gen.  Sullivan  is  sent  with  an  army  to  punish  the- 
Indians  for  the  massacre  of  Wyoming  and  Cherry 
Valley.  He  defeats  them  in  a  fight  near  Elmira^ 
!New  York,  and  lays  waste  their  country.  He  burned 
more  than  forty  of  their  towns,  and  destroyed  their 
provisions  and  crops. 

Sept.  24 — Paul  Jones,  in  a  desperate  naval  engagement  with, 
seven  English  vessels,  on  the  coast  of  Scotland,  cap- 
tures two  of  the  enemy's  vessels. 

Oct.  9 — Tlie  combined  French  and  American  forces  make  an 
attack  on  Savannah,  Geo.  They  are  repulsed  with 
a  loss  of  1,000  men.  Count  Pulaski  was  killed. 
Joseph  Hewes,  of  'N.  C,  Thomas  Lynch,  of  S.  C, 
and  George  Poss,  of  Pa.,  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  died  during  this  year. 

1780. 
Jan.     — The  British  send  a  large  force  to  capture  Charleston, 

S.  C,  and  overrun  that  State. 
FeK  11 — ^British  troops  are  landed  on  St.  Johns  Island,  and 

the  fleet  blockades  Charleston. 
May  6 — Fort  Moultrie,  being  invested  by  sea  and  land,  sur- 
renders to  the  British. 
12 — Charleston  surrendered  by  Gen.  Lincoln. 
29 — Col.  Tarleton  surprises  Buford,  American,  at   Wax- 
haws.     Buford  is  totally  defeated.     South  Carolina 
is  now   treated  as  a  royal  province,  all  opposition 
being  overcome,  for  the  present. 
Jnne  23 — A  sharp  action  between  the  British  Generals  Knip- 
hausen   and  Clinton,  with  6,000   troops,  and  Gen. 


THE   REVOLUTIONAKY    WAE.  199 

Greene,  with  1,500.     The  town  of  Springfield   was 
burned,  but  Greene,  taking  a  strong  position,  stopped 
the  advance  of  the  enemy,  and  he  retired  to  Staten 
Island. 
July  XO — ^The  Count  de  Kochambeau,  with  a  fleet  and  6,000 
French  troops,  arrives  at  Newport,  R.  I.      They  are 
blockaded  by  the  British. 
Aug.  6 — Col.  Sumter  gains   a  brilliant  victory  at   Hanging 
Rock,  S.  C. 
16 — Battle  of  Camden,  between  Lord  Cornwallis  and  Gen. 
Gates.     The  American  army  was  superior  in  num. 
bers  (5,600 ;  Cornwallis  not  much  more  than  2,000). 
Gates'  army  was  largely  composed  of  militia,  which 
caught  a  panic  at  the  first  attack.      The  Americans 
lost  1,800  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.     British 
loss,  325. 
18 — Tarleton  surprises  and  totally  defeats  Sumter. 
Sept.  21 — Major  Andre,  of  the  British  array,  arranges  with 
Arnold  for  the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of  West 
Point,  on  the  Hudson,  to  the  British.     The  plot  mis- 
carries, Arnold  escapes,  and  Andr6  is  captured. 
Oct.    2 — Major  Andre  is  hung  as  a  spy. 

7 — The  British  commander,  Ferguson,  is  defeated  and 
killed  by  a  body  of  American  back- woodsmen,  at 
Kings    Mountain,    South    Carolina.       300   British 
Mlled  and  wounded,  and  800  made  prisoners 
John  Hart,  of  New  J  ersey,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  died  this  year. 
1781. 
Jan.     — ^An  insurrection  broke  out  among  the  Pennsylvania 
and  other  troops  of  the  American  army  in  this  month, 
on  account  of  the  failure  of  Congress  to  pay  them. 
It  threatened  serious  consequences,  but  was  subdued 
by  the  moderation  and  influence  of  Washington. 
4 — Arnold,  the  traitor,  landed  in  Virginia,  and  laid  waste 
the  country. 


200  THE    FOOTPRIlSiTS    OF   TIME. 

17 — ^Battle  of  the  "  Cowpens,"  South  Carolina.  Colonel 
Morgan,  American,  totally  defeated  Colonel  Tarleton, 
who  lost  six  hundred  men,  with  his  baggage  and 
artillery.     Morgan  lost  eighty  men. 

Feb.  23 — George  Taylor,  of  Pennsylvania,  signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  died. 
28 — Richard   Stockton,   of    New  Jersey   signer  of   the 

Declaration  of  Independence,  died. 
15 — ^Battle  of  Guildford  Court  House  North  Carolina. 
Gen.  Greene,  American  commander,  and  Lord 
Cornwallis,  after  long  skirmishing,  came  to  a  battle. 
Greene's  army  was  mostly  raw  militia,  which  broke 
and  lied.  Greene  was  worsted,  but  retreated  in  quiet. 
His  loss  was  400;  Cornwallis',  500.  So  heavy  a  loss 
was  as  bad  as  a  defeat  to  Cornwallis. 

Apr.  25 — Battle  of  Hobkirks  Hill.  General  Greene  attacked 
by  Lord  Rawdon.  The  Americans  driven  from  the 
field.     Loss  on  each  side,  250. 

May  10 — Lord  Rawdon  evacuates  Camden,  South  Carolina. 
21 — Several  British  forts  in  South  Carolina  captured  by 
Marion  and  Sumter,  the  British  losing  in  them  800 
troops. 
28 — The  American  frigate  Alliance  captures  two  British 
sloops  of  war. 

June  5— General  Pickens,  with  militia,  captures  Augusta, 
Georgia.  Lafayette  had  been  maneuvering  with  the 
British  forces  in  Virginia  since  April,  with  great 
ability.  Though  much  inferior,  he  constantly  held 
them  in  check,  and  avoided  a  battle. 

July  6 — Cornwallis,  after  a  sharp  skirmish  with  Lafayette,  at 
Jamestown,  retires  to  Portsmouth,  Virginia.  The 
British  troops  had,  in  three  months,  destroyed  $10,- 
000,000  worth  of  property  in  Virginia. 

Aug.  1 — Cornwallis  takes  post  at  Yorktown,  Yirginia,  and 
fortifies  it.    His  force  consists  of  8.000  men. 


THE   REVOLUnONAKY   WAK.  201 

17 — It  is  arranged  that  the  combined  French  and  Amer- 
ican forces  shall  attack  Cornwallis,  in  Yirginia. 
25 — Supplies  and  money  for  the  American  armies  landed 
at  Boston,  from  France, 
gep^  5 — Forts  Trumbull  and  Griswold,  in  Connecticut,  taken 
by  the  British,  under  Arnold,  with  circumstances  of 
great  atrocity,  and  New  London  burned. 
8 — ^Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs.     Both  sides  claim  the  vic- 
tory.    The  loss  was  about  equal — seven  hundred  on 
each  side.     The  advantage,  in  the  end,  was  in  favor 
of  the  Americans,  though  they  were  repulsed.     The 
British  soon  retired. 
10 — ^The   French  fleet   enter  the  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
heavy  artilery  for  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  while  De 
Grasse,  the  French  Admiral,  with  a  large  squadron, 
guards  the  entrance  against  the  British. 
Oct.    6 — The  allied  army,  16,000  strong,  commence  the  siege 
of  Yorktown. 
19 — Cornwallis  surrenders  Yorktown,  and  7,000  troops, 

prisoners  of  war. 
25 — Colonel  Willett  repulses  600  tories,  at  Johnstown, 
New  York,  W'ith  loss. 
Dec  31 — Henry  Laurens,  United  States  Minister  to  France, 
sometime    a    prisoner    in    London,    England,    was 
exchanged  for  Gen.  Burgoyne. 
1782. 
The  war  was  now  practically  concluded.     Tlie  finances  of 
the  United  States,  the  sad  condition  of  which  had  so  much 
interfered  with  the  collection  and  support  of  strong  and  well- 
disciplined  armies,  had  been  lately  supported  by  loans  from 
France  and  Holland.     The  Americans  were  stronger  than  ever, 
the  British  could  not  hold  possession  even  of  the  Southern 
States,  where  there  were  more  royalist  inhabitants  than  fur- 
ther north  ;  and  the  aid  of  France  on  the  sea  really  made  the 
Americans   invincible.     England  could  no  longer  raise   the 
money  or  the  troops  to  continue  the  struggle. 


202  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF    'HME. 

The  year  1782  was  mostly  spent  in  negotiations.     The  dif- 

culties  of  arranging  the  terms  were  great;    and  the  boundaries 

of  the  new  Government  were  a  subject  of  much  dispute. 

Mar.  4 — Resolutions  were  passed  in  the  English  Parliament, 
in  favor  of  peace. 

Apr.  19 — Holland  acknowledges  American  independence. 

July  11 — Savannah,  Georgia,  evacuated  by  the  British,  and 
occupied  by  General  Wayne.  The  British  carried 
off  5,000  negroes.  Great  discontent  arose  in  the  army 
in  regard  to  pay,  and  only  the  great  influence  of 
Washington,  and  the  wise  moderation  of  Americaa 
statesmen  in  Congress,  prevented  serious  outbreaks. 
Franklin,  Adams,  Jay,  and  Laurens,  w^ere  the  Ameri- 
can Commissioners  who  arranged  terms  of  peace. 
Various  Indian  wars  raged  on  the  frontiers  during 
this  year. 

1783. 

Jan.  20 — ^Tlie  preliminary  treaty,  providing  for  the  cessatio» 
of  hostilities  between  England  and  the  United  States 
was  signed. 

Feb.  5 — ^The  Independence  of  the  United  States  acknowledged 
by  Sweden. 

Mar.  24 — The  Independence  of  the  United  States  acknowledged 
by  Denmark. 

The  Independence  of  the  United  States  acknowledged 
by  Spain. 

Apr.  19 — Cessation  of  hostilities  officially  proclaimed  in  the 
United  States — just  eight  years  from  the  beginning 
of  the  war.  Estimated  loss  of  men  during  the  war^ 
seventy  thousand. 


^ 


CHAPTER     IX. 

THE  CONSTITUTIONAL   CONVENTION    OF    1787. 

The  successful  termination  of  the  Revolutionary  "War  of 
seven  years  made  the  United  Colonies  which  had  commenced 
it,  in  fact,  as  well  as  in  their  Declaration,  Free  and  Independ- 
ent States.  Toward  the  close  of  the  war  they  had  adopted 
Articles  of  Confederation.  These  were  soon  found  to  be  inad- 
equate to  secure  the  general  welfare,  and  without  sufficient 
authority  to  carry  their  measures  into  effect.  No  sufficient 
means  were  supplied  by  them  to  maintain  the  public  credit,, 
and  all  the  interests  of  the  country  languished. 

They  formed  the  Bond  of  Union  for  six  years  or  more,  and 
served  an  excellent  purpose  in  calling  the  attention  of  states- 
men and  the  people  to  the  points  most  important  in  the  con- 
stitution of  a  vigorous  government.  It  was  the  trial  essay,  and 
the  intelligence  of  the  leading  men  of  that  period  turned  it  to 
great  profit. 

In  1786  the  legislature  of  Virginia  proposed  a  convention  ot 
commissioners  to  improve  the  condition  of  trade  and  commerce. 
These  commissioners  met  and  recommended  Congress  to  call  a. 
General  Convention  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
This  convention  assembled  in  May,  1787,  in  Philadelphia;  all 
the  States  except  Rhode  Island  being  represented.  George 
"Washington  was  chosen  president.  Tlie  members  oi  this  con- 
vention were  the  representatives  of  a  people  who  had  proved 
their  firmness  and  attachment  to  liberty  during  a  long  war  and 
against  great  difficulties.  The  delegates  were  men  of  tried 
patriotism,  and  the  event  has  proved  their  wise  and  discrimi- 

(203) 


2C4  THE    FOOTPRIKTS   OF   TIME. 

nating  foresight.  The  system  of  government  they  planned  is 
their  most  eloquent  eulogy.  The  severe  tests  to  which  the 
expansion  of  the  nation  and  the  conflicts  of  sections  and  inter- 
ests have  subjected  it,  have  served  only  the  more  fully  to  reveal 
how  perfectly  they  comprehended  the  principles  of  a  republi- 
can government,  and  their  singular  skill  in  arrangement.  They 
combined  the  utmost  vigor  with  the  greatest  security  of  rights. 
It  is  a  glorious  monument  to  their  political  insight.  They, 
themselves,  were  not  aware  how  profound  was  the  wisdom,  how 
complete  the  adaptation  of  its  provisions.  They  signed  it  with 
many  misgivings,  on  the  17th  of  September,  1787,  after  four 
months  of  diligent  labor.  It  was  then  presented  to  the  people 
for  their  ratiiication.  They  were  cautious  and  prudent  in 
those  times,  and  could  not  appreciate  as  we  do  now,  the  extreme 
value  ot  the  work  that  had  been  accomplished.  Time  was 
required  to  bring  out  its  excellences,  and  show  how  few  and 
comparatively  unimportant  were  its  defects.  It  was  examined 
with  careful  attention,  and  finally  adopted  as  follows: 

Bj  Convention  of  Delaware 7th  December,  1787 

"  "  Pennsylvania 12th  December,  1787 

«  «  New  Jersey 18th  December,  1787 

"  «  Georgia 2d  January,  1788 

"  «  Connecticut 9th  January,  1788 

"  «  Massachusetts 6th  February,  1788 

«  «  Maryland 28th  April,  1788 

"  «  South  Carolina 3rd   May,  1788 

«  «  ]N'ew  Hampshire 2l8t  June,  1788 

"  «  Yirginia 26th  June,  1788 

«  «  New  York 26th  July,  1788 

«  «  North  Carolina 21st  November,  1789 

«  «  Ehode  Island 29th  May,  1790 

As  shown  above,  two  years  passed  before  it  was  finally  rati- 
fied by  all  the  States.  Both  the  delay  and  the  final  unanimity 
in  its  acceptance,  giving  testimony  to  the  prudence  and  thought- 
fulness  of  the  people. 


OONSnTUnONAL   CONVENTION.  205 

Electors  of  President  and  Yice-President  were  chosen  in  the 
winter  of  1788-1789.  March  4th  had  been  appointed  as  the 
time  for  the  government  to  go  into  operation,  but  a  delay  in 
assembling  the  members  of  Congress  deferred  the  inaugura- 
tion of  Washington,  as  first  President,  until  April  30tli.  Con- 
gress immediately  organized  the  new  government,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  the  President,  appointed  the  necessary  officers. 
Some  minor  provisions  were  added  or  changed  by  the  first  Con- 
gress in  the  manner  provided  by  the  Constitution  itself,  that 
is,  by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  both  Houses,  and  ratification  by 
three-fourths  of  the  States, 

Ten  amendments  were  made  at  this  time.  The  eleventh 
amendment  was  added  in  1794.  The  twelfth  in  1803.  The 
thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  have  been 
added  since  1863, 

A  resolution  to  amend  is  passed  by  the  requisite  majorities 
in  both  Houses,  sent  to  the  legislatures  .of  the  States,  and, 
when  three-fourths  of  them  have  approved  it,  the  Secretary  of 
State  causes  the  resolution  and  amendment  to  be  published  in 
all  the  States  and  Territories,  and  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of 
the  Constitution. 

Containing  the  wisest  provisions  of  English  law,  it  rejectp 
all  that  is  not  in  harmony  with  our  circumstances,  and  our  fuu' 
damental  doctrine  that  all  men  have  equal  rights  to  life,  lib- 
erty, and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  This  it  keeps  continually 
in  view,  and,  by  the  sense  of  dignity  and  worth  which  it  tends 
to  promote  in  the  humblest  man,  gradually  educates  him  up  to 
the  standard  necessary  for  a  free  citizen,  and,  by  its  respect  for 
the  rights  of  all,  tends  to  induce  in  each  the  same  disposition. 

The  wisest  men  of  the  Republic,  by  infusing  into  this  docu- 
ment their  own  self-respect,  and  respect  for  others,  gave  tone 
and  direction  to  all  the  future.  Their  own  characters  were  so 
far  imparted  to  their  work  as  to  exert  a  salutary  influence  on 
the  destiny  of  the  people  whose  fundamental  law  they  com- 
piled. 

This  document  is  the  law  of  the  land,  obliging  the  highest 


206  THE    FOOTPKINTS    OF    TIME. 

to  obedience,  to  justice,  and  right,  and  raising  the  lowest  to  an 
equal  share  in  its  political  privileges,  and  to  its  vigorous  pro- 
tection. Consequently  a  steady  improvement  in  these  respects 
has  marked  the  growth  of  the  country,  and  the  benign  influ- 
ence of  this  respect  for  man  and  his  rights  has  gone  forth  from 
the  American  Republic  as  a  Regenerator  among  the  nations  of 
the  earth. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OP 
AMERICA,  AND  ITS  AMENDMENTS. 

We,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquil- 
lity, provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves 
and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  CoNsmx^- 
TioN  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

Akticle  I. 

Section  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist 
of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  fpr  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a   Representative  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected 
be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union, 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  includ- 
ing those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.    The  actual 


ooNSTmrnoN  of  the  u.  s.  207 

enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first 
meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
everj  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall 
by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least 
one  Representative;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made 
the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three, 
Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations 
one,  Connecticut  five,  l^ew  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Penn- 
sylvania eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Yirginia  ten,  North 
Carolina  five,  and  Geor<ria  three, 

W^hen  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  Executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to 
fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Sec.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature 
thereof  for  six  years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence 
of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  maybe 
into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class 
shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the 
second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the 
third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one-third 
may  be  chosen  every  second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by 
resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature 
of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  ap- 
pointments until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which 
shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabit- 
ant of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Yice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 


208  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

Tlie  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  Presi- 
dent fro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Yice  -  President,  or 
when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirm- 
ation. When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
Chief  Justice  shall  preside.  And  no  person  shall  be  con- 
victed without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

Judgment,  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and 
enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United 
States  ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and 
subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment  accord- 
ing to  law. 

Sec.  4.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  Senators  and  Repi-esentatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
State  by  the  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any 
time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the 
places  of  choosing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless 
they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Sec.  5.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  election, 
returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority 
of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller 
number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized 
to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members  in  such  manner 
and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  pun- 
ish its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in 
their  judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the 


CXJNSTITUTION   AND   AMENDMENTS.  209 

members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire 
of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

l^either  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days, 
nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall 
be  sitting. 

Sec.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and 
paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in 
all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  De 
privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from 
the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House  they 
shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for 
which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created, 
or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during 
such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  Unitcl 
States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance 
in  office. 

Sec.  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  con- 
cur with  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve  he 
shall  sign  it;  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections, 
to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  recon- 
sider it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  House 
shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  togei-ner  with  the 
objection,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House,  it 
shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names 
14 


210  THE    FOOTPRINTS    OF   TIME. 

of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall 
not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted),  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the 
Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its  return,  in  which 
case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary 
(except  on  a  question  of  adjournment),  shall  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  before  the  same  shall  take 
effect  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him, 
shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Kepresentatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  pre- 
scribed in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Sec.  8.     The  Congress  shall  have  power — 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general 
welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States ; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  baukruptcies  throughout  the  United 
States ; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securi- 
ties and  current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads ; 

The  promote  the  progress  of  sciences  and  useful  arts,  by 
securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  S\ipreme  Court; 


CONSTITUTION   AND   AMENDMENTS.  2H 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  oftenses  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navj; 

I'o  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws 
of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  mili- 
tia, and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States 
respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority 
of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed 
by  Congress, 

To  exercise  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  dis- 
trict (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the 
seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise 
like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the 
erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock  yards,  and  other 
needful  buildings;  and 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other 
powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Sec.  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be 
imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sua- 


212  THE    FOarPRINTS    OF    TIME, 

pended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safetj^  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro- 
portion to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to 
be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another;  nor 
shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular  state- 
ment and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  pub- 
lic money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them, 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  pres- 
ent, emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any 
king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

Sec.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or 
confederation;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin 
money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  sil- 
ver coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attain- 
der, ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of 
contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be 
absolutely  necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws,  and  the 
net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  State  on 
imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revis- 
ion and  control  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any 
duty  on  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace. 


CONSTITUTION   AND   AMENDMENTS.  213 

enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or 
with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  inva- 
ded, or  in  such  imminent  dange.r  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

Abticjle  II. 

Section  1.  The  Executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his 
office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the 
Vic6-President  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  fol- 
lows: 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole 
number  of  Senators  and  Eepresentatives  to  which  the  State 
may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or  Represen- 
tative, or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the 
United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

[*  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall 
make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  trans- 
rait  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more 
than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number 
of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President;  and  if  no  person 
have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  higliest  on  the  list  the  said 
House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  vote  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 

*  This  clause  within  brackets  has  been  superceded  and  annulled  by  the 
12th  amendment. 


214  THE   FOOTPRINTS    OF    TIME. 

representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  qnorum  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two- 
thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
accessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the 
President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the 
electors  shall  be  the  Yice-President.  But  if  there  should 
remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Yice-President.] 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  elect- 
ors, and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which 
day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

]^o  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution, 
shall  be  eligible  to  the  oflEice  of  President;  neither  shall  any 
person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  the 
age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident 
within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Yice- 
President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case 
of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  Yice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act 
as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the 
disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services 
a  compensation  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  dimin- 
ished during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected, 
and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolu- 
ment from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enters  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take 
the  following  oath  or  affirmation: 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  exe- 
cute the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to 
the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States." 


CONSTITUTION    AND   AMENDMENTS.  215 

Sec.  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United 
States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  princi- 
pal officer  in  each  of  the  Executive  departments,  upon  any 
subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he 
shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardon  for  offenses 
against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Sena- 
Jors  present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with 
the  advice  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all 
other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established 
by  law;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  tlie  appointment  of 
such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  President 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  va(!ancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  com 
missions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Sec.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress 
information  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their 
consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and 
expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both 
Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  maj^  adjourn 
them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive 
ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that 
the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the 
officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4.  The  President,  Yice-President,  and  all  civil  officers 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeach- 
ment for,  and  conviction  of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  higlr 
crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


216  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

AB'nCLE   III. 

Section  1.  The  iudicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the 
Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The 
Judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their 
offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  their  services  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  dimin- 
ished during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
their  authority;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers,  and  consuls;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  mar- 
itime jurisdiction ;  —  to  controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  party;  —  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State;  — 
between  citizens  of  different  States ;  —  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and 
between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States, 
citizens,  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers, 
and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction. 

In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with 
such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the 
said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  com- 
mitted within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or 
places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sec.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies, 
giving  them  aid  and  comfort     No  person  shall  be  convicted 


OONS'nTTJTION   AOT)   AMENDMENTS.  217 

of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same 
overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  liave  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of 
blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attainted. 

Article  IV. 

Section  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each 
State  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may,  by  general  laws, 
prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceed- 
ings shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another 
State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  Executive  authority  of  the  State 
from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State 
having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of 
any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service 
or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  the  claim  of  the  party  to 
whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress 
into  this  Union ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of 
States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  al 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this 
Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims 
of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Sec.  4.     The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State 


218  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

in  this  Union  a  Republican  form  of  government,  and  shall 
protect  each  of  them  against  invasion,  and  on  application  of 
the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature  can- 
not be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

Article  Y. 
The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall 
deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitu- 
tion, or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds 
of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by 
the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by 
conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress.  Pro- 
vided that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner 
aifect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the 
first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senata 

Article  YI. 

All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the 
United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confed- 
eration. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or 
which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and  the  judges  in  every 
State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or 
laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  Senators  and  Eepresentatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive 
and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 
States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to  support  this 
Constitution;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as 


CONSTITUTION   AND   AMENDMENTS. 


219 


a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 

States. 

Article  VII. 
The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hiindi-ed  and  eighty-seven, 
and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  twelfth.  In  "Witness  "Whereof,  "We  have  hereunto 
subscribed  our  names. 

GEO.  WASHIiTGTON, 

President,  and  Devutv  from  Virginia. 


New  Hampshire. 
John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

Massachusetts. 
Nathaniel  Gorham, 
RuFus  King. 

Connecticut. 
Wm.  Sam'l  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 

New  York. 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

New  Jersey. 
Wtl.  Livingston, 
Wm.  Paterson, 
David  Brearley, 
JoNA.  Dayton. 

Pennsyhania. 
B.  Franklin, 
Robt.  Morris, 
Thos.  Fitzsimons, 
James  Wilson, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Geo.  Clymer, 
Jar  ED  Ingersoll, 
Gtouv.  Morris. 


Delaware. 
Geo.  Read, 
John  Dickinson, 
Jaco.  Broom, 

Gunning  Bedford,  Jun'b, 
Richard  Bassett. 

Maryland. 
James  M'Henry, 
Danl.  Carroll, 
Dan.  of  St.  Thos.  Jenifer. 

Virginia. 
John  Blair, 
James  Madison,  Jr. 

North  Carolina. 
Wm.  Blount, 

Hu.  Williamson, 
Rich'd  Dobbs  Spaight. 
South  GaroltTia. 
j.  rutledge, 
Charles  Pinckney, 
Chas.  Cotes  worth  PiNCKirasT, 
Pierce  Butler. 

Georgia. 
William  Few, 
Abr.  Baldwin. 
WILLIAM  JACKSON,  Secreta/ry, 


220 


THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 


Aeticles  m  Addition  to,  and  Amendatory  of,  the  Con« 

SnTUTION   OF  THE   UnITED   I&'ATES   OF   AMERICA. 

Proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified  oy  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States,  pursuant 
to  the  fifth  article  of  the  original  Constitution. 

Article  I. 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging 
the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  peo- 
ple peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  tor 
a  redress  of  grieyances. 

Article  II. 
A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  ot 
a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms 
shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  III. 
No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a 
manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Article  TV. 
The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures, 
shall  not  be  violated ;  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon 
probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particu- 
larly describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or 
things  to  be  seized. 

Article  Y. 
"No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentrnent  or  indictment  of  a 
Grand  Jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces, 
or  in  the  militia  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public 
danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offense 
to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  com- 


CONSTITTJTION   AND   AMEKDMETSTTS.  221 

pelled  in  any  criminal  ease  to  be  a  witness  against  himself, 
nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public 
use,  without  just  compensation. 

AR'ncLE  YI. 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the 
State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  commit- 
ted, which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertainsd  by 
law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusa- 
tion ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have 
compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor;  and 
to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

Article  YII. 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be 
preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise 
re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

Article  VIII. 
Excessive  bail  shall   not  be  required,   nor  excessive  fines 
imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  IX. 
The  enumeration,  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall 
not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the 
people. 

Article  X. 
The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Con- 
fititution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the 
States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Article  XI. 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  con- 


222  THE    FOOTPRINTS   OF   TIME. 

Btrued  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  commenced  or 
prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of 
another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

Aeticle  XII. 
The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Yice-President,  one  of  whom,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  them- 
selves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  to  be  voted 
for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
Yice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Yice- 
President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they 
shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  presence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certifi- 
cates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such  majority, 
then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  number  not  exceed- 
ing three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the 
President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be 
taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one 
vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  ot  a  member  or 
members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all 
the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the 
right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day 
of  March  next  following,  then  the  Yice-President  shall  act  as 
President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  Constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  as  Yice-President,  shall  be  the  Yice-Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 


CONSTITUTION  AND   AMENDMENTS.  223 

electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Yice-President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  con- 
sist of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
But  no  person  Constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States. 

Article  XIII. 

Section  1.  ]^either  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except 
as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been 
duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any 
place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Sec.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

Article  XIV. 

Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No 
State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the 
privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its 
jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Sec.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the 
whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed ;  but  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice 
of  electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial 
officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof, 
is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 
in  any  way  abridged  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or 


224  THE   FOOTPRINTS   OF    TIME. 

other  crimes,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be 
reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citi, 
zens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Sec.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in 
Congress,  or  elector  of  President  and  Yice-President,  or  hold 
any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States  or  under 
any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  Member  of 
Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member 
of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer 
of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  house,  remove 
such  disability. 

Sec.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment 
of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrec- 
tion or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the 
United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or 
obligation  incurred  in  the  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  loss  or  emancipation  of  any 
slave,  but  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

Sec.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by 
appropriate  legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Article  XY. 

Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
vote,  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or 
or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude. 

Sec  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 


CHAPTEE    X. 

PRESIDENTS     OF    THE     CONTLNENTAL    CONGRESS,    AND    THE    VARIOUS 
SEATS   OF  GOVERNMENT   FROM    1774   TO    1789. 

Peyton  Kandolph,  Yirginia 5th  Sept.,    1774 

Henry  Middleton,  South  Carolina 22d  Oct.,    1774 

Peyton  Kandolph,  Yirginia 10th  May,  1775 

John  Hancock,  Massachusetts 24th  May,  1775 

Henry  Laurens,  South  Carolina 1st   Nov.,  1777 

John  Jay,  New  York   10th  Dec,  1778 

Samuel  Huntingdon,  Connecticut 28th  Sept.,  1779 

Thomas  McKean,  Delaware ]Oth  July,  1781 

John  Hanson,  Maryland 5th  Nov.,  1781 

Elias  Boudinot,  New  Jersey 4th     "        1782 

Thomas  Mifflin,  Pennsylvania 3d     "  1783 

Kichard  Henry  Lee,  Yirginia 30th  "        1784 

Nathaniel  Gorham,  Massachusetts 6th  Jan.,     1786 

Arthur  St.  Clair,  Pennsylvania 2d  Feb.,     1787 

Cyrus  Griffin,  Yirginia 22d  Jan.,    1788 

The  seat  of  government  was  established  as  follows  :  At 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  commencing  September  5th,  1774,  and  May 
10th,  1775;  at  Baltimore,  Md.  December  20th,  1776;  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  March  4th,  1777;  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  September 
27th,  1777;  at  York,  Pa.,  September  30th,  1777;  at  Philadel- 
l>hia,  Pa.,  July  2d,  1778;  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June  30th,  1783; 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  November  26th,  1783;  at  Trenton,  N.  J., 
November  1st,  1784;  and  at  New  York  City,  N.  Y.,  Jan- 
uary 11th,  1785. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1789,  the  present  Constitution,  which 
had  been  adopted  by  a  convention  and  ratified  by  the  requisite 
number  of  States,  went  into  operation. 
15  (225) 


PART    SECOND. 


THE  ^OYEKN'MENT  UNDEK  THE  CONSTITUTION. 


TiirE  plan  of  this  part  of  our  work  requires  us  to  give  a  com- 
plete view  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  in  such 
detail  as  to  be  adequate  to  all  the  purposes  of  the  citizen  and 
the  student  who  wish  to  understand  its  structure  and  modes  of 
working.  It  will  be  found,  we  think,  a  clear,  concise,  and 
complete  account  of  what  it  is  indispensable  to  the  American 
to  know. 

There  are  three  branches,  each  independent,  having  its  sphere 
3f  general  action  entirely  distinct,  and  clearly  defined  by  the 
Constitution;  yet  working  in  harmony  with  the  others,  and 
locking  in,  so  to  speak,  with  them  at  special  points,  like  the 
■cogs  of  a  system  of  wheels.  The  adjustment  was  more  perfect 
than  the  authors  of  the  Constitution  themselves  believed; 
probably  because  the  spirit  of  the  whole  was  in  harmony  with 
4he  people  whose  interests  it  was  designed  to  guard. 

These  three  branches  are  the  Legislative,  the  Executive,  and 
1;he  Judicial,  All  the  institutions  or  general  subdivisions  of 
•«ach  are  given  in  connection,  with  such  explanations  and  data 
-as  they  seem  to  require.  We  commence  with  the  Executive, 
--as  being  most  immediately  in  contact  with  the  people  at  large, 
liaving  a  wider  field,  and  a  larger  number  of  distinct  organiza- 

(226) 


THE  GOVERNMENT  UNDER  THE  CONSTITUTION.      227 

tions  and  agents.  Tliis  branch  exhausted,  we  present  the  Leg- 
islative, and  tinally  the  Judicial,  closing  with  such  matters  as 
belong  to  the  government  as  a  whole. 

No  human  government  is  perfect,  neither  can  exact  and 
equal  justice  be  done  in  every  case  by  human  laws.  But  the 
eeope  and  design  of  our  legislation  and  jurisprudence  is  to  dis- 
pense justice  to  all,  to  place  all  on  aa  equality  before  the  laws, 
and  to  give  the  same  rights  to  the  rich  and  to  the  poor.  No 
privileged  class  is  known  to  our  laws,  and  the  lowest  may 
aspire  to  the  highest  places  of  distinction  and  honor;  many 
have  done  so,  and  have  reached  the  most  exalted  positions. 
The  fullest  religious  liberty  is  granted  to  all;  every  man  may 
worship  as  he  pleases,  when  and  where  he  pleases,  without 
molestation  or  fear.  He  is  not,  as  in  many  other  countries, 
taxed  to  support  a  church  established  by  law.  He  may  pay 
for  religious  purposes  as  much  or  as  little  as  he  pleases,  and  to 
any  church  he  prefers,  or  he  may  pay  nothing,  and  no  one  can 
call  him  to  account  or  use  any  compulsion  whatever  in  this 
matter. 

Every  citizen  has  a  vote  for  the  choice  of  his  rulers,  and 
through  his  representatives  a  voice  in  making  the  laws  by 
which  he  is  governed. 

As  to  his  business  or  calling,  he  may  do  that  which  best 
suits  his  interests  or  his  tastes.  He  may  go  when  or  where  he 
desires,  he  may  stay  in  the  country  or  leave  it  without  restraint 
or  hindrance;  in  short,  he  may  do  whatsoever  seemeth  good  to 
Mm,  provided  he  does  not  infringe  on  the  rights  of  others. 

To  this  liberty,  to  these  equal  rights,  privileges,  and  advan- 
tages do  we  attribute  our  rapid  growth  and  power,  Tlie  advan- 
tages and  benefits  of  so  wise,  so  liberal,  and  so  beneficent  a  gov- 
ernment are  not  unknown  to  the  people  of  other  countries  where 
they  do  not  enjoy  so  much  freedom ;  and  this  accounts  for  the 
wonderful  immigration  to  the  United  States  from  nearly  every 
country  in  Europe.  This  flow  has  continued  for  more  than 
three-quarters  of  a  century,  and  is  still  unabated.  It  has 
added  many  millions  to  the  natural  increase  of  our  population, 


228  THE   GOVERNMENT    UJsDER   THE   CONSTITUTION. 

while  very  few  of  our  own  people  ever  leave  their  own  country 
with  the  hope  of  bettering  their  condition,  or  of  finding  a  gov- 
ernment under  which  they  can  enjoy  more  .liberty  or  better 
protection.  To  gain  a  clearer  conception  of  the  intimate  con- 
nection between  a  good  government  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
country,  let  us,  for  example,  place  Mexico  in  contrast  with  the 
United  States.  Mexico  was  settled  long  before  the  United 
States,  and  in  climate  and  mineral  wealth  has  the  advantage  of 
us;  yet  the  ever  unsettled  condition  of  its  government,  together 
with  intolerance  of  any  but  the  Catholic  religion,  has  prevented 
any  increase  of  population  or  any  advancement  in  anything^ 
which  gives  a  nation  respectability,  greatness,  or  power. 

Let  us  draw  another  contrast  by  considering  Ireland.  An 
oppressive  government  has  diminished  the  population,  pre- 
vented any  advancement,  and  impoverished  the  country.  We 
might  draw  many  such  contrasts  between  the  United  States  and 
other  countries  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America, 
which  would  convince  any  one  who  has  the  power  to  trace 
causes  to  effects,  and  effects  to  causes,  that  a  just  and  liberal 
government  is  an  essential  condition  upon  which  the  prosper- 
ity of  any  country  depends. 


THE  EXECUTIVE  DEPARTMENT. 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE    PEESIDEE"T. 

1.  Congress  legislates,  or  enacts  laws;  the  officers  of  the 
Supreme  Court  decide  whether  those  laws  are  in  conformity 
with  the  Constitution  ;  but  the  real  ruler,  the  actual  possessor 
of  power,  is  the  President.  In-  the  language  of  the  first  sec- 
tion of  the  second  article  of  the  Constitution,  "The  executive 
powers  of  the  government  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America."  The  other  branches  of  the  gov- 
ernment decide  what  is  to  be  done,  and  what  is  constitution- 
ally legal,  and  the  President  is  the  agent.  He  executes,  or  put/ 
in  actual  operation,  the  measures  determined  on  by  them- 
Should  he  attempt  to  do  anything  not  so  prescribed,  or  to  dr- 
anything  in  an  improper  manner,  contrary  to  or  different  fron> 
the  manner  prescribed  by  the  law,  he  may  be  impeached  an< 
removed,  and  all  the  subordinate  officers  and  agents  of  the  gov 
ernment  released  from  the  obligation  to  obey  him. 

2.  Tlie  other  branches  are  composed  of  many  persons.  He 
has  no  associate.  The  execution  of  the  law  requires  vigor  and 
decision,  such  as  can  be  found  only  in  a  single  mind  and  will. 
All  history  shows  that  there  is  constant  danger  of  power  being 
naisused,  whether  one,  two,  or  any  number  of  men  are  the 
depositaries  of  it;  but  one  man  is  much  better  than  two  or 
more,  when  vigor  and  promptness  are  required.  All  the  secu- 
rities and  checks  that  could  be  applied  without  embarrassing 
his  necessary  freedom  of  action  have  been  provided.  They  can 
iiot,  indeed,  supply  the  want  of  judgment  and  uprightness,  and 

(229) 


230  THE   PRESIDENT. 

60  no  absolute  security  against  mismanagement  can  exist ;  b\it 
the  danger  may  be  in  large  part  avoided  by  carefulness  in  the 
selection  of  the  man  who  is  to  wield  the  whole  power  of  a  great 
nation. 

It  is  an  office  of  great  dignity,  responsibility,  and  power,  and 
requires  a  man  of  great  ability  and  probity  to  properly  fill  it 

3.  The  President  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  may  be  re- 
elected if  the  people  see  fit.  Several  times  in  our  history  the 
President  has  been  once  reelected,  and  so  held  the  office  for 
eight  years;  but  none  have  been  twice  reelected,  though  there 
is  no  law  against  it.  The  term  commences  and  terminates  on 
the  fourth  day  of  March.  He  is  elected  by  the  people,  every 
voter  having  an  equal  influence  in  the  choice  ;  but  it  is  not 
done  by  voting  for  him  directly,  but  by  voting  first  for  men 
called  electors,  who  cast  their  votes  according  to  the  wish  of  the 
people.     This  system  we  shall  hereafter  examine. 

4.  A  Yice-President  is  elected  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  way,  who,  in  case  of  the  President's  death,  removal,  resig- 
nation, or  inability  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  office,  becomes, 
acting  President  during  the  remainder  of  his  term,  or  while  the 
disability  continues.  The  first  Congress  passed  a  law  giving  the 
President  a  salary  of  $25,000  per  annum,  with  the  use  of  a 
furnished  house,  and  it  remained  the  same  until  1873,  when  it 
was  raised  to  $50,000  per  year.  He  is  forbidden  by  the  Con- 
stitution to  receive  any  other  public  income  during  his  term  of 
office,  nor  is  he  at  liberty  to  accept  presents  from  any  foreign 
power. 

Before  entering  on  the  duties  of  his  office  he  is  required  to- 
take  an  oath  "•  to  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,"  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 

5.  It  is  required  that  he  shall  be  a  native-born  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  that  he  shall  have  been  fourteen  years  a. 
resident  in  the  United  States,  and  that  he  shall  not  be  less  than 
thirty -five  years  of  age ;  which  are  designed  to  insure  his  attach- 
ment  to  American  interests,  his  thorough  acquaintance  with 
American  affairs,  and  the  full  maturity  of  his  mind  and  char- 
acter. 


THE   PRESIDENT.  231 

6.  It  is  his  duty  to  appoint  such  officers  in  every  department 
of  the  public  service  as  are  not  otherwise  provided  for.  He 
usually  sends  the  nomination  to  the  Senate  for  their  approval 
or  consent,  and  when  that  is  given  appoints  them  by  commis- 
sion, signed  with  his  name,  to  the  office.  In  this  manner  he 
nominates  the  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  ambassadors^ 
resident  ministers,  charge-d'affiiires,  consuls,  and  other  repre- 
sentatives of  the  government  abroad,  all  the  Heads  of  Executive 
Departments,  and  the  more  important  subordinate  officers  of 
each  department.  When  the  Senate  is  not  in  session  he  majr 
appoint  all  these  directly,  to  serve  until  it  meets  again.  The 
clerks  and  minor  officers  are  usually  appointed  by  Heads  of 
Departments.  In  all  other  cases  the  advice  and  consent  of  the* 
Senate  are  required  before  the  appointment  and  commission^ 
can  be  legal. 

7.  It  is  his  duty  to  make  treaties  with  Foreign  Powers,  but 
these  require  confirmation  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  to  be  • 
valid.     He  receives   the  Representatives  of  Foreign  Powers,. 
and  superintends  all  diplomatic  intercourse  with  them  and  witki 
our  own  Representatives  abroad. 

He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  must', 
sign  the  commissions  of  all  the  officers  in  each.  He  may  grant" 
reprieves  and  pardons  at  his  discretion,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment, and  he  is  required  to  approve  and  sign  the  laws- 
passed  by  Congress  before  they  can  take  effect.  If  he  does; 
not  approve  a  law  he  "  vetoes  "  it  by  returning  it  to  Congress,, 
with  his  reasons  for  not  signing  it.  If  that  body  reconsiders; 
it  and  reenacts  it  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  house,  it  may 
become  a  law  without  his  signature. 

8.  He  may  call  extra  sessions  of  Congress  for  special  rea- 
sons, and  may  adjourn  it  in  case  of  disagreement  between  the 
two  houses  as  to  the  time  of  adjournment.  It  is  his  duty  to» 
give  information  to  Congress,  at  the  commencement  of  each'i 
session,  of  the  state  of  the  country,  and  to  recommend  to  it 
such  legislative  enactments  as  he  may  judge  are  required.  This 
is  called  "  The  President's  Message,"  and  is  looked  for  with; 


232  THE    PBE8IDENT. 

much  interest  in  this  and  in  foreign  countries,  since  his  posi- 
tion makes  him  intimately  acquainted  with  every  subject 
relating  to  the  public  welfare.  When  he  considers  that  the 
occasion  demands  it,  or  when  he  is  requested  by  Congress  to 
give  information  on  a  special  point,  he  communicates  with 
them  by  similar  documents,  called  messages. 

He  may  be  impeached  for  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 
crimes,  by  the  House  of  Eepresentatives,  and  tried  by  the 
Senate,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  presiding  over 
that  body  during  the  trial,  and  in  case  of  conviction  is  removed 
from  office. 

9.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  possesses  great  power,  and  that 
he  is  almost  overwhelmed  by  responsibilities.  The  members 
of  his  cabinet  are  his  constitutional  advisers,  and  share  more 
or  less  of  this  responsibility,  although  his  will  may  override 
them  all  if  he  so  chooses. 

There  are  many  provisions  for  preventing  an  abuse  of  power 
in  the  Constitution  and  in  the  laws  of  Congress,  but  all  history 
proves  that  nothing  but  watchfulness  and  wisdom  on  the  part 
of  the  people  can  preserve  to  them  their  rights  and  liberties. 
Power,  wherever  lodged,  is  naturally  aggressive.  Fortunately 
the  people  themselves  in  this  country  are  the  source  of  power, 
and  may  legally  restrain  its  exercise  in  their  representatives 
and  executive  officers,  when  it  threatens  to  become  excessive. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  all  the  Presidents,  from 
"Washington,  the  first,  down  to  the  present  incumbent : 

George  Washington,  Ya.,  30th  April,  1789,  to  4th  March,  1797 
— seven  years  ten  months  and  four  days. 

John  Adams,  Mass.,  4th  March,  1797,  to  4th  March,  1801 — 
four  years. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Ya.,  4th  March,  1801,  to  4th  March,  1809 
— eight  years. 

James  Madison,  Ya.,  4th  March,  1809,  to  4th  March,  1817 
— eight  years. 

James  Monroe,  Ya.,  4th  March,  1817,  to  4th  March,  1825 
— eight  years. 


THE     PRESIDENTS 


233 


John  Quincy  Adams,  .Mass.,  4th  March,  1825,  to  4th  March, 
1829 — four  years. 

Andrew   Jackson,  Tenn.,  4th  March,  1829,  to  4th  March, 
1837 — eight  years. 

Martin  Yan  Buren,  N.  Y.,  4th  March,  1837,  to  4th  March, 
1841 — four  years. 

William  H.  Harrison,  O.,  4th  March,  1841,  to  4th  April, 
1841 — one  month. 

John  Tyler,  Va.,  4th  April,  1841,  to  4th  March,  1845— three 
years  and  eleven  months. 

James  K.  Polk,  Tenn,  4th  March,  1845,  to  4th  March,  1849 
— four  years. 

Zachary  Taylor,  La.,  4th  March,  1849,  to  9th  July,  1850 
—one  year  four  months  and  five  days. 

Millard  Fillmore,  :N'.  Y.,  9th  July,  1850,  to  4th  March,  1853 
— two  years  seven  months  and  twenty-six  days. 

Franklin  Pierce,  N.  H.,  4th  March,   1853,  to  4th  March, 
1857 — four  years. 

James  Buchanan,  Pa,,  4th  March,  1857,  to  4th  March,  1861 
— four  years. 

Abraham   Lincoln,  111.,  4th  March,  1861,  to  15th  April, 
1865 — four  years  one  month  and  ten  days. 

Andrew  Johnson,  Tenn.,  15th  April,  1865,  to  4th  March, 
1869 — three  years  ten  months  and  twenty  days. 

Ulysses   S.   Grant,    111.,  4th   March,  1869,  to   4th  March, 
1877 — eight  years. 

Eutherford  B.  Hayes,  O.,  4th  March,  1877,  to  4tli  March, 
1881. 

Of  these  "William  H.  Harrison  died  4th  April,  1841,  just  one 
month  after  his  inauguration.  On  the  death  of  Harrison,  Tyler, 
the  Vice-President,  became  acting  President.  Taylor  died  9th 
July,  1850,  and  Fillmore,  Vice-President,  became  acting  Presi- 
dent. Lincoln  was  assassinated  on  the  14th  April,  1865,  one 
month  and  ten  days  after  he  was  inaugurated  upon  his  second 
term,  and  Andrew  Johnson,  the  Vice-President,  became  acting 
President  —  this  being  the  third  time  that  such  an  event  has, 
occurred  since  the  government  went  into  operation. 


CHAPTER    II. 
THE    YICE-PRESIDENT. 

This  officer  is  elected  bj  the  people  at  the  same  time,  and  in 
the  same  manner,  as  the  President,  and  for  the  same  term. 
He  must  be  a  native  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  thirty- 
five  years  of  age. 

His  high-sounding  title  would  lead  one  who  is  but  little 
acquainted  with  our  government  to  think  that  he  stands  next 
to  the  President  himself  in  dignity  and  power;  that  on  hi& 
shoulders  rests  a  large  amount  of  the  duties  and  responsibili- 
ties of  the  administration.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case. 
He  is,  in  fact,  nearer  a  cipher  than  any  of  the  high  officers  of 
State.  He  is  merely  the  presiding  officer  ol  the  Senate,  with 
not  even  the  power  to  vote,  except  in  case  of  a  tie  vote  in  that 
body,  when  he  may  give  the  casting  vote.  It  is  only  in  case 
of  the  death,  resignation,  impeachment,  or  disability  of  the 
President  to  discharge  his  duties,  that  the  Vice-President 
becomes  an  officer  of  much  power  or  dignity. 

Tlie  following  is  a  list  of  all  the  Yice-Presidents: 

John  Adams,  Mass.,  April  30th,  1789,  to  March  4th,  179T, 
Beven  years,  ten  months  and  four  days. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Ya.,  March  4th,  1797,  to  March  4tb.- 
1801 — four  years. 

Aaron  Burr,  N.  Y.,  March  4th,  1801,  to  March  4th,  1805- 
four  years. 

George  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  March  4th,  1805,  to  April  20th 
1812 — seven  years,  one  month,  and  sixteen  days. 

Elbridge  Gerry,  Mass.,  March  4th,  1813,  to  November  23d, 
1814 — one  year,  seven  months,  and  nineteen  days. 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  N.  Y.,  March  4th,  1817,  to  March 
4th,  1825 — eight  years. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,  March  4th,  1825   to  March  4tb 

1833 — eight  years. 

(234) 


THE    VICE-PKE8IDENTS.  235 

Martin  Van  Buren,  N.  Y.,  March  4th,  1833,  to  March  4th> 
1837 — four  years. 

Kichard  M.  Johnson,  Ky.,  March  4th,  1837,  to  March  4th, 
1841 — four  years. 

John  Tyler,  Va.,  March  4th,  1841.  to  April  4th,  1841— one 
month. 

George  M.  Dallas,  Pa.,  March  4th,  1845,  to  March  4th, 
1 849 — four  years. 

Milkrd  Fillmore,  N.  Y.,  March  4th,  1849,  to  July  9th, 
1850 — one  year  and  four  months. 

"William  R.  King,  Ala.     Died  before  he  took  his  seat. 

John  C.  Breckenridge,  Ky.,  March  4th,  1857,  to  March  4th, 
1861 — four  years. 

Hannibal  Hamlin,  Me.,  March  4th,  1861,  to  March  4th,  1865 
— four  years. 

Andrew  Johnson,  Tenn.,  March  4th,  1865,  to  April  15th, 
18G5 — one  month  and  eleven  days. 

Schuyler  Colfax,  Ind.,  March  4th,  1869,  to  March  4th,  1873— 
four  years. 

Henry  Wilson,  Mass.,  March  4th,  1873,  to  March  4th,  187T 
— four  years.    Died  Nov.  226?,  1875. 

William  A.  Wheeler,  ]^.  Y.,  March  4th,  1877,  to  March 
4th,  1881 — four  years. 

Gerry  died  November  23d,  1814;  from  which  time  till  March 
4th,  1817,  the  Vice-Presidency  was  vacant. 

Tyler  became  acting  President  upon  the  death  of  President 
Harrison ;  and  until  March  4th,  1845,  the  Vice-Presidency  wa& 
vacant. 

Fillmore  became  acting  President  upon  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Taylor,  July  9th,  1850;  and  until  March  4th,  1853, 
the  Vice- Presidency  was  vacant. 

King  was  elected  with  President  Pierce,  in  1852,  but  died 
April  18th,  1853.  He  never  took  his  seat,  and  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency was  vacant  till  March  4th,  1857. 

Johnson  became  acting  President  upon  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  April  15th,  1865,  and  the  Vice-Presidency  again 
became  vacant,  and  remained  so  until  March  4th,  1869. 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE    CABINET. 

1.  The  members  of  the  President's  Cabinet  are  seven  in 
number,  viz. :  Five  Secretaries,  at  the  head  of  their  respective 
departments,  of  State,  Treasury,  "War,  Navj,  and  Interior, 
and  the  Postmaster  General,  and  Attorney  General.  It  is 
through  these  departments  and  their  various  bureaus,  officers, 
agents,  and  clerks,  that  the  President  performs  most  of  the 
duties  of  his  position,  viz.:  that  of  executing^  or  putting  in 
force,  the  laws  of  Congress.  He  must,  therefore,  necessarily 
take  them  into  his  counsels,  and  arrange,  by  their  assistance, 
the  conduct  of  public  affairs.  Each  one  has  the  affairs  of  his 
department  so  thoroughly  systematized  that  he  can  tell,  with 
a  little  examination,  the  means  at  his  disposal  for  carrying 
into  effect  any  special  measi:re;  and  precise  records  of  the 
whole  state  of  the  public  service  may,  at  all  times,  be  found 
in  their  offices. 

2.  They  are  also  selected  for  their  several  positions  from 
among  those  regarded  as  the  most  eminent  statesmen  of  the 
country,  and  each  is  supposed  to  be  specially  adapted,  by  his 
experience,  acquirements,  and  capacity,  for  his  special  position, 
as  well  as  in  harmony  with  the  general  policy  adopted  by  the 
President.  They  are,  therefore,  properly,  and  ex  officio  (by 
virtue  of  their  office),  his  advisers.  No  one  else  can  tell  as 
well  as  they  the  condition  of  public  affairs  at  any  particular 
time,  nor,  in  consequence,  give  as  good  advice  on  any  special 
measure  requiring  such  knowledge.  Without  their  aid  the 
President  would  have  few  means  of  judging  what  was  best,  or 

(336) 


THE     CABINET.  237 

possiOio,  CO  be  done  at  any  particular  crisis.  They  furnish  the 
material  for  his  decisions,  and  the  instruments  to  execute  them. 
They  are  heads  of  the  Executive  Departments,  and,  together 
with  ftie  President,  who  is  the  head  of  them  all,  bringing  them 
all  into  harmony,  and  under  the  control  of  a  single  purpose 
and  will,  they  are  called  the  administration.  They  administer, 
or  carry  on,  the  government, 

3.  In  other  countries  these  administrative  heads  are  usually 
called  Ministers,  probably  because  they  serve  the  ruler — servant 
being  the  original  meaning  of  the  term  minister — and  are  com- 
monly chosen  among  the  members  of  the  legislative  bodies — 
perhaps  because  that  brings  the  government  into  closer 
sympathy  with  the  legislators,  and  promotes  harmony  of 
action ;  but  with  us,  no  member  of  the  Cabinet  can  have  a 
seat  in,  or  take  any  part  in  the  proceedings  of.  Congress.  Great 
care  was  taken  to  keep  the  different  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment distinct  and  independent  of  each  other.  Each  branch, 
and  each  subdivision,  is  kept  separate,  and  confined  to  its  own 
range  of  duties,  being  united  to  the  others  only  by  its  head, 
80  that  confusion  and  conflict  might  be  impossible. 

4.  Each  sub-department  reports  at  stated  intervals  to  its 
head,  and  he  to  the  President,  and  through  him  to  Cong-ress; 
and  at  the  same  time  they  present  such  suggestions  and  argu- 
ments for  legislation  in  regard  to  their  several  departments  as 
their  knowledge,  experience,  and  reflections  may  have  convinced 
them  to  be  desirable.  They  are  supposed  to  give  their  whole 
time  and  thought  to  the  care  and  improvement  of  their  several 
branches  of  the  public  service,  and  to  be  in  condition  to  know 
what  further  improvement  should  be  provided  for  by  law^. 
better  than  any  one  else. 

5.  Under  "Washington's  administration  the  departments  and 
members  of  Cabinet  were  but  three — of  State,  of  the  Treasury, 
and  of  War.  In  1798,  during  the  administration  of  John 
Adams,  the  Department  of  the  Navy  was  added,  and  its  Secre 
tarv  took  his  seat  in  the  Cabinet.  It  then  had  only  four  mem- 
bers down  to  Jackson's  administration  (1829  to  1837),  when  the 


238  THE     CABINET. 

Postmaster  General  was  made  a  Cabinet  officer,  which  increased 
the  number  to  five.  During  Mr.  Tyler's  administration  (1841- 
1845)  the  Attorney  General  was  made  a  member,  and  the 
number  was  then  six.  At  the  close  of  Mr.  Polk's  term  as 
President,  in  1849,  the  Department  of  the  Interior  was  created, 
and  its  chief  given  the  seventh  seat  in  the  Cabinet;  since 
which  time  there  has  been  no  increase.  Congress  may,  at 
their  discretion,  as  the  country  grows,  and  the  public  service 
with  it,  create  other  great  or  independent  departments  requir- 
ing its  representative  to  have  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet,  that  the 
state  of  the  entire  service  may  be  readily  known  froi»  the 
officer  most  familiar  with  each  branch. 


CHAPTEE    lY. 
DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 

1.  As  the  Chief  Executive  of  a  government  cannot,  for 
want  of  time,  attend  to  all  the  details  of  the  business  belong- 
ing to  his  office,  he,  according  to  the  usage  of  all  times,  appoints 
various  officers  to  attend  to  the  different  branches  of  public 
business.  In  most  countries  these  officers,  who  are  next  in 
importance  to  the  chief  of  the  government,  are  called  Minis- 
ters. In  accordance  with  the  practice  of  using  plain  and 
simple  terms  which  was  adopted  in  this  country  at  the  begin- 
ning, they  are  called  Secretaries.  They  are  subordinates  of  the 
President  and  supposed  to  act  in  his  name  and  under  his  direc- 
tion. 

2.  They  are  not  specially  named  in  the  Constitution,  but  are 
several  times  referred  to  as  Heads  of  Departments,  and  thus  it 
was  assumed  that  there  would  be  such  offices  and  officers,  and 
their  appointment  was  provided  for.  The  first  Congress  under 
the  Constitution  organized  these  Executive  Departments,  the 
President  nominating  and  the  Senate  confirming  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  more  responsible  officers. 

3.  The  first  of  ,these  in  rank  is  called  the  Department  of 
State,  and  its  head  is  named  the  Secretary  of  State.  He  is,  by 
a  law  passed  in  1853,  aided  by  an  Assistant  Secretary,  appointed 
in  the  same  manner  as  himself.  The  numerous  under  officers 
required  by  the  extensive  business  falling  to  this  department 
are  appointed  by  the  Secretary  at  its  head. 

4.  Tins  Department  has  charge  of  such  business  as  may 
arise  between  this  government  and  the  governments  of  other 

(239) 


240  DEPAETMENT   OF   STATE. 

countries.  In  most  countries  it  is  called  the  Department,  or 
Ministry,  of  Foreign  Affairs,  but  tlie  term  Department  of  State 
was  preferred  here.  The  great  Seal  of  the  United  States  is  in  his- 
keeping,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  affix  it  to  all  civil  commissions 
given  to  officers  of  the  United  States  who  are  appointed  by  the 
President  and  Senate,  or  by  the  President  alone.  It  is  his  duty, 
under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  President,  to  conduct 
the  correspondence  with,  and  give  instructions  to,  the  Foreign 
Ministers,  Consuls,  and  Agents  of  the  government  abroad, 
to  take  charge  of  the  official  business  and  intercourse  of  the 
government  with  the  representatives  of  foreign  governments 
sent  to  us,  and  to  attend  to  such  other  business  arising  from 
our  Foreign  Relations  as  shall  be  committed  to  him  by  the 
President. 

5.  It  is  his  duty  to  keep  in  his  office  the  original  copies  of 
all  acts,  resolutions,  and  orders  of  Congress.  He  must  deliver 
to  each  Senator  and  Representative  in  Congress,  and  to  the 
Governor  of  each  State,  a  printed  copy  of  the  same;  and  during 
the  session  of  each  Congress  he  must  publish  the  acts  and  reso- 
lutions passed  by  it  in  one  newspaper  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia,  and  in  not  more  than  two  in  each  State  and  Territory  of 
the  United  States.  He  must  also  publish  in  like  manner  all 
amendments  of  the  Constitution,  and  all  public  treaties  made 
and  ratified  between  the  United  States  and  any  foreign  State, 
Prince,  or  Power,  or  with  any  of  the  Indian  tribes. 

6.  And  at  the  close  of  each  session  of  Congress  he  must 
cause  to  be  published  11,000  copies  in  book  form  of  all  the  laws, 
etc.,  as  before  stated ;  and  to  distribute  the  same  as  directed  by 
law  to  the  President  and  Yice-President,  and  to  every  ex-Presi- 
dent; to  all  the  members  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives; to  all  the  heads  of  the  various  departments  and 
bureaus;  to  all  the  Judges  of  the  United  States  Courts,  their 
Clerks  and  Marshals;  to  all  our  Foreign  Ministers,  Consuls,, 
and  Public  Agents;  in  short,  to  all  the  important  officers  of 
the  government  at  home  and  abroad ;  in  order  that  all  who  are 
in  government  employ  may  know  what  the  laws  are,  and  what 


DEPARTMENT   OF   STATE.  241 

changes  have  been  made  in  acts  formerly  existing.  The 
remaining  copies  are  distributed  to  the  States  and  Territories 
according  to  the  number  of  Representatives  in  Congress  from 
each  of  them. 

7.  It  is  also  made  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  State  to  give 
passports  to  our  own  citizens  who  wish  to  travel  in  foreign 
countries;  to  cause  passports  to  be  issued  by  such  Diplomatic 
or  Consular  officers  of  the  United  States  as  the  President  shall 
direct;  to  give  such  information  to  our  people  through  the 
newspapers  as  he  may  from  time  to  time  receive  from  our  Dip- 
lomatic and  Consular  agents  abroad,  as  he  may  deem  import- 
ant to  the  nation,  respecting  our  commercial  interests  in  for- 
eign countries,  and  to  prepare  a  form  of  passport  for  the  ships 
and  vessels  of  the  United  States. 

8.  In  the  execution  of  extradition  treaties  between  us  and 
foreign  governments,  it  is  lawful  for  the  Secretary  of  State, 
under  his  hand  and  seal  of  office,  to  issue  an  order  for  the  ren- 
dition of  any  person  who  has  been  found  guilty  of  crime  in  a 
foreign  country,  to  any  properly  authorized  person ;  that  such 
criminal  may  be  taken  out  of  the  United  States  to  the  country 
where  the  crime  was  committed. 

9.  It  will  be  seen  that,  in  addition  to  the  duties  connected 
with  our  Foreign  Relations,  he  is  a  kind  of  General  Secretary 
of  the  Legislative  branch  of  the  government,  which  probably 
led  to  his  being  called  Secretary  of  State  rather  than  Secretary 
of  Foreign  Affairs.  The  highest  officer,  in  most  other  govern- 
ments, under  the  Executive,  is  commonly  called  Prime  Minister; 
but  he  usually  has  care  of  the  general  interests  of  the  govern- 
ment, internal  as  well  as  external,  and  the  term  would  not  be 
fitting  to  the  Secretary  of  State. 

Our  Foreign  Relations  require  to  be  managed  with  great 
wisdom  and  skill,  since  they  often  involve  peace  and  war,  and 
the  general  prosperity  of  the  country.  It  therefore  requires  a 
man  of  great  ability,  and  of  extensive  knowledge.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet,  and  one  of  the  advisers  or  counselors 
of  the  President.     His  appointment  is  for  four  years,  or  during 

le 


242  DEPAE-niENT   OF   STATK 

a  Presidential  term;  out  Jie  may  be  removed  by  the  President 
at  any  time,  if  lie  deems  it  advisable. 

10.  As  a  matter  of  historical  reference,  we  append  the 
names  of  all  the  statesmen  who  have  filled  this  high  ofiiee, 
commencing  with  the  first,  placing  them  in  the  order  of  the 
dates  of  their  appointments,  together  with  the  States  from 
which  they  came: 

SECKETAEIES    OF    STATE. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Ya.,  Sept.  26th,  1789. 

Edmund  Kandolph,  Va.,  Jan.  2d,  1794. 

Timothy  Pickering,  Mass.,  Dec.  10th,  1795. 

John  Marshall,  Ya.,  May  13th,  1800. 

James  Madison,  Ya.,  March  5tli,  1801. 

Eobert  Smith,  Md.,  March  6th,  1809. 

James  Monroe,  Ya.,  April  2d,  1811. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  Mass.,.  March  4th,  1817. 

Henry  Clay,  Ky.,  March  7th,  1825. 

Martin  Yan  Buren,  N.  Y.,  March  6th,  1829. 

Edward  Livingston,  La.,  May  24th,  1831. 

Louis  McLane,  Del  ,  May  29th,  1833. 

John  Jborsyth,  Ga.,  June  27th,  1834. 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass.,  March  5th,  1841. 

H.  S.  Legare,  S.  C,  May  9th,  1843. 

A.  P.  Upshur,  Ya.,  June  24th,  1843. 

Jolin  Nelson,  Md.,  Feb.  29th,  1844. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,  March  6th,  1844. 

James  Buchanan,  Pa.,  March  5th,  1845. 

John  M.  Clayton,  Del.,  March  7th,  1849. 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass.,  July  20th,  1850. 

Edward  Everett,  Mass.,  Dec.  9th,  1851. 

William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y.,  March  5th,  1853. 

Lewis  Cass,  Mich.,  March  6th,  1857. 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Pa.,  Dec.  14th,  1860. 

William  H.  Seward,  N.  Y.,  March  5th,  1861. 

Elihu  B.  Washburne,  111.,  March  5th,  1869, 

Hamilton  Fish,  N.  Y.,  March  11th,  1869. 

Hamilton  Fish,  N.  Y.,  reappointed  March  4th,  1873. 

William  M.  Evarts,  N.  Y.,  March  10th,  1877. 


CHAPTEE    V. 
OUK  EEPEESENTATIVES  I:N^  FOEEIGN  LANDS. 

1.  Nations  have  business  with  each  other,  as  individuals 
hh,ve;  and  their  governments  employ  agents  to  represent  them 
and  transact  business  in  their  name.  By  these  means  their 
political  and  commercial  relations  and  intercourse  are  regulated, 
treaties  are  made,  and  any  disputes  that  may  arise  between 
them  settled.  Officers  of  this  character  have  been  employed 
from  very  early  times,  and  by  all  nations.  They  are  considered 
to  be  clothed  with  the  authority  and  dignity  of  the  govern- 
ment they  represent,  and  therefore  the  office  has  ever  been  held 
in  great  honor,  and  men  most  familiar  with  the  ajffairs  of  their 
own  nation,  of  most  extensive  knowledge,  prudence,  and  wis- 
dom, are  supposed  to  be  selected  for  so  eminent  a  service. 

2.  By  the  law  (or  general  consent)  of  nations  ambassadors 
are  exempt  from  arrest,  imprisonment,  or  prosecution.  Any 
interference  with  them  in  this  way  might  hinder  the  execution 
of  the  duties  assigned  them,  and  be  a  great  damage  to  the 
public  welfare,  and  an  offense  of  that  kind  committed  against 
them  is  considered  as  a  dishonor  to  the  government  whose 
agents  they  are.  On  the  other  hand  they  require  much  judg- 
ment and  tact  that  their  conduct  may  not  bring  discredit  on 
their  government.  Their  inviolable  character  is  carried  so 
far  as  to  exempt  their  servants  from  arrest,  and  their  property 
from  seizure  for  debt.  The  law  of  Congress  protecting  the 
Eepresentatives  of  foreign  governments  to  this  country  is  but 
a  re-enactment,  or  acceptance,  of  what  has  been  known  as  the 
Law  of  Nations  for  many  centuries  all  over  the  civilized  world. 

(243) 


244  REPRESENTATIVES   IN   FOREIGm    LANDS. 

A  violation  of  this  established  usage  among  nations,  without 
due  atonement  and  satisfaction,  would  be  recognized  as  a  suf- 
ficient cause  for  war  against  the  nation  so  offending. 

3.  Our  own  foreign  ministers  of  all  grades  are  appointed  by 
the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 
They  are  not,  however,  the  representatives  of  the  President, 
but  of  the  government  of  the  United  States.  We  said  of  all 
grades,  for  there  are  grades  of  these  officials,  different  in  dig- 
nity and  power.  They  are  distinguished  also  by  different 
names  which  indicate  their  rank,  viz. :  Ambassadors,  Envoys 
Extraordinary  and  Ministers  Plenipotentiary,  Ministers  Kesi- 
dent,  and  Charg6  d'  Affaires. 

AMBASSADORS. 

4.  This  title  in  our  country  has  no  very  specific  meaning. 
It  designates,  however,  a  minister  of  the  highest  grade;  but 
does  not  distinguish  between  one  who  goes  to  reside  in  the 
country  whither  he  is  sent,  and  one  who  is  sent  for  some  special 
purpose;  such  as  that  of  negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace,  or 
some  other  particular  matter  with  which  he  is  charged,  and 
when  that  is  accomplished  returns  home.  In  the  latter  case 
he  is  frequently  styled  a  commissioner,  because  he  was  duly 
authorized,  and  commissioned  by  his  government  to  act  for  it; 
but  in  both  cases  the  officer  is  an  ambassador,  for  that  word 
means  a  person  authorized  and  sent  to  transact  business  for 
his  government. 

ENVOYS      EXTRAORDINAEY      AND      MINISTERS 
PLENIPOTENTIARY. 

5.  These  titles  designate  ministers  of  the  highest  class; 
but  generally  refer  to  such  as  go  to  reside  in  the  country  where 
sent,  and  with  full  power  to  act  for  their  government,  in  all 
matters  and  things  of  a  diplomatic  character. 

Where  negotiations  become  necessary  between  the  two 
nations,  permanent  ministers  of  this  grade  are  only  sent  to 
great  powers — ^governments  of  the  higher  class. 


EEPKESENTATIVES   IN   FOREIGN   LAITDS.  245 

MINISTEES   EESIDENT. 

6.  These  are  not  considered  so  high  in  rank  as  those  termed 
envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  plenipotentiary.  Yet  they 
ai'e  clothed  with  nearly  the  same  powers,  but  are  sent  to  coun- 
tries of  less  importance,  and  receive  less  salaries. 

COMMISSIONEES. 

7.  There  are  a  still  lower  grade  of  ministers  (if  we  may 
call  them  so),  or  government  agents,  who  reside  abroad.  They 
are  sent  to  look  after  the  interests  of  our  government  and  its 
citizens  in  places  of  not  much  importance,  and  where  there  is 
but  little  to  do.     They  also  receive  but  small  pay. 

CHARGE    D'AFFAIRES. 

8.  These  officials  rank  as  the  lowest  grade  of  ministers  or 
diplomatic  officers,  and  are  not  clothed  with  much  authority 
or  power,  excepting  when  authorized  to  act  in  the  room  of  a 
minister  of  higher  rank,  whose  place  is  for  the  time  being 
vacant.  In  this  case  consuls  have  been  authorized  to  act  in 
place  of  ministers;  but  not  unless  authorized  to  do  so  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States. 

SECRETARIES    OF   LEGATION. 

9.  Secretaries  of  Legation  may  with  propriety  be  noticed 
under  the  general  head  of  ministers,  although  they  are  not 
ministers  of  any  grade,  but  are  appointed  by  the  same  powers 
that  appoint  ministers,  and  accompany  them  merely  as  their 
secretaries.  In  the  absence  of  a  charge  d'affaires,  they  are 
sometimes  authorized  to  act  in  his  place.  The  position  is  not 
one  of  great  dignity,  nor  is  the  compensation  large. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
TEEATIES  — EXTEADITION    TEEATIES. 

1.  A  treaty  is  a  written  contract,  entered  into  by  two 
nations,  on  some  question  of  interest  or  intercourse  between 
them.  It  is  precisely  of  the  nature  of  a  contract  between  two 
persons  when  they  bind  themselves  to  do,  or  not  to  do,  certain 
things  specified  in  the  contract.  That  would  be  a  treaty 
between  individuals.  Treaties  between  nations  are  only  dif- 
ferent in  the  solemn  and  formal  manner  of  arranging  and 
confirming  these  agreements. 

2.  Treaties  have  often  been  of  great  service  to  the  world, 
both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  By  these  negotiations, 
wars  have  been  prevented,  friendly  relations  maintained,  and 
commercial  intercourse  kept  up,  advantageously  to  both  parties. 
Treaties  may  be  negotiated  by  any  persons  properly  authorized 
by  their  governments  to  do  so;  and  any  government  may 
authorize  such  persons  as  they  see  fit,  to  perform  these  import- 
ant acts.  In  many  cases  the  ordinary  ministers  who  represent 
their  governments  to  other  governments,  negotiate  ordinary 
treaties.  But  in  cases  where  something  of  an  extraordinary 
character  is  to  be  arranged,  special  ministers  or  commissioners 
are  sent  for  this  express  purpose.  This  was  the  case  at  the 
treaty  of  Ghent  (so  called  from  the  name  of  the  place  where 
the  commissioners  met  to  arrange  it),  in  1814;  by  which  a 
peace  was  brought  about  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  after  the  last  war  between  those  powers.  Special  min- 
isters, or  commissioners,  as  they  were  denominated,  were 
appointed  and  sent  for  this  very  purpose.     A  treaty  of  peace 

(246)     ' 


TREATIES.  247 

was  agreed  upon  by  the  commissioners  of  the  respective  coun- 
tries, and  hostilities  ceased  as  soon  as  the  news  reached  the 
United  States. 

3.  In  some  cases  our  government  has  authorized  its  com- 
manding generals  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  hostile  nation. 
It  has  also  given  the  same  power  to  the  commanders  of  our 
national  vessels;  and  also,  in  a  few  cases,  to  our  consuls,  in 
countries  at  a  great  distance  from  home,  such  as  China,  Japan, 
Siam,  and  Turkey. 

The  persons  authorized  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  rarely  act  with- 
out instructions  from  their  government,  as  to  the  times  and 
conditions  of  the  proposed  treaty.  Much,  however,  must  be 
left  to  the  sound  judgment  and  discretion  of  the  negotiators 
as  to  the  details. 

4.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  treaty,  although  mutu- 
ally agreed  upon  by  the  agents  of  the  nations  concerned,  is 
not  binding  upon  either  party  until  properly  ratified  according 
to  the  forms  of  the  respective  governments  interested.  The 
modes  of  ratification  differ  in  different  governments.  In  ours 
the  Constitution  confers  this  power  upon  the  President,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Senate. 

In  absolute  monarchies  this  power  rests  in  the  hands  of  the 
King  or  Emperor  alone.  As  before  stated,  every  government 
may  confer  the  power  to  negotiate  a  treaty  upon  such  agents 
as  it  pleases,  ^t  also  has  the  power  to  prescribe  such  modes 
of  ratifying  or  confirming  it,  as  it  pleases. 

5.  But  when  once  made  and  approved,  it  becomes  binding 
iiot  only  upon  the  respective  governments  that  made  it,  but 
upon  all  the  citizens  and  subjects  of  that  government.  It  has 
been  held  in  this  country  by  our  greatest  lawyers  and  states- 
men, that  the  provisions  of  a  treaty  bind  Congress,  the 
President,  and  every  citizen  as  much  as  any  Constitutional 
provision  or  act  of  Congress.  And  for  this  reason  our  treaties 
are  published  in  the  papers  in  every  State  and  Territory  in  the 
Union,  in  the  same  manner,  and  to  the  same  extent,  as  the  laws 
of  Congress. 


248  TREATIES. 

6.  The  violation  of  a  treaty  by  either  of  the  parties  thereto, 
is  reprehensible  and  criminal.  It  is  derogatory  to  the  charac- 
ter of  any  nation  or  individual  that  does  it.  It  destroys  the 
confidence  of  one  nation  in  the  other,  leads  to  unfriendly  feel- 
ings and  acts  between  the  parties,  and  may  bring  on  a  war,  if 
satisfaction  is  not  given.  Yet  such  things  have  been  done, 
and  evil  consequences  have  always  followed.  "  If  you  make  a 
bargain,  stick  to  it,"  is  a  common,  trite,  and  wise  saying. 

Just  here  it  seems  proper  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  Constitution  prohibits  any  State  from  making  any  treaty 
with  any  foreign  government.  The  reason  for  this  provision  is 
very  obvious,  for,  if  allowed,  a  State  might  confer  privileges  upon 
foreign  powers  which  would  be  incompatible  with  the  interests 
of  other  States.  Therefore  the  treaty-making  power  is  kept 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  general  government,  for  in  it  every 
State  has  its  representatives,  and  a  voice  in  every  treaty  which 
it  makes. 

7.  So  numerous  are  the  treaties  which  the  United  States 
has  made  with  nearly  every  civilized  nation  upon  earth,  that 
it  would  require  a  very  large  volume  to  contain  them.  They 
are  published  with  the  laws,  and  generally  in  English  and  in 
the  language  of  the  nation  with  whom  the  treaty  is  made. 
They  may  be  found  in  the  United  States  Statutes  at  Large. 
It  would  require  too  much  space  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  to  give 
even  their  titles. 

8.  Wars  have  been  stopped;  boundary  lines  between 
nations  have  been  established;  commercial  intercourse  ar- 
ranged; the  purchase  and  sale  of  lands,  and  a  variety  of  other 
things  have  been  the  subjects,  and  formed  the  matter  of 
treaties.  Several  of  our  most  important  ones  relate  to  the 
purchase  of  territory.  We  acquired  the  States  of  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  Missouri,  by  a  treaty  with  France  in  1803.  It 
was  called  the  Louisiana  purchase;  for  it  was  nothing  more 
than  a  purchase  and  sale  of  lands.  We  also  acq  uired  Florida 
of  Spain,  in  1819,  in  the  same  way,  and  California  and  New 
Mexico  of  Mexico,  in  1847. 


TREATIES.  240 

?).  The  immense  quantities  of  land  purchased  of  the  Indi- 
ans, were  obtained  by  treaties  with  them.  We  are  sorry  to 
say  that  in  some  cases  they  have  treacherously  violated  their 
treaty  obligations;  but  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  said  by 
way  of  extenuating  their  offense,  that  our  own  government 
agents  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  taking  care  of  the  interests 
of  the  poor  Indians,  have,  in  connection  with  the  white  traders 
among  them,  shamefully  cheated  and  wronged  them,  and  pro- 
voked them  not  only  to  disregard  their  obligations,  but  to 
perpetrate  murders,  robberies,  and  thefts  upon  the  whites  who 
live  near  them.  At  different  times  during  the  years  past,  the 
Indians  have  been  very  hostile  to  us,  and  have  waged  war 
against  the  whites  in  their  vicinity  for  the  reasons  above  stated. 
"  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 

10.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1867,  a  treaty  was  nego- 
tiated by  William  H.  Seward,  our  Secretary  of  State,  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States,  and  Edward  de  Stoekl,  the  Eussian 
Minister  to  the  United  States,  on  the  part  of  Russia,  for  the 
cession  of  the  Russian  possessions  in  North  America  to  the 
United  States. 

This  treaty  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  of 
all  our  treaties  with  foreign  powers;  for  by  it  the  United  States 
acquire  more  than  570,000  square  miles  of  territory,  in  addi- 
tion to  our  already  immense  possessions;  and  it  places  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  Northwestern  coast  of  ^orth  America 
Under  the  control  of  the  United  States  government. 

For  the  purpose  of  giving  a  specimen  of  a  treaty,  and  show- 
ing some  of  the  details  of  this  negotiation,  we  here  insert  it  in 
full,  as  agreed  upon  by  the  contracting  parties.  $7,000,000  in 
gold  is  the  consideration  which  the  United  States  paid  Russia 
for  this  territory.  This  treaty  has  been  ratified  by  the  United 
States  and  Russian  governments,  and  the  money,  ($7,000,000 
in  gold)  has  been  appropriated  for  the  purpose,  and  paid  to  the 
Russian  Minister. 

THE    RUSSIAN    TREATY. 

The  following  is  the  text  of  the  Russian-American  treaty: 


250  TEEATIE8. 

The  United  States  of  America,  and  his  Majesty,  the  Era 
peror  of  all  the  Russias,  being  desirous  of  strengthening,  if 
possible,  the  good  understanding  which  exists  between  them, 
have  for  that  purpose  appointed  as  their  plenipotentiaries,  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  William  H.  Seward,  Secretary 
of  State,  and  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  Mr. 
Edward  de  Stoekl,  his  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister 
Plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States,  and  the  said  plenipoten- 
tiaries, having  exchanged  their  full  powers,  which  were  found 
to  be  in  due  form,  have  agreed  upon  and  signed  the  following 
articles: 

Article  I.  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias, 
agrees  to  cede  to  the  United  States,  by  this  convention,  imme- 
diately upon  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  thereof,  all  the 
territory  and  dominion  now  possessed  by  his  said  Majesty  on 
the  continent  of  America  and  in  the  adjacent  islands,  the  same 
being  contained  within  the  geographical  limits  herein  set  forth, 
to  wit:  The  eastern  limit  is  the  line  of  demarkation  between 
the  Russian  and  British  possessions  in  North  America,  as  estab- 
lished by  the  convention  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain, 
of  February  28  (16),  1825,  and  described  in  articles  third  and 
fourth  of  said  .convention  in  the  following  terms:  Commenc- 
ing from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  island  called  Prince  of 
Wales'  Island — -which  point  lies  in  the  parallel  of  50  deg.  40 
min.  north  latitude,  and  between  the  131st  and  ]33d  deg.  of 
west  longitude,  meridian  of  Greenwich — the  said  line  shall 
ascend  to  the  north  along  the  channel  called  Portland  Channel, 
as  far  as  the  point  of  the  continent  where  it  strikes  the  56th 
degree  of  north  latitude.  From  this  last  mentioned  point 
the  line  of  demarcation  shall  follow  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tains situated  parallel  to  the  coast  as  far  as  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  of  the  same 
meridian,  and  finally  from  the  said  point  of  intersection  the 
.  said  meridian  line  of  the  141st  degree  in  its  prolongation  as 
far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean.  With  reference  to  the  line  of  demarc- 
ation laid  down  in  the  preceding  article,  it  is  understood— 


TEEATIE8.  251 

first,  that  the  island  called  Prince  of  Wales'  Island  shall  belong 
wholly  to  Russia,  and  now,  by  this  cession,  wholly  to  the 
United  States;  second,  that  whenever  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tains which  extend  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  coast  from  the 
56th  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  141st  degree  w^est  longitude  shall  prove  to  be  at  the  dis- 
tance of  more  than  ten  marine  leagues  from  the  ocean,  the 
limit  between  the  British  possessions  and  the  line  of  coast 
which  is  to  belong  to  Russia  as  above  mentioned — that  is  to  say, 
the  limit  of  the  possessions  ceded  by  this  convention — shall 
be  formed  by  a  line  parallel  to  the  winding  of  the  coast,  and 
which  shall  never  exceed  the  distance  of  ten  marine  leagues 
therefrom.  The  western  limit,  within  which  the  territories 
and  dominion  conveyed  are  contained,  passes  through  a  point 
in  Behring's  Strait  on  the  parallel  of  65  deg.  30  min.  north 
latitude,  at  its  intersection  by  the  meridian  which  passes  mid- 
way between  the  island  of  Krusenstern,  or  Ignaalook,  and  the 
island  of  Eatmanog,  or  Noonerbook,  and  proceeds  due  north 
without  limitation  into  the  same  Frozen  Ocean.  The  same 
western  limit  beginning  at  the  same  initial  point,  proceeds 
thence  in  a  course  nearly  northwest  through  Behring's  Strait 
and  Behring's  Sea,  so  as  to  pass  midway  between  the  north- 
west part  of  the  island  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  south-east 
point  of  Cape  Choukottki  to  the  meridian  of  172  deg.  west 
longitude.  Thence,  from  the  intersection  of  that  meridian,  in 
a  south-westerly  direction,  so  as  to  pass  midway  between  the 
island  of  Attou  and  the  copper  island  of  the  Koranddorski 
couplet  or  group  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  to  the  meridian 
of  193  deg.  west  longitude,  so  as  to  include  in  the  territory 
conveyed  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  east  of  that 
meridian. 

Art.  II.  In  the  cession  of  territory  and  dominion  made 
by  the  preceding  article,  are  included  the  right  of  property 
in  all  public  lots  and  squares,  vacant  lands,  and  all  public 
buildings,  barracks,  and  other  edifices  which  are  not  private, 
individual  property.     It  is,  however,  understood  and  agreed 


252  TEEATIES. 

that  the  churclies  which  have  been  built  in  the  ceded  territory 
by  the  Russian  government  shall  remain  the  property  of  such 
members  of  the  Greek  Oriental  Church  resident  in  the  terri- 
tory as  may  choose  to  worship  therein.  Any  government 
archives,  papers,  and  documents  relative  to  the  territory  and 
domain  aforesaid,  which  may  be  now  existing  there,  will  be 
left  in  possession  of  the  agent  of  the  United  States;  but  an 
authenticated  cop}'  of  such  of  them  as  may  be  required  will 
be  at  all  times  given  by  the  United  States  to  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment, or  to  such  Russian  officers  or  subjects  as  may  apply 
for  them. 

Aet.  III.  The  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territory,  according 
to  their  choice,  reserving  their  natural  allegiance,  may  return 
to  Russia  within  three  years  ;  but  if  they  should  prefer  to 
remain  in  the  ceded  territory,  they,  with  the  exception  of  unciv- 
ilized tribes,  shall  be  admitted  to  the  enjoyment  of  all  the 
rights,  advantages,  and  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  and  shall  be  maintained  and  protected  in  the  free  enjoy- 
ment of  their  liberty,  property,  and  religion.  The  uncivilized 
tribes  will  be  subject  to  such  laws  and  regulations  as  the  United 
States  may  from  time  to  time  adopt  in  regard  to  aboriginal 
tribes  of  that  country. 

Art.  IY.  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  shall 
appoint,  with  convenient  dispatch,  an  agent  or  agents,  for  the 
purpose  of  formally  delivering  to  a  similar  agent  or  agents, 
appointed  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  the  territory,  domi- 
nion, property,  dependencies,  and  appurtenances  which  are 
ceded  as  above,  and  for  doing  any  other  act  which  may  be  neces- 
sary in  regard  thereto;  but  the  cession,  with  the  right  of  imme- 
diate possession,  is  nevertheless  to  be  deemed  complete  and 
absolute  on  the  exchange  of  ratifications,  without  waiting  for 
such  formal  delivery. 

Akt.  Y.  Immediately  after  the  exchange  ot  the  ratifications 
of  this  convention,  any  fortifications  or  military  posts  which 
may  be  in  the  ceded  territory  shall  be  delivered  to  the  agent 
of  the  United  States,  and  any  Russian  troops  which  may  be  in 


EXTRADITION   TREATIES.  253 

the  territory  shall  be  withdrawn  as  soon  as  may  be  reasonably 
and  conveniently  practicable. 

Art.  YI.  In  consideration  of  the  cession  aforesaid,  the 
United  States  agree  to  pay,  at  the  Treasury  in  Washington, 

within months  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of 

this  convention,  to  the  diplomatic  representative,  or  other  agent 
of  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  duly  authorized 

to  receive  the  same, million  dollars  in  gold.     The  cession 

of  territory  and  dominion  herein  made  is  hereby  demanded  to 
be  free  and  unincumbered  by  any  reservations,  privileges,  fran- 
chises, grants,  or  possessions,  by  any  associated  companies, 
whether  corporate  or  incorporate,  Russian  or  any  other,  or  by 
any  parties  except  merely  private  individual  property  holders ; 
and  the  cession  hereby  made  conveys  all  the  rights,  franchises, 
and  privileges  now  belonging  to  Russia  in  the  said  territory  or 
dominion  and  appurtenances  thereto. 

Art.  VII.  When  this  convention  shall  have  been  duly  rati- 
fied by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  on  the  one  part,  and  on  the 
other  by  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  the  rati- 
fications shall  be  exchanged  at  Washington  within from 

the  date  hereof,  or  sooner,  if  possible.  In  faith  whereof  the 
respective  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  this  convention,  and 
thereto  affixed  the  seals  of  their  arms. 

EXTRADITION    TREATIES. 

1.  Treaties  have  been  made  from  time  immemorial  between 
rulers  and  nations  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  interests 
of  one  or  both  parties  in  their  commercial  relations,  or  to  secure 
allies  in  war  ;  but  the  kind  of  treaties  mentioned  at  the  head 
of  this  section  are  of  modern  origin  ;  and  shows  strongly 
the  progress  of  nations  toward  a  substantial  unity  of  interests 
and  of  discipline. 

2.  The  security  of  society  demands  that  when  men  commit 
a  crime  in  one  place  they  shall  not  be  able  to  find  a  safe  asylum 
to  which  they  may  fly  whenever  the  retributions  of  the  law, 


254  EXTRADITION   TREATIES. 

which  watches  over  the  welfare  of  the  citizen,  threaten  to  over- 
take them.  The  readiness  with  which  criminals  can  pass  from 
one  country  to  another  since  steam,  has  made  travel  so  speedy 
and  pursuit  for  any  long  distance  so  difficult,  increases  the  evil. 
When  criminals  fly  to  another  country  they  cannot  be  pun- 
ished there,  since  their  courts  have  no  jurisdiction  over  a 
criminal  from  another  nation,  unless  the  act  was  committed  in 
the  country  where  they  were  established;  nor  are  governments 
usually  willing  to  deliver  an  individual  on  accusation  only, 
unless  there  is  an  express  stipulation,  or  treaty  to  this  effect, 
between  them.  To  overcome  the  difficulty  a  treaty  was  made 
in  1842  between  this  country  and  England,  in  which  it  was 
mutually  agreed  that  each  country,  on  the  demand  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  other,  should  give  up  criminals  of  certain  kinds 
named  in  the  treaty,  when  these  after  the  crime  had  fled  into 
their  jurisdiction.  It  worked  well,  since  it  multiplied  the 
chances  of  punishment,^  and  tended  to  check  crime. 

3.  Subsequently,  treaties  of  the  same  kind  were  made 
between  the  United  States  and  the  following  countries  : 

France in  1843 

Prussia,  aud  iT  other  German  States "  1852 

Switzerland "  1855 

Baden «  1857 

Sweden "  1860 

Venezuela,  South  America "  1861 

Spain "  1877 

The  time  is  probably  not  distant  when  treaties  of  this  sort 
will  be  made  between  us  and  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
world;  for  the  intercourse  between  us  and  foreign  nations  is 
greater  than  ever  before. 

The  effect  of  these  international  arrangements  is  to  render 
the  perpetration  of  crime  more  dangerous  than  it  would  be  if 
they  did  not  exist.  Flight  from  the  country  where  the  crime 
was  committed  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  effectual  methods 
of  escaping  the  penalty.  But  extradition  treaties,  Atlantic 
cables,  and  land  telegraphs,  have  nearly  spoiled  this  game. 


BXTRADinON   TREATIES.  256 

3.  An  extradition  treaty,  then,  is  a  mutual  agreement  be- 
tween two  nations  to  deliver  up,  each  to  the  other,  upon  demand 
and  proper  proof  of  criminality,  such  persons  as  have  com- 
mitted crimes  in  one  country  and  then  fled  to  the  other,  that 
they  may  be  taken  back,  tried,  and  punished  where  the  offense 
was  committed.  But  these  demands  for  escaped  criminals  can 
not  be  sustained  if  made  for  every  crime  whatever.  They  will 
only  be  complied  with  when  the  crime  is  one  which  is  named 
in  the  treaty  itself.  These  crimes,  upon  examination  of  a 
number  of  such  treaties,  we  find  to  be :  1.  Murder,  or  an 
assault  with  an  intent  to  commit  murder.  2.  Piracy.  3.  Ar- 
son. 4.  Robbery.  5.  Forgery,  or  the  uttering  of  forged 
papers,  or  the  making  or  circulating  counterfeit  money,  either 
paper  or  coin.     6.  Rape.     7.  Embezzlement,  and  8.  Burglary. 

4.  It  should  1)6  observed  that  a  mere  demand  for  an  alleged 
offender  is  not  sufficient.  Proof  enough  to  convince  the  judge 
before  whom  the  case  is  brought  must  accompany  the  demand. 
He  must  be  satisfied  that  the  party  demanded  has  committed 
the  alleged  offense;  when  this  is  done  the  judge  reports  his 
finding  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  whose  duty  then  is,  under 
his  hand  and  seal  of  office,  to  issue  the  final  writ  of  extradition; 
after  which  the  criminal  may  be  taken  out  of  the  United  States 
(by  force,  if  necessary),  and  back  to  the  country  where  he  com- 
mitted the  crime,  there  to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  laws 
which  he  violated. 

5.  In  some  of  our  extradition  treaties  it  is  expressly  stipu- 
lated that  neither  party  (government)  shall  be  bound  to  surren- 
der its  own  citizens,  or  any  person  for  merely  a  political  offense. 
In  others  it  is  agreed  that  the  provisions  in  the  treaty  shall  not 
apply  to  cases  where  the  crime  was  perpetrated  before  the 
ti-eaty  was  made.  This  plea,  we  think,  would  be  held  to  be  a 
good  defense  in  all  cases,  whether  so  stipulated  in  the  treaty 
or  not. 

6.  The  treaties  between  different  nations  for  the  surrender 
of  criminals  are  so  analagous  to  one  of  the  provisions  contained 
in  our  Constitution,  that  to  insert  it  h^e  will  give  the  reader  a 


256  BUSINESS    KEPRESENTATIVES. 

clear  compreliension  of  its  meaning.    It  is  found  in  the  second 
section  of  article  4,  and  reads  thus  : 

"  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  othei 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another 
State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State 
from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State 
having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime." 


CHAPTEE    YII. 
BUSINESS    KEPEESENTATIVES. 

1.  These  officers,  called  Consuls,  are  employed  by  most  civil- 
ized nations,  all  those  at  least  who  have  an  extensive  intercourse 
with  foreign  countries,  and  they  are  recognized  by  the  Law  of 
Nations  as  being  clothed,  when  acting  in  their  official  capacity, 
with  the  authority  and  inviolability  of  their  respective  govern- 
ments. Their  place  of  official  business  is  protected  by  the  flag 
of  their  country,  an  insult  to  which  renders  reparation  or  war 
necessary  to  maintain  its  honor.  Consuls  are  agents  of  their 
governments,  but  most  of  their  duties  have  reference  to  the 
interests  of  private  citizens  who  may  be  within  their  Consulate. 
There  may  be  a  great  number  of  them  in  one  country,  and  they 
are  usually  located  in  the  seaports. 

2.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the  President  and  Senate 
shall  appoint  all  our  Consuls.  The  President  signs  their  com- 
missions, which  bear  the  great  seal  of  the  United  States,  and 
which  prove  to  the  government  where  they  are  sent  that  they 
are  duly  appointed  and  authorized  to  discharge  the  duties  of 


BUSINESS   REPKESENTATTVES.  257 

Consuls  at  the  ports  or  places  to  which  they  have  been  ap- 
pointed. 

3.  In  order  to  show  the  nature  of  a  Consul's  duties,  such 
as  the  laws  impose  upon  him,  we  will  state  the  substance  of 
several  acts  relating  to  this  subject. 

1.  Whenever  a  vessel  belonging  to  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  arrives  at  the  port  where  he  is  stationed,  it  is  his  duty 
to  receive  the  ship's  papers,  and  to  see  if  they  are  all  correct. 

2.  It  is  his  duty  to  provide  for  sick,  disabled,  and  destitute 
American  seamen,  and  to  send  them  home  by  some  vessel  going. 
?»  the  United  States. 

3.  He  must  hear  the  complaints  of  seamen,  and  settle  dis' 
putes  between  the  captain  and  men;  and  for  good  cause  he  may- 
discharge  the  whole  ship's  crew. 

4.  It  is  made  his  duty  to  receive  and  take  care  of  the  per- 
sonal property  of  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has  died 
within  his  Consulate,  and  to  send  any  balance  which  may  be 
left  after  paying  his  debts  and  necessary  expenses,  to  the  treas- 
ury of  the  United  States,  to  be  held  in  trust  for  the  legal  claim- 
ants. He  must  also  give  notice  to  the  Secretary  of  State  of 
the  death  of  such  person. 

4.  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  and  executing  certaia 
treaties  made  between  the  United  States  and  China,  Japan,. 
Siam,  and  Turkey,  Consuls  to  those  countries  have  been  empow- 
ered with  judicial  functions.  They  were  allowed  to  act  a& 
judges,  and  to  try  and  punish  citizens  of  the  United  States 
who  had  committed  crimes  there.  These,  however,  were  extra- 
ordinary powers  in  special  cases,  and  by  no  means  common  to 
the  consular  office. 

5.  In  the  absence  of  a  minister  or  diplomatic  agent  of  the 
United  States,  the  President  may  authorize  a  Consul  to  perform 
the  duties  of  such  foreign  minister;  but  these  powers  are  rarely 
conferred  on  them.  Their  ordinary  duties  relate  to  commercial 
affairs,  and  to  such  as  ai*e  before  stated. 

6.  A  Yice-Consul,  or  deputy  Consul,  is  one  appointed  to- 
act  temporarily  in  case  of  sickness  or  absence  of  the  ConsuL 

17 


268  PASSPORTS. 

His  powers,  while  acting,  are  tlie  same  as  those  of  the  Consul 
in  whose  place  he  acts.  Every  Consul  is  required  to  give  bonds 
for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 

7.  Our  commerce  has  been  extended  to  almost  every  part 
of  the  globe,  and  for  this  reason  we  need  a  great  number  of 
these  officials.  Their  services  are  required  at  all  great  seaports, 
and  at  many  smaller  ones.  The  compensation  varies  according 
to  the  amount  of  business  to  be  transacted  by  them,  from 
$7,500  down  to  $500.  Some  do  not  receive  any  salary,  but 
are  allowed  the  fees  they  are  authorized  to  charge  for  their 
services. 

8.  It  is  his  duty  to  give  his  government  and  countrymen 
all  such  information  as  he  possesses  in  relation  to  the  laws  and 
practices  of  the  country  to  which  he  is  sent,  which  it  would 
be  important  for  them  to  know;  and  especially  is  it  his  duty 
to  look  after  the  interests  and  welfare  of  his  countrymen  when 
they  are  within  his  Consulate,  and  to  see  that  no  wrong  or 
injustice  is  done  to  them  by  the  people  or  government  where 
he  resides. 


CHAPTER     VIII. 

PASSPORTS. 

1.  These  are  written  documents,  in  due  official  form,  signed 
and  sealed  by  the  proper  authority,  to  convey  official  informa- 
tion, or  serve  as  a  means  of  protection,  and  to  readily  distin- 
guish the  American  Citizen  abroad,  or  to  give  a  permission  or 
authority  to  go  where  those  not  having  passports  are  forbidden 
to  go.     The  passport  conveys  authentic  information  to  whom  it 


PASSPORTS.  259 

maj  concern,  to  what  nation  the  bearer  of  the  passport  belongs ; 
and  second,  to  protect  him,  and  secure  to  him  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  which  the  government  has  a  right  to  claim  for 
its  citizens  bj  virtue  of  any  treaty  of  amity  and  friendship 
existing  between  it  and  the  country  whither  its  citizens  may  go. 
The  passport  informs  the  world  that  the  bearer  of  it  is  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  and  that  he  travels  under  its  protec- 
tion, and  that  it  would  demand  and  exact  satisfaction  of  any 
one  who  wronged  or  injured  him  who  bears  such  credentials. 

2.  In  the  United  States,  the  Secretary  of  State  is  the  officer 
authorized  by  law  to  issue  passports.  He  has  the  authority 
also  to  cause  them  to  be  issued  in  foreign  countries  by  our  for- 
eign ministers  and  consuls,  under  such  restrictions  and  rules 
as  may  be  designated  by  the  President.  This  is  allowed  as  a 
matter  of  convenience  to  our  citizens  who  happen  to  be  in  for- 
eign countries  without  them;  who  need  their  protection,  and 
who  would  be  subjected  to  much  delay  and  expense  by  going 
or  sending  home  to  procure  them. 

Passports  are  not  granted  to  any  other  than  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  whether  issued  by  the  Secretary  or  by  any  dip- 
lomatic or  consular  agent  of  our  government. 

3.  Besides  these  passports,  which  are  given  only  to  our  own 
citizens  when  in  foreign  countries,  or  who  intend  to  go  there, 
there  is  another  kind  issued  to  foreigners  who  wish  to  go 
among  the  Indians  in  the  Indian  territory,  or  on  the  Indian 
reservationis.  Indeed,  our  own  citizens  are  not  allowed  to  go 
among  them  without  permission.  But  foreigners  cannot  go 
without  a  passport  from  the  Secretary  of  War,  which  specifies 
the  route  over  which  the  bearer  must  pass,  and  the  length  of 
time  he  is  allowed  to  remain  among  them.  This  is  done  to 
prevent  unfriendly  foreigners  from  fomenting  mischief,  or  from 
exciting  unkind  feelings  towards  our  government  or  people. 
Such  unfriendly  feelings  have  been  created  by  foreigners,  and 
we  have  often  experienced  the  bitter  fruits  of  it,  especially  in 
times  of  war. 

4.  Still  another  kind  of  passports  is  used  in  this  country, 


260  DEPARTMENT   OF   THE   TEEASUKY.  , 

and  should  be  noticed  under  this  head.  They  are  passports  for 
American  ships  or  vessels.  When  they  are  about  to  sail  for  a 
foreign  port,  the  laws  of  the  United  States  require  each  to  pro- 
cure one,  under  a  penalty  or  fine  of  two  hundred  dollars  upon 
the  master  if  he  departs  from  the  United  States  for  a  foreign 
country  (other  than  some  port  in  America),  without  it.  The 
passport  is  prepared  by  the  Secretary  of  State  and  is  approved 
by  the  President.  This  is  given  to  the  master  by  the  collector 
of  the  port  from  which  the  vessel  sails,  and  is  one  of  the  ship's 
papers,  by  which  her  nationality  is  known,  and  her  protection 
shown  to  be  that  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTEE    IX. 
DEPAKTMENT  OF  THE  TKEASUEY. 

1.  If  the  Executive  Department  that  has  charge  of  the 
public  moneys  is  not  highest  in  nominal  rank,  it  certainly  does 
not  hold  a  less  important  and  interesting  place  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  country  and  of  the  world  than  the  Department  of 
State.  Every  part  of  the  government  is  dependent  on  this  for 
its  efficiency.  It  is  the  heart  of  the  country.  The  in-and-out- 
flowing  of  the  tide  of  money  from  the  central  point  marks  the 
pulses  of  the  nation's  prosperity.  Especially  has  this  been  the 
case  since  the  Civil  War,  and  the  immense  developments  and 
changes  that  followed  it.  The  banking  system,  making  the 
Treasury  responsible  for  the  issue  of  all  the  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  bank  notes  used  in  the  business  of  the  country,  adds 
immensely  to  the  importance  of  the  United  States  Treasury. 

2.  The  management  of  this  Department  is  committed  to 


DEPAKTMENT    OF    THE    TREASURY.  261 

the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  He  is  selected  for  that  office 
by  the  President,  and  when  his  nomination  is  approved  by  the 
Senate  his  appointment  takes  place.  He  holds  office  during  a 
presidential  term,  unless  sooner  removed.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  Cabinet  and  one  of  the  President's  advisers. 

3.  The  financial  policy  adopted  by  the  country  depends  very 
much  on  his  views  on  that  difficult  question,  and  the  interests 
and  wealth  of  millions  on  the  ability  and  integrity  he  pos- 
sesses. He  is  therefore  chosen  on  account  of  his  real  or  sup- 
posed qualifications  on  questions  of  finance. 

He  is  aided  in  his  duties  by  an  Assistant  Secretary,  a  Comp- 
troller and  Second  Comptroller,  five  Auditors,  a  Treasurer  and 
his  assistant,  a  Register  and  his  assistant,  a  Commissioner  of 
Oustoms,  a  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  and  his  deputy,  and 
a  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury.  All  these  have  their  offices  in 
connection  with  the  Treasury  Department  at  Washington. 
In  several  of  the  large  cities  are  sub-treasuries,  each  presided 
over  by  an  assistant  Treasurer,  where  public  funds  are  received 
and  disbursed.  The  Treasurers  of  the  Mints  are*also,  many 
of  them,  Assistant  Treasurers  of  this  Department.  All  these 
are  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Chief  Secretary. 

4.  The  sums  of  money  actually  handled,  and  the  accounts 
of  all  moneys  received  and  disbursed  without  passing  into  the 
vaults  of  the  Treasury,  amount  to  many  hundreds  of  millions 
annually,  and  require,  the  constant  service  of  some  hundreds 
of  clerks.  These  all  need  to  have  clean  hands  and  pure  hearts, 
which  is,  unfortunately,  more  rare  among  men  of  all  classes 
than  could  be  wished.  Yet  the  whole  is  reduced  to  so  accurate 
a  system  that  a  loss  at  any  point  immediately  produces  a  dis 
turbance  in  the  whole  machinery,  and  a  short  examination  suf 
fices  to  reveal  the  point  of  difficulty  and  the  person  responsible 
for  it.  Accordingly,  losses  and  defalcations  are  seldom  expe- 
rienced in  or  near  the  central  point  of  the  Department.  If 
they  occur,  which  is  sometimes  the  case,  it  is  usually  some 
officer  at  a  distance  who  is  found  to  be  at  fault,  whose  sphere 


262  DEPARTMENT   OF   THE   TfJEASUEY. 

of  operations  lies  far  from  the  centre  and  only  occasionally 
passes  under  scrutiny.  Each  has  his  separate  sphere  of  duties- 
which  no  one  else  interferes  with,  and  assumes  his  own  respon- 
sibility;  and  probably  no  other  institution  in  the  world  loses- 
less  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  money  involved  and  the 
number  of  persons  handling  it. 

5.  Every  account  must  be  carefully  examined  and  approved 
by  the  proper  officer  before  it  can  be  presented  for  settlement 
and  the  money  paid  out,  and  whatever  moneys  may  flow  in,, 
none  can  flow  out  but  according  to  some  law  of  Congress  defi- 
nitely appropriating  it. 

All  officers  having  the  handling  of  public  funds  are  required 
to  give  security  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties.  This 
must,  by  the  requirement  of  the  law,  be  done  before  they  can 
enter  their  respective  places. 

SECRETARIES   OF   THE   TREASURY. 

Alexander  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  12,  1789. 

Oliver  Wolcott,  Ct.,  Feb.  4,  1795. 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1800. 

Albert  Gallatin,  Pa.,  May  14,  1801. 

George  W.  Campbell,  Tenn.,  Feb.  9, 1814. 

Alexander  J.  Dallas,  Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1814. 

William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.,  Oct.  22,  1816. 

Eichard  Push,  Pa.,  Mar.  7,  1825. 

Samuel  D.  Ingham,  Pa.,  Mar.  6,  J829. 

Louis  McLane,  Del.,  Aug.  8,  1831. 
,  William  J.  Duane,  Pa.,  May  29,  1833. 

f  Eoger  B.  Taney,  Md.,  Sept.  23,  1833. 

,  Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.,  June  27,  1834. 

I  Thomas  Ewing,  O.,  Mar.  5,  1841.  j  _ 

'.  Walter  Forward,  Pa.,  Sept.  13,  1841.  ■„.  i 

John  C.  Spencer,  N.  Y.;  Mar.  3,  1843.  ' 

i  George  M.  Bibb,  Ky.,  June  15,  1844. 

'  Pobert  J.  Walker,  Miss.,  Mar.  5,  1845. 


W.  M.  Meredith,  Pa.,  Mar.  7,  1849.  > 


FINANCIAL   SYSTEM   OF    THE  TJ.    S. 

Thomas  Corwin,  O.,  June  20,  1850. 
James  Guthrie,  Ky.,  Mar.  5,  1853. 
Howell  Cobb,  Ga.,  Mar.  6,  1857. 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  Md.,  Dec.  10,  1860. 
John  A.  Dix,  N.  Y.,  1861. 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  O.,  Mar.  5,  1861. 
William  P.  Fessenden,  Me.,  July,  1864. 
Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind.,  1864. 
George  S.  Boutwell,  March  11, 1869. 
W.  A.  Richardson,  March  17, 1873. 
B.  H.  Bristow,  Kj.,  June  3,  1874. 
L.  M.  Mem:.,  Me.,  1876. 
John  Sherman,  O.,  March  8,  1877. 


* 


CHAPTEE    X. 
THE  FINANCIAL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  U.  S. 

1.  Revenue,  or  the  income  of  the  government,  ia  derived 
from  various  sources.  A  tax — or  duty,  as  it  is  often  called — 
laid  on  goods  imported  into  the  country,  is  one  of  the  most 
important.  It  is  easy  for  a  government  to  manage  without 
producing  a  very  sensible  effect  on  the  people,  and  has  been  a 
favorite  mode  of  raising  a  revenue  with  nearly  all  governments 
since  commerce  became  general. 

2.  The  sale  of  public  lands  has,  in  this  country,  been  a 
source  of  large  revenue;  though  the  desire  to  encourage  emi- 
gration and  develop  the  unsettled  parts  has  led  the  government 
to  sell  them  for  a  nominal  sum.  Still,  these  lands  were  so 
attractive  and  extensive  as  to  sell  rapidly  and  produce  a  con- 
siderable income.  The  Post  Office  Department  has  been  a 
source  of  income,  in  great  part  supporting  itself.  Duties  paid 
on  the  tonnage  of  vessels,  the  forfeiture  of  goods  smuggled,  or 


264  FINANCIAL   SYSTEM   OF    THE    U.    S. 

introduced  into  the  country  without  paying  the  lawful  tax  or 
duty,  and  the  forfeiture  of  vessels  used  in  that  unlawful  trade, 
prizes  taken  in  war,  and  fees  required  to  be  paid  to  various 
ofiicials  when  their  services  are  employed,  are  minor  sources 
of  revenue. 

3.  When  all  these  are  not  suiBcient,  as  in  time  of  war,  or 
when  an  immense  war  debt  is  to  be  paid,  direct  taxes  are  laid 
on  the  property  and  business  of  the  country.     This  is  called 

THE  INTERNAL  REVENUE, 

and  is  borne  with  more  or  less  patience,  according  as  the  people 
regard  the  end  to  be  gained  important.  The  revenues  of  the 
States  are  mostly  derived  from  this  source.  They  are  not 
allowed  to  raise  their  revenue  from  foreign  commerce,  since 
that  would  be  a  tax  on  goods  liable  to  be  paid  by  the  people  of 
another  State. 

4.  The  necessity  of  laying  large  direct  taxes  does  not,  in 
this  country,  often  arise  in  case  of  the  General  Government; 
but  during  and  after  the  gigantic  Civil  War  between  the  North 
and  South,  when  enormous  expenses  had  to  be  met,  and  the 
credit  of  the  government  sustained,  the  direct  taxes  became 
very  large  indeed.  In  1861  Congress  passed  the  "  Internal 
Revenue  Law,"  by  which  twenty  millions  of  dollars  were  to 
be  annually  raised  from  direct  taxes  on  houses  and  lands  in 
each  of  the  States  and  Territories. 

By  subsequent  acts  not  only  houses  and  lands  were  taxed, 
but  almost  every  sort  of  property  and  business.  Licenses  were 
required  for  persons  to  carry  on  their  profession,  trade,  or  busi- 
ness ;  incomes  were  taxed ;  deeds,  mortgages,  notes,  bonds,  bank 
checks,  and  papers  of  almost  every  kind  were  invalid  unless 
they  had  a  revenue  stamp  upon  them.  Manufacturers  had  to 
pay  a  certain  per-centage  on  whatever  they  made.  Scarcely 
any  calling,  trade,  profession,  or  business  escaped  it,  directly 
or  indirectly. 

5.  To  carry  out  these  provisions,  the  whole  country  was 


FINANCIAI.   SYSTEM   OF   THE   TJ.    S.  266 

divided  into  Revenue  Districts,  corresponding,  so  far  as  con- 
venient, witli  Congressional  Districts.  An  officer  of  the  Treas- 
ury Department,  called  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue, 
was  appointed,  charged  with  the  duty  of  preparing  instructions, 
forms,  blanks,  stamps,  and  licenses,  to  be  used  in  the  collection 
bj  the  multitude  of  minor  officers  employed,  and  of  oversee- 
ing the  whole  work.  Each  district  had  its  chief  officer,  and 
his  deputies,  assessors,  and  collectors,  by  whom  the  money  at 
length  reached  the  Treasury  at  Washington.  It  created  an 
army  of  officers  to  be  paid.  It  was  laid  aside  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, and  taxation  made  less  onerous  and  expensive.  The  remark- 
able prosperity  of  the  country  at  that  particular  period  made 
it  easier  to  bear.  Direct  taxes  laid  by  the  General  Government 
are  more  economically  collected  by  the  State  or  local  officials, 
in  all  ordinary  cases.  This  was  a  very  extraordinary  and  press- 
ing one,  and  the  people  were  so  eager  to  put  their  debt  in  the 
way  of  extinction  that  it  was  endured  with  much  patience  for 
several  years,  when  most  of  this  cumbrous  and  costly  machinery 
was  laid  aside. 

6.  The  vast  war  debt,  the  large  number  of  government 
officers  employed  in  attending  to  the  interests  of  so  large  and 
prosperous  a  country,  the  support  of  the  army  and  navy, 
the  great  number  of  foreign  representatives  and  agents  of  the 
government,  and  the  public  works  necessary  for  the  develop- 
ment or  protection  of  the  country,  make  a  large  revenue  indis- 
pensable. 

7.  It  is  best  when  the  people  are  free  and  intelligent  that 
they  be  governed  as  little  as  possible — or  rather  that  they  gov- 
ern themselves  as  much  as  possible,  and  that  as  few  officials  as 
may  be  live  on  the  fruits  of  other  people's  labor.  There  must 
necessarily  be  an  army  of  them,  at  the  least;  but  such  arrange- 
ments should  be  made  that  public  expenses  may  be  reduced  to 
the  lowest  point,  and  republican  simplicity  everywhere  reign. 

The  principle  and  habit  of  public  economy  should  be  earn- 
estly insisted  on,  since  the  handling  of  immense  sums  of  pub- 
Vic  money  is  much  more  demoralizing  than  the  acquisition  of 


260  DUTIES  AKD    TARIFFS. 

private  wealth  in  legitimate  ways.  It  is  a  strong  temptation 
to  men  of  weak  moral  character;  and  private  property  is  more 
likely  to  be  carefully  used  and  economically  expended  than 
public  funds.  The  smaller  the  revenue,  consistent  with  the 
general  development  of  the  country,  the  better. 


CHAPTEK    XI. 
DUTIES  AND  TAKIFFS. 

1.  Duty  is  a  term  used  to  designate  a  sum  paid  by  foreign 
merchandise  coming  to  our  country  for  sale,  for  the  privilege 
of  entering  and  being  offered  to  purchasers.  Tariff  is  a  rate,  or 
scale,  of  duties. 

2.  Ever  since  intercourse  has  become  frequent  between  dif- 
ferent nations  commerce  has  been  occupied  in  effecting  inter- 
changes of  the  products  and  industries  of  each  country  with 
others.  Each  country  has  peculiarities  that  specially  fit  it  for 
the  production  or  manufacture  of  some  article,  or  list  of  arti- 
cles, which  others  would  be  unable  to  produce,  or  would  pro- 
duce at  greater  inconvenience  and  expense,  and  which  is  of 
high  value  to  all,  or  many  of  the  others.  The  social  princi- 
ple has  proved  to  be  of  extreme  value  to  the  improvement  of 
men,  and  to  their  happiness;  and  we  might  say  that,  in  this 
unequal  distribution  of  capacities  in  the  lands,  and  the  races 
who  inhabit  them,  the  exercise  of  the  social  principle,  on  a 
broad  scale,  was  made,  by  nature,  indispensable. 

3.  Each  nation,  then,  devotes  itself  to  its  special  features  of 
production,  and  exchanges  its  surplus  with  others  for  what  it 
wants  of  their  different  surplus,  to  mutual  profit.  Just  as  A 
is  a  farmer,  and  raises  grain,  while  B  is  a  mechanic.  Each  has 
a  natural  adaptation  to  the  business  he  pursues,  and  each  needs 
what  the  other  produces.  So  they  exchange,  and  each  has  the 
full  benefit  of  the  success  and  dift'erent  genius  and  resources  of 
the  other.  Commerce  is  the  same  in  principle,  and  interchange 
betimes  constantly  more  extensive. 


DUTIES   A2JD    TARIFFS.  267 

4.  Government  naturally  regulates  commerce  because  it  is 
^ne  of  the  general  interests  of  the  country.  It  finds  an  indefi- 
nite amount  of  foreign  merchandise  waiting  to  enter  to  be  put 
on  sale.  It  was  long  ago  discovered  that  here  was  a  conve- 
nient mode  of  producing  a  government  income  without  dis- 
turbing the  people  with  a  constant  demand  for  money  to  pay 
its  expenses.  Whatever  foreign  goods  had  to  pay  for  permis- 
sion to  enter,  was  quietly  added  to  the  price  afterward,  and  so 
the  people  paid  their  taxes  to  the  government  in  an  indirect 
way  in  the  form  of  a  Duty.  They  pay  the  price  asked,  if  it 
be  within  their  means,  without  knowledge,  or  thought,  of  what 
part  goes  to  the  government,  unless  they  study  the  subject  care' 
fully. 

It  has  always  been  the  case,  then,  that  a  government  could 
get  all  the  money  it  wanted,  from  this  source,  in  ordinary 
times,  with  very  little  trouble.  That  mode  is  naturally  a  favor- 
ite with  them.  "Whether  it  is  the  best  way  for  the  people  is 
another  question,  which  has  been,  at  difierent  times,  very 
warmly  debated  in  our  government.  It  is  not  our  place  here 
to  take  up  the  argument,  but  it  is  worthy  of  a  careful  study  by 
the  people. 

5,  A  Tariff  of  duties  is  established  to  carry  on  the  govern- 
ment. There  is  another  object  that  has  had  many  advocates, 
and  has  quite  commonly  exerted  an  influence  to  raise  the  tariff 
on  some  things.  It  is  stated  in  the  preamble,  or  introduction, 
to  the  first  act  passed  by  the  first  Congress,  on  this  subject, 
July  4th,  1789,  "  Whereas,  it  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
government,  for  the  discharge  of  the  debts  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  encouragement  and  protection  of  manufac- 
tures, that  duties  be  laid  on  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise 
imported."  It  was  considered  important  to  protect  and  encour- 
age our  manufactures,  by  putting  so  high  a  price  on  the  same 
kind  of  foreign  goods  that  ours  would  have  the  advantage  and 
sell  at  a  less  price  or  greater  profit. 

This  might  have  been  a  wise  measure,  in  the  early  days  of  the 
countr}^  when  there  were  few  manufactures.  Whether  it  has 
been  so  since,  or  is  so  now,  is  not  so  clear. 


268  DUTIES   AND   TARIFFS. 

6.  Every  man  should  make  up  his  mind  what  is  right  and 
best  and  act  as  he  sees  to  be  most  for  the  general  good.  It  has 
two  disadvantages.  It  embarrasses  the  interchange  that  we 
have  described  as  so  profitable,  and  under  a  high  tariff  some- 
times practically  forbids  it.  It  is  unsocial,  and  we  declare  by 
it,  that  we  will,  so  far  as  possible,  live  within  ourselves,  and 
have  as  little  to  do  with  our  neighbors  as  we  can.  Besides,  it 
is  our  own  people  who  have  to  pay  the  duty,  mainly,  if  they 
use  the  foreign  goods;  or  the  higher  price  on  domestic  goods 
if  they  buy  them;  so  that  one  class  of  the  people,  that  is,  the 
the  mass  of  them,  pay  another  small  class  large  sums  to  manu- 
facture what  might  be  bought  from  foreigners  with  less  money. 
It  is  a  fine  thing  for  the  manufacturers,  but  not  quite  so  fine 
for  those  who  buy  them,  unless  they  feel  like  making  their 
countrymen  a  present  for  every  piece  of  goods  he  will  manu- 
facture for  them,  beside  the  proper  cost  as  made  by  others. 

It  has  the  advantage  of  encouraging  industries  of  different 
kinds;  and  has  been  believed  to  contribute  greatly  to  the  gen- 
eral prosperity  in  that  way.  Some  think  it  best  to  let  all  those 
things  arrange  themselves,  and  leave  each  nation  to  bring  us 
what  they  can  produce  cheapest  and  sell  them  more  of  what  we 
can  produce  cheapest.  They  believe  this  is  the  secret  of  pros- 
perity, besides  being  more  social.  It  is  a  question  to  be  care- 
fully examined.  It  seems  probable,  that,  in  the  end,  all 
nations  will  agree  on  this  policy,  and  raise  their  revenue  in 
some  other  way.     It  is  perhaps  too  soon  to  expect  that,  as  yet. 

We  have  never  been  without  a  tariif,  though  there  has  been 
much  discussion  in  Congress,  and  between  parties,  whether  it 
should  be  protective  or  not.  So  it  has  often  changed  from  low 
to  high  and  back  again.  Tlie  necessities  of  our  war,  and  the 
heavy  debt,  made  it  important,  in  the  highest  degree,  to  raise 
all  the  revenue  we  could,  and  the  subject  has  not  been  much 
discussed  for  many  years. 

7.  The  Duties  are  mostly  collected  in  the  cities,  and,  as 
foreign  goods  come  mainly  by  water,  in  the  seaports  of  the 
country.   Duties  are  often  called  Customs,  and  the  places  where 


DUTIES   AND   TAKIFFS.  269 

they  are  collected  Custom  Houses';  and  the  officers  Custom 
House  Officers.  These  places  are  located  in  ports  along  our  sea 
coast,  and  there  are  some  thousands  of  custom  house  officers  of 
all  grades.  The  buildings  erected  bj  the  government  have  cost 
many  millions  of  dollars.  The  larger  part  of  the  duties  are 
collected  in  the  great  seaport  cities,  as  Boston,  New  York,  Balti- 
more, New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco. 

Places,  designated  for  foreign  vessels  to  present  their  goods 
for  examination  and  collection  of  the  duty,  are  called  Ports  of 
Entry.  If  they  are  delivered  at  some  other  place,  where  there 
is  no  custom  house  they  are  called  Ports  of  Delivery. 

8.  Congress  alone  has  power  to  lay  these  duties.  There  are 
two  modes  of  imposing  them;  sometimes  one  and  sometimes 
the  other  being  adopted,  according  to  the  views  of  the  Con- 
gress legislating.  They  are  called  specific  and  ad  valorem 
duties.  Ad  valorem  means,  according  to  the  cost,  and  is 
counted  on  the  cost  in  the  country  the  article  comes  from. 
Specific  duties  are  so  much  on  the  article,  without  regard  to  the 
cost.  On  many  things  imported  there  is  no  duty,  and  they  are 
called  "  free  goods." 

Changes  are  continually  made  in  the  tariff  to  conform  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Treasury,  the  desires  of  the  people,  and 
the  changing  views  of  the  legislators. 
DRAWBACKS. 

9.  When  the  duties  on  foreign  goods  have  been  paid,  and 
they  are  afterwards  exported,  the  duties  which  have  been  paid 
are  refunded  to  the  owner.  The  money  thus  paid  back  is 
called  a  drawback.  All  imported  goods  are  entitled  to  draw- 
back whenever  they  are  taken  out  of  the  United  States. 

BOUNTIES  ON  EXPORTED  GOODS, 
take  money  out  of,  instead  of  putting  it  in  the  treasury,  yet  the 
government  in  a  few  cases  has  allowed  bounties  upon  exported 
.  rticles.  Fish  taken  by  American  vessels,  refined  sugar  and 
distilled  spirits  made  from  imported  sugar  and  molasses,  are 
examples.  This  was  done  to  encourage  domestic  industry  and 
enterprise. 


270 


DUTIES   AND   TABIFFS. 


CUSTOMS  EEYENUE  FOE  FIFTY-ONE  YEAKS. 

A  Comijarative  Statement  showing  the  Customs  Revenue,  Amount  of 
Dutiable  and  Free  Goods  Imported,  and  the  Average  Rate  of  Duty  on 
Imports,  every  j'ear  from  1821  to  1871,  inclusive. 


Year. 


1821. 
1822. 
1823. 
1824. 
1825. 
1826. 
1827. 
1828. 
1829. 
1830. 
1831. 
1832. 
18*3. 
18:34. 
18.35. 
1&36. 
1837. 
1838. 
1839. 
1840. 
1841., 
1842. 
1843., 
1844. 
1845. 
1846. 
1847. 
1848.. 
1849.. 
1850.. 
1851.. 
1852.. 
ISSJ.. 
1864.. 
1855.. 
1856.. 
1857- . 
1858.. 
1859.. 
I860.. 
1861.. 
1862.. 
1863.. 
1864.. 
1865.. 
1866.. 
1867.. 
1868.. 
1869.. 
1870.. 
1871.. 


Receipts  from 
Customs. 


$18,475,703  57 
24,066,066  43 
22,402,024  29 
25,486,817  86 
31,653,871  50 
26,08.3,861  97 
27,948,956  57 
29,951,251  90 
27,688,701  11 
28,389,505  05 
36,596,118  19 
29,.341,175  65 
24,177,578  52 
18,960,705  96 
25,890,726  66 
30,818,327  67 
18,134.131  01 
19,702,825  45 
25,554,533  96 
15,104,790  63 
19,919,492  17 
16,662,746  84 
10,208,000  43 
29,236,357  38 
30,952,416  21 
26,712,668  00 
23,747,865  00 
31,757,071  00 
28,;346,739  00 
39,668,686  00 
49,017,568  00 
47,-3.39,326  00 
58,931,865  00 
64,224,190  00 
53.025,794  00 
64,022.863  00 
63,875,905  00 
41.789.621  00 
49,565,824  00 
53,187.511  00 
39,582,126  00 
49.056,.398  00 
69,059,642  00 
102,316,15:}  00 
84,928,260  00 
179,046,6.30  00 
176,417.811  00 
164,464,596  00 
180,048,427  00 
192,878,265  00 


IMPORTS. 


Free. 


$10,082,313 
7,298,708 
9.048,288 
12,563,773 
10,947,510 
12,567,769 
11,855,104 
12,.379,176 
11,805,501 
12,746,245 
13,456,625 
14,249,453 
32,447,950 
68,393,180 
77,940,493 
92,056,481 
69,250,031 
60,860,005 
76,401,792 
57,196,204 
66,019,r31 
30,627,486 
35,574,584 
24,766,881 
22,147,840 
24,767,739 
41,772,636 
22,716,603 
22,.377,665 
22,710,382 
25,106,587 
29,692,934 
31,383,5.34 
33,285,821 
40,090,3.36 
56,955,706 
66,729,.306 
80,319,275 
79,721,116 
90,841,749 
+117,469,962 

t69,1.36,705 
44,826,029 

+54,241,944 
54,329,588 
69,728,618 
45,203,970 
29,.379,149 
41,454,568 
46,560,050 
57,851,808 


Dutiable. 


$52,503,411 

75,942,833 

68,5.30,979 

67,985,234 

85,392,565 

72,406,708 

67,628,964 

76,130,648 

62,687,0^ 

58,130,675 

89,734,499 

86,779,813 

75,670..361 

58,128,152 

71,955,249 

97,923,554 

71,739,186 

52,857,399 

85,690,840 

49,945,-315 

61,926,446 

69,534,601 

29,179,215 

83,668,154 

95,106,724 

96,934,058 

104,773  002 

132,282,325 

125,479,774 

155,427,9.36 

191,118,-345 

183.252,508 

236,595,113 

271,276,560 

221,378,184 

257,6»4,236 

294,160,8:35 

202.29:3,875 

259,047,014 

279,872,-327 

218,180,191 

136,6.35,024 

208,093,891 

275,320,951 

194,226,064 

375,783,540 

372,627,601 

342,245,659 

395,859,687 

415,817,5.37 

48:3,641,966 


Total. 


$62,585,724 
83,241,541 
77,579,267 
80,549,007 
96,:340,075 
84,974,477 
79,484,068 
88,509,824 
74,492,527 
70,876,920 
10-3,191,124 
101,029,266 
106,118,-311 
126,521,332 
149,895,742 
189,980,0:35 
140,989,217 
113,717,404 
162,092,132 
107,141,519 
127,946,177 
100,162,087 
64,753,799 
108,4.35,035 
117,254,564 
121,691,797 
146,545,638 
154,998,928 
147,857,439 
178,138,318 
216,224,932 
212,945,442 
267.978,647 
304,562,381 
261,468,520 
314,639,942 
360,890,141 
282,613,150 
388,768,130 
362,166  254 
335,650,153 
205,771,729 
252,919,920 
329,562,895 
248,555.652 
445.512,158 
417,831,571 
371,624,806 
437,314,255 
462,377,587 
541,493,774 


35.6 
31.7 
32.7 
37.5 
37.1 
34.6 
41.3 
39.3 
44.3 
48.8 
40.8 
33.8 
31.9 
32.6 
36.0 
31.6 
25.3 
37.8 
29.9 
30.4 
32.2 
23-1 
35.7 
35.1 
32.5 
26.5 
22.5 
24.0 
23.0 
25.2 
26.0 
26.0 
25.0 
23.5 
23.0 
25.0 
21.5 
20.0 
19.0 
19.0 
18.14 
35.90 
33.19 
37.16 
43.75 
47.65 
47.34 
48.05 
45.48 
46.37 


*  The  percentages  in  these  columns  are  approximately,  not  absolutely  correct,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  rates  are  computed  upon  the  value'of  merchandise,  etc.,  imported, 
instead  of  the  value  of  goods  entering  into  consumption  in  the  respective  years. 

+  These  amounts  do  not  include  imports  into  the  Southern  ports  during  the  war,  from 
which  no  revenue  was  derived,  namely,  in  1861,  $17,089,234;  in  1862,  $90,789;  and  in  1864, 
$2,220. 


DUTIES   AlTD  TAKIFFS.  271 

TONNAGE. 

11.  Tonnage  designates  the  capacity  of  a  vessel  for  carrying 
goods,  which  depends  on  the  tons  of  weight  it  can  receive,  and 
is  computed  by  assigning  so  much  space,  in  height,  length,  and 
breadth,  to  each  ton.  A  reveime,  additional  to  that  raised 
from  the  goods  brought  in  vessels,  is  produced  by  a  tax  on  the 
tonnage,  or  carrying  capacity  of  vessels. 

It  is  laid,  not  only  on  foreign  vessels,  trading  with  our  sea- 
ports, but  on  our  own  vessels;  a  distinction  being  made  so 
as  to  produce  protection  in  favor  of  our  own  commerce  and 
ship-builders.  This  also  is  paid  by  those  who  buy  the  goods 
brought  in  these  vessels ;  since  whatever  duty  is  laid  on  the 
carrying  trade  must  be  made  up  by  the  higher  price  of  the  arti- 
cle brought.  It  is  a  way  of  levying  taxes  without  directly 
calling  the  attention  of  the  people  to  the  fact. 

12.  It  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration  whether  the  coun- 
try would  not  gain  as  much,  by  removing  all  these  embarrass- 
ments to  commerce  with  other  countries,  and  different  points 
on  our  coasts,  as  has  been  gained  by  free  trade  between  the  dif- 
ferent States.  The  Constitution  forbids  taxes  to  be  levied  on 
inter-State  commerce,  or  trade,  and  the  country  is  undoubtedly 
the  gainer  by  such  a  provision. 

In  1T90  a  tonnage  duty  of  50  cents  per  ton  was  laid  on  for- 
eign vessels,  and  six  cents  on  American  vessels.  During  the 
Civil  "War  the  tonnage  duty  was  raised  ten  cents  per  ton  on 
both  foreign  and  American  shipping. 

Tonnage  is  collected  only  once  a  year  by  the  collector  of  the 
port  where  the  vessel  happens  to  be. 


CHAPTEE    XII. 
COLLECTION  OF  DUTIES. 

1.  The  Tariff,  or  Scale  of  Duties,  laid  by  tlie  Laws  of  Con- 
gress, on  goods  brought  from  foreign  countries,  requires  to  be 
paid  when  they  are  first  introduced  ;  or  we  might  say,  iefor^ 
they  are  introduced.  All  these  goods  are  stopped  as  they 
approach  the  boundary  line,  or  on  the  boundary  line,  and 
carefully  examined ;  and  they  can  go  no  farther  until  the  duties 
imposed  by  Congress  are  received.  When  they  have  "  passed 
the  Custom  House  "  they  may  be  as  freely  sold  as  goods  pro- 
duced at  home.  No  government  officer  has  any  right  to  inter- 
fere with  them.  They  have  paid  the  duty  and  have  the  freedom 
of  the  land.  If  they,  by  any  chance  or  efibrt,  get  in  by  any 
other  way,  they  are  treated  as  stolen  goods,  and  may  be  seized 
and  confiscated.  However  much  they  may  have  cost  their 
owners,  however  highly  they  may  prize  them,  however  unques- 
tioned was  their  ownership  before  they  passed  the  limits  of  the 
country,  if  they  are  introduced  by  any  other  than  the  Custom 
House  Door,  all  right  and  title  to  them  by  the  former  owners 
ceases,  and  they  become  the  property  of  the  government. 

2.  So  carefully  is  this  point  guarded  that  not  only  are 
government  officers  provided  for  the  sole  purpose  of  watching 
against  this  illegal  introduction  of  goods,  but  a  premium  is 
ofi^ered  to  unofficial  persons  to  secure  their  aid.  Any  one  who 
can  point  out  (and  prove  the  fact)  goods  of  any  kind,  liable  to 
duty,  that  have  not  passed  the  custom  house,  and  paid  that 
duty,  is  entitled  to  half  the  value  of  the  goods;  the  other  half 
belonging  to  the  government.     Smuggling,  as  bringing  good* 

(272) 


COLLECTION   OF   DUTIES.  ^3 

into  the  country  without  paying  the  duty  is  called,  is  held  to 
be  robbery  of  the  government,  and  ranks  as  a  serious  offense  ; 
and  it  reall}'  is  so,  as  long  as  the  government  produces  its 
income,  or  part  of  it,  in  this  way.  The  law  makes  it  part  pro- 
prietor in  the  property  until  its  claim  is  settled.  Besides,  to 
take  from  the  government  is  to  take  from  the  people;  since 
they  must  make  up,  in  some  other  way.  for  what  is  subtracted 
in  this. 

3.  To  secure  this  payment  of  Duty,  then,  a  large  number 
of  officers  of  different  grades  are  appointed,  not  only  to  examine 
the  goods,  determine  the  amount  required  to  be  paid,  receive 
the  money  and  keep  all  the  accounts  connected  with  it,  biat  to 
take  care  that  all  the  goods,  of  whatever  kind,  that  are  not 
permitted  an  entrance  free  of  duty,  shall  duly  pass  examination, 
and  be  "  entered,"  as  it  is  called,  at  the  custom  house. 

4.  The  Head  of  these  officers  is  the 

COMMISSIONEK  OF  CUSTOMS. 

He  superintends  the  Customs  Bureau  in  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment. He  is  nominated,  and,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
appointed  by  the  President.  All  the  accounts  of  officers  em- 
ployed in  the  collection  of  duties  on  imports  pass  through  his 
bureau  for  examination  and  adjustment;  he  prepares  the  forms 
of  all  papers  used  in  this  department  of  the  revenue  ;  directs 
the  form  of  keeping  the  accounts ;  brings  suits  when  necessary 
for  the  recovery  of  money  due  from  officers  of  the  department; 
and  makes  a  report  of  any  neglect  of  duty  to  Congress.  A 
complete  summary,  therefore,  of  the  past  and  present  condition 
of  the  customs  department  may  be  found,  at  any  time,  in  his 
office.  With  so  perfect  a  system  of  supervision  it  does  not 
matter  how  extensive  the  organization  may  be.  No  confusion 
is  possible.  There  are  more  than  30,000  persons  employed 
nnder  this  officer;  and  they  are  scattered  through  the  whole 
eountry  where  there  are  Ports  of  Entry  or  Delivery,  as  well  as 
keeping  guard  along  the  whole  coast  line  and  frontier  of  the 
United  States  ;  yet  they  are  under  as  complete  discipline  and 
18 


374  ooLLEonoN  of  duties. 

surveillance  as  the  armj  or  navy.  This  bureau  was  organized 
in  1849 ;  its  business  having  previously  been  under  the  over- 
sight of  the  First  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury.  It  has  general 
supervision  of  the  conduct  and  accounts  of  all  customs  offi- 
cials. Tlie  highest  in  rank  below  this  are 
THE  COLLECTORS. 

5.  Wherever  there  is  a  Port  of  Entry  a  Collector  is  ap- 
pointed to  superintend  the  collection  of  duties,  receive  the 
money,  and  transmit  it  to  the  United  States  Treasury.  He  is 
the  principal  officer  of  the  Collection  District  connected  with 
this  Port,  which  often  embraces  several  Ports  of  Delivery,  and 
is  required  to  see  that  all  is  properly  conducted  in  his  district. 
He  receives  his  appointment  directly  from  tne  President  and 
Senate,  and  is  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  President. 

6.  As,  in  ordinary  times,  the  most  of  the  revenue  required 
for  the  support  of  the  government  is  derived  from  Customs, 
this  is  a  responsible  office.  Great  care  is  required  to  secure  the 
services  of  competent  and  faithful  men,  and  the  bonds  tliey 
are  required  to  give  are  large.  He  nominates  the  subordinate 
officers  connected  with  his  custom-house,  and  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  appoints  them,  if  he  sees  no  objection. 

7.  The  Collectors  take  care  that  all  the  goods,  on  which 
Congress  has  imposed  a  duty,  pay  the  amount  due.  To  this 
end  he  often  requires  one  or  more  deputies.  The  entire  com- 
merce of  the  part  of  the  country  falling  in  his  district,  with 
other  countries,  passes  under  his  examination.  He  receives 
all  reports,  manifests,  and  documents  required  to  be  exhibited 
by  all  vessels,  domestic  and  foreign,  on  their  entry  into  his  port* 
and  all  accounts  of  all  the  goods  they  have  on  board.  On  these 
he  must  estimate  the  duties,  receive  the  moneys,  or  bonds 
securing  their  payment,  and  grant  all  permits  for  landing  tlio 
goods.  He  transmits,  quarterly,  all  the  moneys  collected  in 
his  department,  with  an  accurate  account  of  all  the  transactions 
of  his  office  during  the  quarter,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. These  accounts  pass  to  the  Customs  bureau,  and  the 
money  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States. 


OOLLKCTION    OF   DUTIES.  276 

8.  His  duties,  as  described  in  the  previous  section,  make 
Idm  acquainted  with  all  the  imports  of  the  country,  in  his 
District  or  Port.  He  is  also  required  to  examine  the  manifests 
of  all  the  vessels,  and  the  accounts  of  their  cargoes,  that  leave 
his  port  for  a  foreign  country.  This  secures  a  knowledge  of 
all  the  exports  of  the  country.  It  is  his  duty  to  give  clearances, 
or  permits,  to  all  vessels  leaving  for  foreign  ports.  It  is  unlaw- 
ful for  any  vessel  to  depart  without  this  document.  A  ship's 
clearance  can  be  properly  given  only  when  her  manifest,  or 
detailed  account  of  the  quantity,  kind,  and  value  of  her  cargo 
is  ascertained  to  be  correct. 

9.  We  give  the  form  of  a  ship's  Manifest,  and  also  of  a 
Clearance. 

A  SHIP'S  MANIFEST. 

"  Report  and  manifest  of  the  cargo  laden  on  board  of   the 

,  whereof  is  master,  which  cargo  was  taken 

on  board  at  the  port  or  ports  of  ,  burthen  tons, 

built  at  ,  in  the  State  of  ,  and  owned  by  , 

merchants  at  ,  and  bound  for  ." 

This,  together  with  a  particular  description  of  the  marks  and 
numbers  of  every  bale,  box,  case,  barri^,  bundle  or  parcel  on 
board  of  the  vessel,  is  the  manifest.  It  must  be  given  to  the 
collector  of  whatever  port  the  vessel  arrives  at;  and  the  master 
of  her  must  swear  that  it  is  in  all  respects  a  true  and  accurate 
account  of  all  the  cargo  on  board,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge 
and  belief. 

10.  The  collector  of  the  port  can  then  compute  the  duties 
to  be  paid  upon  each  article,  and  when  these  are  paid,  or  secured 
to  be  paid,  he  gives  permits  to  land  the  cargo,  and  deliver  the 
goods  to  their  respective  owners.  Then  come  in  the  duties  of 
weighers,  gangers,  measurers  and  inspectors  of  the  customs, 
after  permits  are  obtained  to  land  the  goods.  If  they  are  such 
as  require  to  be  weighed,  gauged,  or  measured,  these  officers 
are  sent  to  do  it;  and  the  inspector  must  allow  nothing  to  leave 
the  ship  until  he  has  examined  the  marks  and  numbers,  to  see 
if  they  correspond  with  the  permit  and  the  manifest.     If  he 


276  CXJLLKCTION    OF   DUTIES. 

suspects  that  tliereis  an  attempt  to  defraud  the  government  bj 
false  names  and  marks,  he  is  authorized  to  open  the  package, 
box,  case,  cask,  or  whatever  contains  the  goods,  and  to  examine 
them.  In  this  way  smuggling  is  prevented,  and  the  revenues 
arising  from  duties  on  imported  goods  secured. 

A  SHIP'S  CLEARANCE. 

This  document  is  couched  in  the  following  terms : 
"  District  of  ,  Port  of  ,  88. 

"These  are  to  certify,  to  all  whom  it  may  concern,  that 
A.  B.,  master  or  commander  of  the  ship  (brig,  barque,  schooner") 
burthen  tons  or  thereabouts,  mounted  with  g^ns. 

navigated  with  men,  built,  and  bound  foi 

,  having  on  board  ,  hath  here  entered  and  cleared 

his  said  vessel  according  to  law. 

"  Given  under  our  hands  and  seals,  at  the  custom-house 
of  ,  this  day  of  ,  one  thousand  ,  and 

in  the  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 

America." 

This  is  signed  by  the  collector  and  by  the  naval  officer  of  the 
port,  when  the  commander  is  prepared  to  depart  with  his  vessel 
to  his  destination. 

11.  The  compensation  of  collectors  is  not  all  given  in  the 
form  of  a  salary,  but  in  part  the  fees  for  services  rendered,  and 
part  of  the  forfeitures  of  smuggled  goods.  In  the  larger  ports 
it  is  enormous,  but  in  the  smaller  ones  is  often  insignificant. 
It  is  a  common  mode  of  doing  business  of  this  kind,  and  is 
supposed  to  stimulate  the  activity  and  secure  the  faithfulness 
of  the  officer  in  preventing  frauds  on  the  government.  The 
working  of  this  plan  is  sometimes  complained  of  as  inspiring 
an  over-officiousness  embarrassing  to  trade  and  unnecessarily 
annoying  to  importers ;  and  as  producing  too  great  an  inequal- 
ity in  incomes.  It  is  difficult  to  make  a  system  quite  perfect. 
Whether  this  admits  of  improvement  remains  to  be  seen. 

STJRYEYORS 

12.  Are  next  in  rank  and  authority  to  the  Collectors.  They 


COLLECTION   OF   DUTIES.  277 

are  appointed  in  the  same  manner  and  receive  their  compensa- 
tion in  the  same  way.  The  Surveyor's  duty  is  to  superintend 
the  inspectors,  weighers,  measurers,  and  gangers  in  his  port ; 
to  visit  all  vessels  arriving  in  it;  make  a  detailed  report  of  them 
to  the  Collector ;  and  examine  all  goods  entered  for  the  benefit 

of  drawback. 

THE  NAYAL  OFFICER 

13.  Of  a  port,  is  another  of  the  superintendents,  appointed 
to  oversee  the  collection  of  the  revenue.  His  appointment 
depends  on  the  President  and  Senate,  and  his  compensation  on 
the  amount  of  business  done  in  his  port,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Collector  and  Surveyor.  His  duties  are,  to  some  extent, 
parallel  to  those  of  the  Collector  ;  or  he  may  be  called  a  local 
tjxaminer  and  auditor  of  the  Collector's  work  and  accounts,  for 
the  sake  of  accuracy  and  correctness.  He  receives  copies  of 
all  manifests  and  entries,  and  computes  the  duties  on  all  goods, 
keeping  a  separate  record  of  them.  He  must  countersign  per- 
mits, clearances,  certificates,  debentures,  and  other  documents 
issued  by  the  Collector.  He  examines  the  Collector's  accounts, 
bonds,  and  expenditures,  and  certifies  to  them,  if  correct. 

A  great  number  of  deputies  and  employees  are  required  to 
•carry  out  the  details  of  the  collection  of  duties,  since  the  entire 
amount  of  imports  into  the  country  are  required  to  be  carefully 
■examined. 

REVENUE   CUTTERS 

14.  Are  employed  to  guard  against  smuggling.  They  are 
vessels  of  small  size,  some  steamers,  and  others  sailing  vessels, 
properly  manned  and  armed,  of  high  powers  of  speed ;  and  are 
stationed  as  a  coast  guard  near  the  ports,  and  lines  of  ocean 
travel,  to  prevent  the  landing  of  imported  goods  before  they 
have  paid  the  duty.  Their  officers  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
•dent  and  Senate. 

They  look  after  all  the  ships  going  into  any  port,  or  any  that 
may  approach  the  coast ;  board  them  when  within  four  leagues 
•(or  12  miles)  of  the  coast;  examine  the  manifest  of  the  cargo 
and  every  part  of  the  vessel;    put  proper  fastenings  on  the 


?78  QOVEENMENT  OOINAQB. 

hatches,  to  prevent  unlawful  communication  with  the  hold 
until  the  Custom's  officers  have  discharged  their  duty;  and 
place  a  watch  on  board  to  remain  until  the  vessel  is  delivered 
into  the  charge  of  the  proper  revenue  officer. 

15.  They  are  revenue  officers,  and  under  the  control  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  the  Collectors  at  the  ports  near 
which  they  are  stationed.  In  case  the  President  judges  it  best, 
they  may  be  called  on,  at  his  direction,  to  cooperate  with  the 
Navy,  and,  in  case  they  are  disabled  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duty  at  such  times,  are  entitled  to  be  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  officers  and  sailors  in  the  Navy. 

16.  These  vessels  carry  a  pennant  and  ensign  with  such 
marks  on  them  as  the  President  may  designate.  If  any  vessel 
liable  to  seizure  refuses  to  bring  to  at  the  direction  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  Cutter,  he  is  authorized  to  fire  into  it  after 
having  shown  his  pennant  and  ensign,  and  compel  it  to  submit 
to  be  boarded  and  examined.  Much  depends  on  the  vigilance 
of  these  revenue  cutters,  as  the  sums  paid  on  goods  imported 
amount  to  a  great  many  millions  of  dollars,  and  want  of  due 
precaution  would  cause  the  income  of  the  government  to  be 
defrauded  of  large  sums. 

The  commanders  of  revenue  cutters  report  all  matters  relat- 
ing to  their  duties  weekly  to  the  Collector  of  the  port. 


OHAPTEE     XIII. 

GOVERNMENT   COINAGE. 

1.  The  United  States  mint,  located  at  Philadelphia,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  establishments  of  the  government.  An 
act  of  Congress,  passed  in  1792,  was  the  first  step  towards  its 
creation.     Its  design  was,  and  its  principal  business  has  been, 


GOVERNMEKT    COINAGE.  279 

t*)  cwin  the  precious  metals  into  money.  It  has  been  for  more 
than  eighteen  hundred  years  the  usage  of  civilized  governments 
to  coin  their  own  money.  Ours,  at  a  very  early  period  of  its 
existence,  began  to  do  the  same  thing,  and  will  probably  con- 
tinue to  do  it  as  long  as  it  shall  exist.  Before  the  art  of  coin- 
ing was  known,  the  precious  metals  were  used  as  a  standard  of 
value,  but  they  passed  from  one  to  another  by  weight.  The 
plan  of  cutting  them  into  small  pieces,  and  then  stamping 
their  value  upon  them,  by  which  their  worth  could  be  known 
as  soon  as  seen,  was  an  improvement  upon  the  former  mode. 
This  process  is  denominated  coining.  It  has  of  late  been 
brought  so  near  perfection  that  our  pieces  of  money  are  fine 
specimens  of  art. 

2.  The  officers,  who  manage  and  conduct  the  operations  of, 
this  establisliment,  are  a  Director,  a  Treasurer,  an  Assayer,  a 
Melter  and  Refiner,  a  Chief  Coiner,  and  an  Engraver.  They 
are  all  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  in  the  usual 
manner.     The  director  appoints  the  assistants  and  clerks. 

All  must  give  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance  of  their 
respective  duties  upon  which  they  enter  under  oath.  The 
duties  of  these  different  officers  may  almost  be  known  by  the 
names  they  bear.  The  director  is  the  head  of  the  institution, 
and  the  others  act  under  his  general  direction,  each  having  his 
appropriate  duties  to  perform.  In  the  month  of  January  of 
each  year  the  director  must  make  a  report  to  the  President  of 
the  operations  of  the  mint  and  its  branches  for  the  preceding 
year. 

3.  Any  person  may  take  gold  or  silver  bullion  or  ores  to 
the  mint  and  receive  it  back  in  coin,  for  a  very  trifling  expense. 
Before  it  is  coined,  after  its  value  has  been  determined  by  the 
assayer,  the  director  will  give  a  certificate  for  it,  which  is  of 
the  same  value  as  the  bullion  deposited. 

4.  We  have  stated  that  the  principal  business  at  the  mint 
is  the  conversion  of  the  precious  metals  into  coin  or  money. 
But  this  is  not  its  exclusive  business.  Another  part  is  to  melt 
and  assay  these  metals,  and  to  run  them  into  ingots  or  bars 


S80 


GOVERNMENT   COINAGE. 


either  of  pure  or  standard  gold  and  silver,  according  to  the 
wish  of  its  owner. 

Until  1835  the  mint  at  Philadelphia  was  the  only  establish- 
ment in  the  United  States  for  coining  money.  But  in  that 
year  a  law  was  passed  establishing  branch  mints  at  !New 
Orleans,  in  Louisiana;  at  Charlotte,  in  North  Carolina;  and  at 
Dablonega,  in  Georgia.  In  1852,  another  branch  was  estab- 
lished in  California;  in  1862,  another  at  Denver,  in  Colorado 
Territory;  and  in  1863,  another  at  Carson  City,  in  Nevada 
Territory,  since  made  a  State;  in  1864,  another  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, in  California,  and  another  at  Dallas  City,  in  Oregon. 
Except  the  one  in  California,  but  little  has  ever  been  done  at 
these  branches.  They  are  all  similar  to  the  principal  one  at 
Philadelphia;  and  the  laws  relating  to  that  are  made  to  apply 
to  these  branches. 

Tlie  tbllowing  is  a  table  of  coins  and  their  weight  and  alloy 
as  now  made  at  the  mint: 


Weight  of 
Single  Pieces 

FiNKNESS. 

Proportionate  Allot. 

Deviation  in 

Wet.  allowed 

Dy  Law. 

Gold— 
Double  Eagles.. 

Grains. 

516 

258 

129 
77.4 
645 
25.8 

420 

192 
96.45 
77.16 
38.58 

77.16 
32 

48 

900 

900 
900 
900 
900 
900 

900 
900 
900 
900 
900 

900  parts  gold,  100  parts  copper 

900          "          100 

900           "          100 

900          "          100 

900           "          100 

900           "           100 

900  parts  silver,  100  parts  copper 
900           "           100           " 
900          "           100 
900          "           100 
900           "            100 

25  parts  nickel,  75  parts  copper 
25           "             75 

95  parts  copper,  5  tin  and  zinc 

Grains. 

Half  Eagles.... 
Three  Dollars... 
Quarter  Eagles. 
Dollars 

4 

i 

14 

w, 
14 

SiLYKB— 

Trade  Dollars... 
Half  Dollars.... 
Quarter  Dollars. 
Twenty  Cents... 

NiCKBL— 

Five  Cent 

Three  Cent 

Bbonzk— 
One  Cent 

2 
4 

4 

No  eagles  were  coined  from  1805  to  1837  inclusive;  no  half 
eagles  in  1816  or  1817;  no  quarter  eagles  before  1796,  nor  in 
1800  or  1801,  nor  from  1809  to  1820,  or  in  1822,  1823,  182& 
or  1841;  no  dollars  from  1806  to  1838,  except  1,000  in  1836: 
no  half  dollars  from  1797  to  1800,  nor  in  1815;  no  quarters 
before  1796,  none  from  1798  to  1803,  none  from  1808  to  1814, 
and  none  in  1817, 1824, 1826, 1829  and  1830;  no  dimes  before 
1796,  none  in  1799,  1806,  1808,  1812,  1813,  1815  to  1819, 
none  in  1824,  1828  and  1830;  no  half  dimes  in  1798,  1799, 
1804,  1806  to  1828;  no  cents  in  1815;  a  few  specimens  in 
1823;  no  half-cents  in  1795,  ISOl,  1812  to  1824,  1827  to  1830, 
1834,  1836  and   1840.     A  few  half-cents  were  struck  every 

vfinr  frnin  1  R4-0  tn    IS.^7        First  tlirRft-dollar  itififfis  in   1  8.'S4. 


liOVBKNMENT    COIN  AG  J:. 


281 


The  coinage  of  the  silver  dollar  of  412^  grains,  the  five  and 
three  cent  silver  pieces,  and  bronze  two  cent  piece,  was  discon- 
tinued under  the  coinage  act  of  1873,  which  went  into  effect 
on  the  1st  of  April  of  that  year. 

Pure  silver  is  worth  $1.30  an  ounce,  troy.  Pure  gold  is 
worth  $20.67  an  ounce,  or  a  fraction  over  fifteen  times  as  much 
as  silver.  The  pure  gold  is  always  a  bright  straw  color;  the 
different  grades  of  color  seen  in  jewelry,  etc.,  are  caused  by 
different  alloyage. 

Half  cents  have  not  been  coined  since  1857.  All  of  the 
base  coins  for  the  country  are  coined  in  Philadelphia.  It  is 
capable  of  m-aking  enough  coin  to  supply  the  wants  of  all  the 
nations  of  the  world. 

The  coinage  of  the  mint  up  to  June  30th,  1876,  amounted 
to  $1,132,226,390.  This  includes  gold,  silver,  nickel  and 
copper.  The  mints  at  Carson  and  San  Francisco  coin  gold 
and  silver  only.  The  mint  at  Denver  does  not  make  coin;  its 
operations  are  confined  to  assaying  and  refining. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  MINT. 

Statement  of  Domestic  Gold  and  Silver  deposited  at  the  United  States 
Mint  and  Branches,  for  Coinage,  to  June  30th,  1872. 


Fbom. 

Gold. 

SiLVBB. 

Gold  and 

SlLTBB. 

California 

$642,965,026.09 

30,648,265.24 

20,338.420.96 

17,141,523.84 

11,594,979.33 

9,865,252.97 

1,010,280.17 

7,232,346.96 

1,629,188.79 

1,379,121,92 

$156,423.03 

176,838.57 

1,114,543.43 

291,681.59 

1,863.74 

44,110.95 

8,539,868.04 

408.83 

$643,121,449.12 
30,825,103.81 

Montana 

21,452,964.39 

Idaho '. 

17,433,205.43 

11,596,843.07 

North  Carolina..              .-    ... 

9,909,363.92 

Nevada - . 

9,550,148.21 

Georjgia 

7,232,750.79 

Virginia 

1,629,188.78 

South  Carolina 

1,379,121.92 

1,062,540.81 
39,873.08 

1,062,640.81 

975,401.39 
823,021.29 
146,147.18 
24,381.67 
213,760.66 
138,878.12 
81,529.69 
67,745.38 

5,760",66 

6,611.97 

1,009.62 

397.64 

108.00 

85,226,912.42 

4,690,402,:30 

1,015  274.47 
823,021.29 

New  Mexico 

Utah 

261,204.71 
200,976.53 

407,351.88 

Nebraska 

225,358.10 

Alabama .. 

218,750.66 

Wyoming  Territory 

Tennessee ." . 

86.48 

188,964.60 
81,529.69 

Washington  Territory 

67,745.38 

51,653.31 

51,653.31 

5,760.00 

5,611.97 

Kansas 

468.00 

1,477,68 

Sitlca 

397.64 

108.00 

Othi;r  Sources        .. 

2,751.15 

85,229,663.57 

4,690,402.30 

Fino  Bars 

5,298,490.02 
5,821,721.97 

5,298.490.02 

Parted  from  Gold 

5,821,721.97 

Total 

$836,205,463.50 

$23,065,492.24 

$859,270,962.47 

282  GOVERNMENT   COINAGK 

ASSAY  OFFICE. 

1.  In  1853  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was  authorized  to 
establish  an  office  in  the  city  of  New  York  for  the  receipt, 
melting,  refining  and  assaying  of  gold  and  silver  bullion  and 
foreign  coins,  and  for  casting  the  same  into  bars,  ingots,  or 
disks.  The  assistant  treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  New 
York,  is  treasurer  of  this  assay  office,  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  appoints  such  other  clerks,  assistants,  and  workmen  a& 
shall  be  necessary  for  the  management  of  its  business. 

2.  Persons  having  gold  or  silver  bullion,  ores  or  foreign 
coin,  may  deposit  them  in  his  office,  and  it  will  be  refined  and 
assayed  (at  no  more  cost  than  the  actual  expense  of  doing  the 
work),  its  value  ascertained,  and  the  owner  will  be  paid  for  it 
in  coins  of  the  same  value  and  metal  as  that  deposited.  It  is 
not  coined  in  this  office,  but  cast  into  bars,  ingots  or  disks — 
either  of  pure  metal  or  of  standard  fineness,  as  the  owner  may 
prefer — the  true  weight  and  value  of  which  are  stamped 
thereon;  and  the  owner  may  either  take  them  in  payment  for 
his  bullion  or  foreign  coin,  or  it  will  be  coined  for  him  at  the 
United  States  Mint,  if  he  wishes.  The  bars  spoken  of  are  often 
kept  in  that  form,  and  are  used  as  coin  among  banks,  brokers, 
and  merchants,  who  receive  and  pay  large  amounts  of  the  pre- 
cious metals.  "Witli  them  it  passes  as  coin,  for  its  exact  weight 
and  value  are  stamped  upon  it. 

3.  Tliis  establishment  was  located  at  New  York  more  for 
the  convenience  of  those  who  do  business  there,  than  for  the 
necessity  of  such  an  institution ;  for  at  the  mint  at  Philadel- 
phia there  is  a  department  for  doing  the  same  work  as  is  done 
here.  But  at  New  York  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  foreign 
coin  than  in  any  other  place,  and  it  is  often  advantageous  to  its 
owners  to  have  it  converted  into  American  coin,  that  it  may  be 
used  with  greater  facility.  Although  many  foreign  coins  do 
circulate  in  this  country,  but  few  know  their  value.  Conse- 
quently they  do  not  pass  so  readily;  and  for  this  reason  they 
are  melted  and  run  into  bars  of  known  value,  or  re-coined  into 
American  money. 


CHAPTER     XIY.    , 
NATIONAL  BANKING. 

1.  The  present  banking  system  was  established  by  an  act  of 
Congress  in  1863.  The  plan  is  quite  different  from  any  before 
in  use,  and  commends  itself  to  the  whole  country  by  the  stabil- 
ity it  gives  to  the  currency  in  use  in  the  transaction  of  its 
business,  and  the  security  it  furnishes  against  loss  of  values 
common  under  the  old  systems.  They  are  managed  by  private 
parties  and  corporations,  apart  from  the  government,  but  under 
a  certain  degree  of  supervision,  and  by  its  authority.  By  the 
act  referred  to  any  number  of  persons  not  less  than  five  may 
associate  themselves  together  for  the  purpose  of  banking,  by 
compliance  with  the  following  conditions  : 

2.  First :  They  must,  under  their  hands  and  seaJs,  make  a 
certificate  which  shall  specify  — 

1.  The  name  assumed  by  such  association. 

2.  The  place  where  its  business  is  to  be  conducted. 

3.  The  amount  of  its  capital  stock  (which  cannot  be  less  than 
$50,000),  and  the  number  of  its  shares. 

4.  The  names  of  its  shareholders,  and  the  number  of  shares 
held  by  each. 

6.  Tlie  time  when  such  association  shall  commence  business. 

6.  A  declaration  that  said  certificate  is  made  to  enable  such 
persons  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  this  act. 

3.  This  certificate  must  be  properly  acknowledged  before 
some  competent  person,  and  must  be  sent  to  the  comptroller 
of  the  currency  in  the  Treasury  Department,  to  be  recorded 
and  kept  by  him.     When  this,  and  all  other  acts  which  the  law 

(28S) 


284:  NATIONAL   BANKING. 

requires,  has  been  done  by  the  association,  the  comptroller  of 
the  currency  gives  them  a  eertilicate  under  his  hand  and  official 
seal,  to  that  effect,  and  that  they  are  authorized  to  commence 
business.  This  constitutes  the  association  a  corporation.  They 
have  the  right  to  make  and  use  a  common  seal,  and  have  all 
the  rights,  and  are  liable  to  all  the  responsibilities  of  ordinary 
legalized  corporations  ;  and  may  exist  not  to  exceed  twenty 
years  from  the  passage  of  this  act.  Every  shareholder  is  made 
personally  liable  for  the  debts  of  the  association  or  bank,  to  the 
amount  of  the  par  value  of  his  stock. 

4.  In  order  to  secure  the  holders  of  bills  issued  by  these 
banks,  they  must  deposit  with  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States, 
United  States  bonds  bearing  interest  to  an  amount  not  less  than 
one-third  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in.  These  bonds  are  safely 
kept  by  the  Treasurer.  The  comptroller  of  the  currency  then 
issues  to  the  bank  an  amount  of  bank  notes  equal  to  the  amount 
of  bonds  thus  deposited,  less  ten  per  cent.  In  case  the  bank 
should  fail  to  redeem  its  circulating  bills,  its  bonds  are  sold, 
and  with  the  proceeds  the  comptroller  of  the  currency  redeems 
them,  or  orders  them  to  be  paid  at  the  United  States  Treasury. 
The  bonds  held  by  the  Treasurer  as  security  for  the  redemption 
of  the  bills  issued  by  the  association,  must  be  transferred  to 
him  in  trust;  thus  giving  him  entire  control  of  them  in  case 
it  becomes  necessary  to  sell  them  in  order  to  redeem  the  bills 
of  any  association  which  may  have  failed  to  pay  them  on 
demand. 

5.  This  act  has  brought  a  great  number  of  banks  into  exist- 
ence, besides  organizing  most  of  the  banks  formerly  existing 
under  State  laws  under  this  system ;  so  that  we  have  a  nearly 
uniform  system  of  banking  all  over  the  United  States.  The 
bills  of  these  banks  pass  in  any  part  of  the  country,  which  was 
not  often  the  case  formerly.  In  case  the  bank  should  be  mis- 
managed, or  fail  to  pay  for  any  cause,  there  is  ample  security 
for  their  redemption  deposited  in  the  United  States  treasury, 
■where  they  will  be  paid  on  presentation. 

6.  The  bill-holder  is  also  better  protected  against  counter 


NATIONAL   BANKING.  285 

feits  than  he  was  under  the  old  system  ;  for  all  the  bills  issued 
bj  these  associations  are  engraved  by  the  government,  and  the 
plates  and  dies  on  which  they  are  printed  are  kept  by  the  comp- 
troller of  the  currency  in  the  Treasury  Department.  The  en- 
graving is  done  in  the  best  possible  manner,  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  counterfeit  them.  Besides  this,  they  all  have 
the  imprint  of  the  seal  of  the  Treasury  on  their  face,  and  are 
numbered  and  countersigned  by  the  treasurer  and  register. 
With  all  these  guards  and  precautions,  we  have  the  best  paper 
currency  ever  used  since  the  establishment  of  the  government. 

7.  This  act  necessarily  threw  upon  the  Treasury  Department 
a  great  increase  of  labor,  and  in  order  to  provide  for  it  a  sepa- 
rate bureau  was  created,  which  is  denominated  the  bureau  of 
currency,  the  chief  officer  of  which  is  called  the  comptroller 
of  currency.  He  acts  under  the  general  direction  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury.  This  bureau  is  charged  with  the  execution 
of  this  and  all  other  laws  that  may  be  passed  by  Congress 
respecting  the  national  currency.  Tlie  comptroller  of  the  cur- 
rency is  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate,  has  a  deputy, 
receives  a  salary  of  $5,000  per  year,  holds  his  office  five  years, 
has  an  official  seal,  gives  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $100,000,  anQ 
takes  and  subscribes  the  oath  of  office  prescribed  by  the  Con- 
stitution  and  the  laws.  His  duties  are  numerous  and  very 
responsible,  he  having  hundreds  of  millions  under  his  care. 

The  term  national  banks,  given  to  these  institutions,  and 
national  currency  to  the  bills  they  issue,  were  given  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  organized  by  an  act  of  Congress,  and  that 
the  security  for  the  redemption  of  their  bills  consists  exclu- 
sively of  national  bonds;  no  other  securities  will  be  taken. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
FINANCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  The  United  States  government  belongs  to  its  people. 
Those  people  own  property  estimated  at  upwards  of  thirty 
billions  of  dollars.  The  public  lands  belonging  to  the  govern- 
ment are  between  one  and  one  and  a  half  billions  of  acres. 
Besides,  the  public  domains  contain  gold,  silver,  iron,  coal,  and 
a  large  number  of  other  mineral  deposits,  chiefly  in  regions 
worthless  for  agricultural  purposes,  of  unknown,  but  ascer- 
tained to  be,  at  least,  a  very  great  quantity  —  enough  to  make 
all  its  present  inhabitants  millionaires  if  (besides  paying  the 
debt)  their  value  could  be  divided  among  them.  The  capacity 
of  the  country  for  production  is  very  far  beyond  what  is  drawn 
from  it  now.  The  future  will  probably  increase  it  a  thousand 
fold,  for  we  are  yet  a  new  people,  and  in  the  act  of  settling 
ourselves  to  the  work  of  development. 

We  are  very  rich,  if  all  our  resources  are  taken  into  account, 
yet  we  are  in  debt.  In  five  years  from  the  commencement  of 
the  civil  war  the  public  debt  had  run  up  from  less  than  one  hun- 
dred million  dollars  to  over  two  billion  seven  hundred  millions. 
This  we  began  to  reduce  at  once,  for  as  a  nation  we  do  not  like 
to  be  in  debt;  and  it  was,  December  1st,  1873,  a  little  over  two 
billion  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions.  The  debt  is,  indeed,  a 
trifle  compared  with  our  vast  national  property;  but  we  do  not 
wish  to  sell  our  property  at  a  loss,  nor  disturb  the  regular  course 
of  business ;  so  it  stands  to  be  gradually  paid  in  the  regular 
<iourse  of  things,  as  we  find  it  to  be  convenient. 

It  is  a  vast  sum,  but  gives  more  trouble  by  reason  of  the 

(386) 


FINANCIAL    CONDITION    OF   THE  UNITED   STATES.  287 

desire  and  determination  of  the  people  to  pay  it  soon,  and 
sacrifice  no  property,  than  from  any  inability  to  meet  it. 

The  statement  of  the  Public  Debt  are  for  each  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30th:  and  from  1869  they  are  given  with  the 
accrued  interest  less  the  cash  in  the  Treasury  and  the  Railroad 
Bonds.. 

THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  Each  Year,  from  1791  to  1878. 

1820 91,015,566.15  1849 64,704,693.71 

1821 89,987,427.66  1850 64,228,2:J8.37 

1822 9;i,.546,676.98  1851 62,.560.395.26 

182:} 90,87.5,877.28  1852 65,131,69213 

1824 90,269,777.77  1853 67,340.628.78 

1825 8:3,788.432.71  1854 47.242,206.05 

1826 81,054,0.59.99  1855 39,969,7:il.05 

1827 73,987,:3.57.20  18.56 30,963,909.64 

1828 67,475,043  87  18.57 29,060,.386.90 

1829 58,421.41:3.67  1858 44.910,777.66 

1830 48,.56.5,406.50  18.59 58,754,699.:33 

18:31 39,12:3,191.68  I860 64,769,70:3.08 

18.32 24,322,235.18  1861 90,867,828.68 

18:33 7,001,032.88  1862 514,21 1,:371. 92 

1834 4,760,081.08  186:3....   1,098,793.181.37 

1&35 :351,289.05  1864....   1,740,690,489.49 

18:36 291.089.05  1865....    2,680,647.869.74 

18.37 1,878,223.55  1866....   2,77:3,236,17:3.69 

18:38 4,857,660.46  1867... .   2,678,126.10:3.87 

18:39 11,98:3,7:37.53  1868.—   2,611,687,851.19 

1840 5,125,077.63  1869....   2,489,002,480.58 

1841 6,7:37,:398.00  1870.-.   2,.386.:3.58.599.74 

1842... 1.5,028,486.37  1871....   2,292,0:30,8:34.90 

1843 27,20:3,4,50.69  1872....   2,191, 486,:34:3.62 

1844 24,748,188.2:3  1873....   2,147.818.71:3..57 

1845 17,09:3,794.80  1874....  2,14.3,068.241.16 

1846 16,750,926.:33  1875....   2,128.688,726.:32 

1847 38,956,623..38  1876....  2,099,4:39,344.99 

1819 95,.529,648.28       1848 48,526,379.37  1877         2,060,1.58.223.26 

1878 ....  2,035,786,831 .82 

UNITED  STATES  BONDS. 

Sixes  of  1861.— Dated  1861,  and  redeemable  in  twenty  years  from  January  Ist  and  July 
l8t  of  that  year.  Interest  six  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  semi-annually— January  Ist  and 
July  Ist.  These  Bonds  were  issued  in  three  series  :  Under  Act  February  8th,  1861, 
$18,415,000;  dated  variously  in  1861.  Under  Acts  July  17th  and  August  5th,  1861,  $.50,000,000; 
■dated  November  16th,  1861.  Under  Acts  July  17th  and  August  5th,  1861,  in  exchange  for 
7-30's,  $139,317,150;  dated  November  16th,  1861.  Under  Act  March  3d,  1863,  and  principal 
made  especially  payable  in  gold  coin,  $75,000,000  ;  dated  June  15th,  1864.  Total  issue, 
$282,7:32,150. 

FivE-TwENTiBS  OP  1862.— Commonly  termed  Old  Five-Twenties,  dated  May  Ist,  1862, 
Redeemable  after  five  years,  and  payable  in  twenty  years  from  date.  Interest  six  per 
jent.  in  gold,  payable  the  first  of  May  and  November.  Issued  under  Act  February  26th, 
1862,  $514,771,600. 

FivE-TwiiNTiBs  OF  1864.— Dated  November  1st,  1864.  Redeemable  after  five,  and  pay- 
able in  twenty  years.  Interest,  six  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  let  of  May  and  November. 
Issued  under  Act  March  3d,  1864  (principal  specified  as  payable  in  gold),  $3,882,500.  Issaed 
.ap-ler  Act  June  30th,  1864,  $125,561,300.    Total  issue,  $129,443,800. 


i781.. 

75,463,476.52 

1792.. 

77,227,924.66 

1793.. 

80,352.6:34,04 

1794.. 

78,427.404.77 

1795.. 

80,747,.587.38 

1796.. 

8.3,762,172.07 

1797.. 

82,064,479..33 

1798.. 

79,228,-529.12 

1799.. 

78,408,669.77 

1800.. 

82,976,294.35 

1801.. 

83,0:38,0.50.80 

1802.. 

80,712.632.25 

18a3.. 

77,054,686.:30 

1804 -. 

86,427,130.88 

1805.. 

82,:}12,1.50.50 

1806.. 

75,72:3.270.66 

1807.. 

69.21 8.:398.64 

1808.. 

65,196,:317.97 

1809.. 

.57,02:5,192.09 

1810.. 

5.3,1 7:3,21 7..52 

1811.. 

48,00.5,.587.76 

1812.. 

4.5,209,737.90 

1813.. 

.55,962,827..57 

1814.. 

81,487,84(5.24 

1815.-. 

99.8.3:3.660.15 

1816.. 

127,:3:34,9:3.3.74 

1817.. 

12:3,491.96.5.16 

1818.. 

103,466,6:33.83 

288 


FINANCIAL   CONDITION    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Five-Twenties  of  1865. — Dated  July  let,  1865.  Interest,  six  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable 
January  and  July.  They  are  redeemable  in  five  years,  and  payable  in  twenty  years.  Is- 
sued uuder  Act  March  3d,  1865,  in  exchange  for  7-30  notes  converted,  and  amount,  AugUBt 
l8t,  1868,  to  P72,346,350. 

FivE-TwENTiBS  OF  1865. — Dated  November  Ist,  1865.  iiedeemable  after  five,  and  pay- 
able in  twenty  years.  Interest,  six  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  Ist  of  May  and  November. 
Issued  under  Act  March  3d,  1865,  8197,777,250. 

Five-Twenties  of  1867.  Dated  July  Ist,  1867.  Redeemable  in  five,  and  payable  in 
twenty  years.  Interest,  six  per  cent,  ingold,  payable  Istof  January  and  July.  Issued  under 
Act  March  .3, 1865,  in  exchange  for7-30  notes,  and  amount,  August  1st,  186S,  to  $371,346,350. 

Five-Twenties  of  1868. — ^Dated  July  1st,  1868.  Bedeemable  in  five,  and  payable  in 
twenty  years.  Interest,  six  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  Ist  of  January  and  July.  Issued 
under  Act  March  3d,  1865,  in  exchange  for  7-30  notes,  and  amount,  August  Ist,  1868,  to 
$39,000,000. 

Ten-Forties.— Dated  March  Ist,  1864.  Redeemable  in  ten  and  payable  in  forty  years. 
Interest,  five  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  on  the  1st  of  March  and  September  on  all  Regis- 
tered Bonds,  and  on  all  Coupon  Bonds  of  the  denomination  of  $500  and  $1,000.  On  th© 
$50  and  $100  Bonds,  interest  is  paid  annually,  March  1st.  Issued  under  Act  March  3d, 
1863,  and  Supplement,  March  3d,  1864;  principal,  payable  in  gold,  $194,291,500. 

FrvKs  OP  1870. — Redeemable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  United  States,  after  May  1, 1881,  in 
gold.  Interest,  five  per  cent,  in  gold,  payable  quarterly  —  February,  May,  August,  and 
November  1st.  Exempt  from  all  taxation.  Issued  under  Acts  of  July  14th,  1870,  and  Jan- 
uary 20th,  1871.    Amount,  $200,000,000. 

U.  S.  Pacific  Railroad  Currency  Sixes. — Dated  January  16th,  1865,  and  variously 
thereafter.  These  Bonds  are  issued  by  the  Government,  under  Acts  July  Ist,  1862,  and 
July  2d,  1864,  to  companies  receiving  their  charter  from  Congress,  which  gives  them  the 
right  to  construct  railroads  to  and  from  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  on  the  completion  of  each 
twenty  miles  of  track,  to  receive  at  the  rate  of  $16,000,  $22,000,  or  $48,000  per  mile,  accord- 
ing  to  the  difficulty  of  constructing  the  same.  They  are  payable  thirty  years  from  date 
of  ipsne,  and  are  registered  in  jBonds  of  $1,000,  $5,000,  and  $10,000.  Amount  issued  to 
September  Ist,  1870,  $64,618,832.  All  of  the  Bonds  are  issued  "  Coupon  "  or  "  Registered." 
Coupon  Bonds  can  be  changed  into  Registered  Bonds,  but  Registered  Bonds  cannot  be 
changed  into  Coupons.  Coupon  Bonds  are  in  denominations  of  $50,  $100.  $900,  aii4 
$&,000:  the  Registered  Bonds  the  same,  with  addition  of  $6,000  and  $10,000. 


WEALTH     OF    THE     L' NIT  ED    STATES, 


289 


^TJkTKS  AND  TkBBITOBIES. 

Real  and  Per 
sonal  Estate. 

Real  and  Per- 
sonal Estate. 

Real  and  Per- 
sonal Estate. 

1870. 

1860. 

1850. 

Unitod  states 

$30,068,518,507 

$16,159,616,068 

$7,1:35,780,228 

Stages . 

29,822,5:35,140 

16,086,519,771 

7,115,600,800 

Alabama    .  

201,855.841 
156,:394,691 
638,767,017 
774,6:31,524 
97,180,8:33 
44,163,655 
268.169,207 

2,121,680,579 

1,268,180,543 
717,644,750 
188,892,014 
604,318,552 
323,125,666 
348,155,671 
64:3,748,976 

2,132,148,741 
719,208,118 
228,909.590 
209,197,345 

1,284,922,897 

69,277,483 

31,1:34,012 

252,624.112 

940.976,064 

6,500,841,264 
260,757,244 

2,235,430.300 
51,558,9:32 

3,808,:340,111 
296.965,646 
208,146,989 
498  2:37,724 
159,052.542 
235,349.553 
409,588,133 
190.651.491 
702,:30;',329 

495,237,078 
219,256,473 
207,874,613 
444.274,114 

46,242,181 

73,101,500 
645,895,237 
871,860,282 
528,835.371 
247,338,265 

31,327,895 
666,043,112 
602,118.568 
190,211,600 
376,919,944 
815,237,433 
257,16:3,983 

52,294,413 

607,324.911 

601,214,398 

9,131,056 

228,204,332 

39,841,025 

California 

22,161.872 

Connecticut 

155.707,980 

21,062,556 

Florirla                     

22,862,270 

Georj'ia ..  ..    .  .. 

335,425.714 

Illinois 

156,265,006 

Indiana 

202,650,264 

Iowa 

23,714,638 

Kentucky 

301,628.456 

Louisiana 

2.33,998.764 

122,777,571 

Maryland ....  

219,217.364 

573,342,286 

Michigan 

59,787,255 

Minnesota .. 

228,951,130 

Missouri 

137,247,707 

New  Hampshire 

156,310,860 
467,918.324 

1,843,338.517 
358,739,:399 

1,193,898,422 
2^,930,637 

1,416,501.818 
135,3.37,588 
548.1:38.754 
493.9ft3,892 
365,200,614 
122.477,170 
793,249,681 

103,632,835 

NewJersey 

200,000,000 

New  York 

1,080.309,216 

North  Carolina 

226,800.472 

Ohio 

504.726.120 

Oregon •. 

5,063,474 

Pennsylvania 

722,486,120 

Rhodelsland 

80.508,794 

South  Carolina 

288,257.694 

Tennessee 

201,246,686 

Texas 

52,740,473 

Vermont 

92,205,049 

Virginia    

430,701,082 

Wisconsin 

27:3,671,668 

42,056,595 

Territories 

245.983,367 

73,096,297 

20,179,428 

Arizona 

P,  440.791 
20.243.303 

5,599,752 
126,873,616 

6.552,661 
15,184,522 
31,349.793 
16,159,995 
13,562,164 

7,016,748 

Colorado .  

Dakota 

District  of  Columbia 

41,084,945 

14,018,814 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

20,813,768 
5,596,118 
5,601,466 

5,174,471 

Utah 

.  986,063 

Washington       

Wyoming 

THE   AVERAGE   WEALTH   TO  EACH   INDIVIDUAL. 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5 

New  York 

Massachusetts. 
Connecticut... 
Rhode  Island.. 
California 

.$1,483.27 
.  1,463.03 
.  1,441.30 
.  1,366.28 
1,140  15 

6. 

8. 
9 

Pennsylvania  . 

NewJersey 

Ohio 

Illinois 

.  1,081.31 

.  1,038.49 

.     838.73 

Ka  34 

10. 
11. 
12. 
38. 

Maryland 824.37 

New  Hampshire,    793.66 

Delaware 777.35 

Indiana 754.58 

14.  Missouri $746.48 

15.  Nevada 732.72 

16.  Vermont 711.99 

17.  Wisconsin 665.90 

18.  Michigan 607.41 

19.  Iowa 601.03 

20.  Oregon 567.06 

21.  Nebraska... 563.26 

22.  Maine 555.35 

23-  Minnesota 520.60 

24.  Kansas 518.36 

25.  Kentucky 457.46 

19 


26.  Louisiana $444.61 

27.  West  Virginia....  431.32 

28.  Tennessee 395.89 

29.  Virginia 334.31 

30.  Arkansas 322.81 

31.  South  Carolina...  294.99 

32.  Mississippi 252.67 

33.  North  Carolina—  243.39 

34.  Florida 235.23 

35.  Georgia 226.47 

36.  Alabama a08.4& 

37.  Texas 194-30 


290 


TTTNANnTAT.   CONDITION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES, 


ao  00  00  00 


.  a*  5*  e»  o»  « (N  eo  e»  (N  «»  e»  oj  (N  ©I  ei  (N  ©J  eo  (s  M  oj  IN  oj  e»  eo  «  g»  o»  «  eo  ej  o» 

•  OOODaDOOOOQOOOQOQDOOOOOOQOQOOOOOOOaOOOGOOOOOGOQOCDQOaDOOaOaOOOOD 


■'  o  o  >  ^  *j  ^  *i  d  d  o.  o  a  5;  o  o  t>  o  >>*»•  0.0,  ^  a,  5J  "S  —  "  ^^  o.  o.  a 

.QQ^OO;z;OOQi/iQg3^QQQQSOigai;z;co^<it-5Q<iH;COaD33 


O 


c 

CO 


W 

H 

o 

)^ 
o 


O 

<1 
(— t 
O 


O  1-55  as 
^  eft  t*  ifl 


>i-i(Mm    i'*sjcoo5WaO'a<'^oo5iOffHNt05»s»iNtpmwt-aDtot-c5C500omQa5 
icoei-^    ,&5'^iftioosiOTrooDco54TH©io»t-o?TP!5T-iTrT}'i-cc<Di-iocct--Trd>cDO 


rl'iCOjT-)       Ol  ■<J' tH  i-c  lO  Tl       T-ieO 


^-       Tlr-lT-l 


§^ 

do 

!-« 

E-i§ 


ico^cDaja)Q)aj55a)©oo©ooo 

SSOOOOOOOOOOOJOOS 


o  <13  COO  I—  a>^  I 

■  °  02SS  OSS; 

mm         rt 


Omr^GDOW         ODrHCOT-cO         -rH  O 
■*  CC  O  CC  Q  «   2  ^CO  tH  to  O"  2  t-^op  S 

tOiHOi-iOTOT  o  00 1-10500  01  om  t-  o 


smoT-imtct-mot-^o? 
5  T-^cor-^^o^mir  tt  mtoMoo 

3  ^+1  ;n  ^*  (f^  C(^  ^^  ro  .-^  — ■  -n  -r^ 


"«  a 


<)^ 


sgitot 

5*-hC 

<03oe 


)ccoDcooOT-*ci'^o5co*-'^OQOo5cco55 


CO  35  0  mcO( 
i-i  1-1  «  00  t-  < 


>cot-m 


CO  o  CO  :o  0»  CO  05 


cocsomojcocoosmmcQt-cOTfcpoDco-Tt-^co 
CO  mo  i-ti-^-rjoo^HocosomcOt-  ci^o*  os  :o  m  ^ 
^  fc  2J  OR '^oTg  o'3  00  oj  05  cf  of  eo  ofco  ^T*  CO -*  »  CT  j^'iN 
S''Q2*5<'-'^«0(*-*i--io,-.T).o«NeJ«eOs;-*cot-*jo 

tH  of       r-T       >-; 


CO  m  m 

TJ-C"?-* 

loofo 

^CO  2 


«i:!£;r2'°S£Ss£;SS'~"'"''3!'-'0='02"'550'-'2=oO!i-ioef5i-'co^Qo3i-ico-^o 
S£rS!2Hff*S'2SS:a'-"-'05mmr*}O5a>03Q05mcDto6»mmQ«t-.mtOT-ii- 
05Tfc^Tjiot-T-ioocoocooo505oocoot-Oio403Tj»cc=ot-coo?050scoSmmm-r-ioco 

OJ'^mmiF-iT-ii-i^mtOTHcoco  t-tDt-TTi-iTroo  t-i-i      cocncooas,     mu  t-eJooMiJj^o 


-  B  2.2 

fl   S  g   O 

5  c  fe  « 

^  re ««  c 
T  »-  t3  o 


=3  5?  oo 


o3T3t- 


lis  <U 


S  >.'" 


-«  2  a 

>2£?o 

•30  8  =  ^  I  §  §1-3  S'§5.S.2.2'g  S  g  S  §l2  2  §.§  §  g 


CHAPTEE     XYI. 
WAE  DEPAETMENT. 

Men,  unfortunately,  have  never  been  able  to  so  arrange 
their  mutual  relations  as  to  dispense  with  violent  and  deadly 
contests.  Although  they  are  less  frequent  and  shorter  now 
than  formerly,  they  are  more  costly  and  more  destructive,  and 
every  nation  is  still,  as  formerly,  obliged  to  anticipate  the  pos- 
sibility of  war  and  to  make  provision  for  its  sudden  occurrence, 
that  it  may  not  be  borne  down  and  overwhelmed  by  the  first 
shock.  It  is  an  event  so  probable,  even,  and  especially  if  the 
country  should  be  in  a  defenseless  state,  that  it  has  become  a 
maxim  of  prudence  with  statesmen  to  avoid  war  by  being  pre- 
pared for  it.  The  nation  that  can  best  repel  an  attack  is  least 
likely  to  be  attacked. 

Most  goverments,  like  our  own,  had  their  birth  and  early 
history  in  the  confusion  and  devastation  of  that  great  destroyer 
of  life  and  property;  and  it  is  natural  that  the  first  leisure  of 
peace  should  be  occupied  in  preparing  themselves,  in  the  most 
effective  manner  possible,  for  both  defensive  and  offensive  ope- 
rations in  case  of  its  return. 

The  Constitution  contemplates  the  existence  of  an  army  and 
navy  for  warlike  purposes,  and  makes  the  President  Command- 
er-in-chief of  both.  The  first  Congress  assembled  under  the 
Constitution  hastened,  in  its  first  session,  to  provide  him  an 
army  and  navy  to  command  by  organizing  tlie  Department  of 
War.  At  its  head  was  placed  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  so 
necessary  was  it  deemed  to  the  dignity  and  security  of  the 
nation  that  he  was  made  one  of  the  principal  ofiicers  of  the 
government,  having  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  and  being  regarded 
as  one  of  the  advisers  of  the  Chief  Magistrate.  He  is 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate.    A  Chief  Clerk,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Secretary,  was 

(291) 


292  WAR  dp:partment. 

provided  for  by  the  act  of  1789  creating  tlie  Department,  who 
was  the  second  authority  in  it,  and  acted  as  Secretary,  in  case  of 
a  vacancy;  but  when  tlie  Civil  War  raised  this  Department  to 
great  prominence,  in  1861,  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
appointment  of  an  Assistant  Secretary,  and.  in  1863,  two  addi- 
tional Assistant  Secretaries  were  provided  for  by  law;  all  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President.  This  last  measure  was  temporary 
only,  designed  to  expire  when  returning  peace  should  reduce  the 
Department  to  its  ordinary  condition. 

At  first  the  affairs  of  the  national  navy  were  managed  by  the 
Secretary  of  War.  This  was  changed,  as  we  shall  see,  when  our 
commerce  and  foreign  relations  became  more  important. 

The  Secretary  of  War  ranks  next  to  the  President  in  military 
authority  and  dignity,  and  has  the  whole  oversight,  under  him, 
-of  the  army  and  its  affairs.  He  makes  out  military  commis- 
sions to  be  signed  by  the  President,  has  the  care  of  providing 
for  the  support,  clothing,  pay,  and  equipment  of  the  army,  and 
of  all  military  stores  required  to  keep  the  army  in  efficient 
drill,  and  in  readiness  against  a  possible  war.  He  has  the  care 
of  all  books,  records,  and  papers  relating  to  the  army  and  to 
military  affairs.  The  names,  grades,  time  of  enlistment,  term 
of  service,  and  time  of  mustering  out  of  all  officers  and  pri- 
vates in  the  army,  whether  in  the  regular  or  volunteer  service, 
9.Te  to  be  found  in  his  office.  All  military  accounts  are  kept 
and  adjusted  under  his  supervision.  These  cares  and  duties 
have  become  so  numerous  and  important  as  to  require  a  careful 
organization  of  the  Department  into  sub-departments,  or 
bureaus,  as  the  Commissary's,  the  Quartermaster's,  and  the 
Ordnance  bureaus.  The  general  management  of  the  whole 
depending  on  the  Secretary  of  War,  he  evidently  requires  to 
be  a  man  of  judgment,  thoroughly  versed  in  military  affairs, 
and  of  eminent  organizing  ability. 

A  Solicitor,  to  have  charge  of  the  legal  business  of  this 
Department,  was  provided  for  by  law  in  1863,  to  be  appointed 
by  the  President  and  the  Senate. 


WAR   DEPARTMENT. 
SECKETAKIES   OF   WAR. 


Henry  Knox,  Mass.,  Sept.  12,  1789. 
Timothy  Pickering,  Pa.,  Jan.  2,  1795, 
James  McHenry,  Md.,  Jan.  27,  1796. 
James  Marshall,  Ya.,  May  7,  1800. 
Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.,  May  13, 1800. 
Eoger  Griswold,  Ct.,  Feb.  3,  1801. 
Henry  Dearborn,  Mass.,  March  5,  1801. 
William  Eustis,  Mass.,  March  7,  1809. 
John  Armstrong,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  13,  1813. 
James  Monroe,  Va.,  Sept.  27,  1814. 
William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.,  March  2,  1815, 
Isaac  Shelby,  Ky.,  March  5,  1817. 
G.  Graham,  Va.,  April  7,  1817. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,  Oct.  8,  1817. 
James  Barbour,  Ya.,  March  7,  1825. 
Peter  B.  Porter,  N.  Y.,  May  20,  1828. 
J.  H.  Eaton,  Tenn.,  March  9,  1829. 
Lewis  Cass,  Mich.,  Aug.  1,  1831. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  N.  Y.,  March  3,  183T 
Joel  R.  Poinsett,  S.  C,  March  7,  1837. 
John  Bell,  Tenn.,  March  5,  1841. 
John  McLean,  O.,  Sept.  13,  1841. 
John  C.  Spencer,  K  Y.,  Oct.  12,  1841. 
James  M.  Porter,  Pa.,  March  8,  1843. 
William  Wilkins,  Pa.,  Feb.  15,  1844. 
William  L.  Marcy,  N.  Y.,  March  5, 1845. 
George  W.  Crawford,  Ga.,  March  6,  184a 
Charles  M.  Conrad,  La.,  Aug.  8,  1850. 
Jefferson  Davis,  Miss.,  March  5,  1853. 
John  B.  Floyd,  Ya.,  March  6,  1857. 
Joseph  Holt,  Ky.,  Dec.  30,  1860. 
Simon  Cameron,  Pa.,  March  5,  1861. 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pa.,  Jan.  13,  1862. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  111.,  1868. 


294  THE   UNITED   STATES   ABMY. 

J.  M.  Schofield,  1868. 

John  A.  Eawlins,  111.,  Mch.  5,  '69.     Died  Sept.  6,  '6&. 

Wm.  T.  Sherman,  Sept.  9,  1869. 

Wm.  W.  Belknap,  Oct.  25,  1869. 

Alonzo  Taft,  O.,  1876. 

J.  D.  Cameron,  Pa.,  1876. 

Geo.  W.  MeCrary,  March  10,  1877. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY. 

1.  The  military  successes  of  the  United  States  would  seem 
to  prove  undeniably,  that,  if  the  nation  had  adopted  a  career 
of  conquest  as  did  Ancient  Rome,  it  might  have  played  an 
important  part  in  the  history  of  warlike  peoples.  The  undis- 
ciplined militia  shut  up  a  strong  army  in  Boston  in  1774,  and, 
had  not  their  powder  failed,  would  very  likely  have  forced  the 
British  to  evacuate  that  place  immediately  after  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill. 

2.  Washington's  army,  made  up  in  large  part  of  militia, 
seemed  always  on  the  point  of  dissolution,  and  yet  the  British, 
after  spending  more  than  a  hundred  millions  in  fitting  out 
armies  against  them,  and  possessing  the  important  superiority 
of  free  movement  on  the  sea,  for  the  transportation  of  forceft 
easily  and  rapidly  to  any  desired  point,  never  could  gain  a  per- 
manent foothold,  though  opposed  only  by  a  ragged,  famished, 
and  half  disorganized  army. 

3.  The  war  of  1812  —  the  Mexican  War  —  and  the  Civil 
War,  all  bear  testimony  to  the  excellence  of  the  material  for 
military  operations  to  be  Ibund  among  us.  Yet  we  are  a  peace 
loving  people.  The  government  has  never  had  more  than  the 
skeleton  of  an  army  in  times  of  peace.  While  the  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  keep  up  armies  of  half  a  million  of  men, 
our  army,  very  soon  after  the  late  gigantic  war,  was  reduced 


THE    MILITARY    ACADEMY.  295 

to  less  than  30,000  men;  barely  enough  to  keep  the  Indians  in 
order,  garrison  tlie  frontiers  slightly,  and  furnish  a  nucleus  of 
Boldiers  and  trained  officers  in  case  of  a  war.  By  a  law  of 
of  Congress,  it  was  enacted  that  every  sound  and  healthy  man, 
with  a  few  exceptions  in  special  cases,  between  the  ages  of  18 
and  45,  should  be  enrolled  and  equipped  for  military  duty. 
Then,  by  the  laws  of  the  States,  they  are  recjuired  on  certain 
days  in  each  year  to  meet  in  companies,  regiments  or  brigades, 
for  drill  and  practice  in  military  exercises. 

4.  By  these  means  military  organizatfbns  are  kept  up  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  together  with  some  knowledge  of  the  mil- 
itary art.  These,  in  time  of  war  or  domestic  insurrection,  may 
be  called  out  with  but  a  few  days'  notice;  and  a  large  army  of 
citizen  soldiers  can  be  raised  in  a  very  short  time.  With  such 
facilities  for  raising  men,  it  is  unnecessary  to  keep  a  standing 
army  of  much  magnitude,  A  few  thousand  men  to  guard  our 
fortifications  and  military  posts  are  sufficient. 

The  late  civil  war  between  the  South  and  the  North  gave 
ample  evidence  of  this ;  for  when  it  became  necessary  to  raise 
a  million  of  men,  it  was  done  in  a  short  time,  and  after  a  little 
practice  they  became  good  soldiers. 


CHAPTEK    XVIII. 
THE  MILITAEY  ACADEMY. 

1.  The  success  of  military  aifairs  in  time  of  war  depends, 
in  great  measure,  on  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
war,  and  especially  of  engineering,  so  often  requiring  to  be 
applied  with  haste  and  accuracy  to  the  c<972,struction  or  deetrac^ 
tion  of  military  defenses.  It  requires  a  complete  knowledge 
of  certain  branches  of  mathematics,  and  an  understanding  of 
their  application  to  warlike  purposes.     Yarious  other  special 


296  THE  MIUTAKY  ACADEMY. 

studies  are  required  to  prepare  men  for  prompt  and  able  action 
in  military  operations.  For  the  purpose  of  keeping  a  corps  of 
officers,  well  fitted  to  meet  these  requirements,  ready  for  possi- 
ble occasions 

A   MK^lTABY  ACADEMY 

was  established.  It  is  located  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son river,  at  West  Point,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  about  50 
miles  from  the  city  of  New  York,  and  is  one  of  the  government 
institutions.  It  had  its  origin  in  an  act  of  Congress  passed  as 
early  as  1802.  Under  this  act  this  far-famed  military  school 
was  commenced,  but  on  a  scale,  in  every  respect,  very  much 
inferior  to  what  it  has  since  become. 

2.  Its  name  explains  its  character  and  objects.  It  was 
established  and  has  been  continued  at  a  great  expense,  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching'  and  training  up  young  men  in  the  science 
and  art  of  war,  that  in  any  emergency  the  country  might  have 
a  sufficient  number  of  men,  educated  and  skilled  in  all  such 
arts  and  sciences  as  appertain  to  war.  Hence,  mathematics, 
engineering,  gunnery,  drawing,  natural  and  experimental  phi- 
losophy and  military  tactics,  are  among  the  principal  branches 
taught.  In  all  of  these,  able  professors  give  instruction  to  the 
cadets,  as  the  pupils  are  called.  Chemistry,  geology,  and  the 
French  language  are  also  taught  at  this  institution.  The 
instruction  is  thorough,  the  discipline  excellent,  and  some  of 
the  graduates  of  this  celebrated  school  rank  high  among  the 
scientific  men  of  the  country. 

3.  Congress  controls  and  regulates  this  establishment,  as  it 
does  all  other  departments,  institutions,  and  works  belonging 
to  the  government.  It  enacts  all  laws  relating  to  its  officers, 
professors,  and  cadets,  and  to  the  management  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

4.  By  a  law  passed  in  1843,  the  number  of  cadets  to  be 
admitted  was  made  to  correspond  with  the  number  of  Sena- 
tors and  Representatives  from  each  State.  Every  State  and 
Territory  is  entitled  to  send  as  many  cadets  as  it  has  Senator 


THE   MILITARY   ACADEMY:  297 

and  Representatives  in  Congress.  This  gives  each  Territory, 
however,  but  one;  as  a  Territory  has  no  Senators,  and  but  one 
Representative.  By  the  same  law  the  District  of  Columbia  is 
allowed  one.  To  give  every  part  of  the  country  an  equal 
chance,  it  was  enacted  that  each  Congressional  district  in  each 
State  and  Territory  should  be  allowed  to  send  one  cadet,  to  be 
educated  at  West  Point.  These  are  generally  nominated  for 
appointment  by  the  Congressmen  from  their  respective  dis- 
tricts, and  the  President  appoints.  The  cadet  must  be  an 
actual  resident  of  the  district  for  which  he  is  appointed. 

5.  In  addition  to  these,  it  is  provided  by  the  same  act,  that 
ten  more  cadets  may  be  appointed  at  large;  i.  e.,  without 
regard  to  Congressional  districts.  In  order  to  be  admitted  as 
a  cadet,  the  candidate  must  be  well  versed  in  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic;  must  not  be  under  14  nor  over  21  years  of 
age ;  and  must  sign  articles,  agreeing  to  serve  the  United  States 
eight  years.  After  he  has  finished  his  studies  and  has  gradua- 
ted, he  is  considered  as  a  candidate  for  a  commission  in  the 
army,  according  to  the  duties  he  may  be  competent  to  perform. 

6.  The  Military  Academy  may  be  considered  a  branch  of 
the  War  Department.  Men  who  have  been  educated  there 
have  rendered  the  country  signal  service  in  times  of  war,  have 
made  able  commanders,  and  have  proved  themselves  thoroughly 
skilled  in  military  science.  N^ot  only  in  the  military  service 
has  it  been  a  benefit  to  the  country,  but  in  the  civil  walks  of 
life.  Many  of  its  graduates  have  distinguished  themselves  as 
engineers,  astronomers,  and  in  other  scientific  professions  and 
useful  employments. 

7.  There  is  an  annual  examination  of  the  cadets,  and  of  the 
general  afiairs  of  the  institution,  by  a  committee  appointed  by 
the  President,  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  composed  of  Congressmen  and  military  officers.  It  is 
the  duty  of  these  examiners  to  attend  the  examination,  inspect 
its  discipline,  and  course  of  instruction,  look  after  its  fiscal 
affairs,  and  all  other  matters  relating  to  the  Academy,  and  report 
the  same  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  for  the  use  of  Congress. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
DEPOTS  OF  WAR  MATERIAL. 

We  have  seen  that  the  government  can  be  sure  of  the  sup- 
port of  the  citizens  in  time  of  war  and  that  they  furnish  the 
best  kind  of  material  of  that  description  for  military  purposes. 
An  army  of  great  effectiveness  can  be  organized  in  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  when  important  interests  of  the  country  are 
at  stake.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  arms  they  require  to  use 
for  offensive  purposes.  These  require  time  and  skilled  work- 
men to  construct  them.  They  are  therefore  kept  in  readiness 
for  use  in  Depots  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

As  early  as  1794,  Congress  enacted  that  three  or  four  arse- 
nals and  magazines,  with  an  armory  attached  to  each,  should 
be  established  for  the  safe  keeping  of  military  stores.  An  arse- 
nal is  a  place  where  arms  and  military  stores  are  kept.  An 
armory  is  a  place  where  arras  are  made  or  repaired.  The 
armories  where  arms  are  manufactured  are  at  Springfield,  in 
Massachusetts,  and  at  Harpers'  Ferry,  in  Virginia.  But 
there  are  many  others  where  they  are  repaired. 

In  1808,  the  President  was  authorized  to  purchase  sites  and 
to  erect  as  many  more  arsenals  and  manufactories  of  arms  as 
he  might  deem  expedient.  Each  of  these  establishments  was 
formerly  under  the  direction  of  a  superintendent;  but  they  are 
now  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Ordnance  Department. 
The  office  of  superintendent  of  the  armories  at  Springfield  and 
Harpers'  Ferry,  was  also  abolished  in  1842;  and  its  duties 
have  since  been  performed  by  such  officers  of  the  ordnance 
corps  as  were  designated  by  the  President.  In  each  armory 
there  is  employed  a  master  armorer,  who  superintends  the  work- 
men. In  addition  to  those  already  named  there  are  arsenals  and 
armories  at  Pittsburgh  and  Bridesburg,  in  Pennsylvania;  at 
Washington  City;  at  Watervliet,  in  New  York;  Watertown, 

(29S> 


ABnCLES   OF   WAR.  299 

Mass.;  at  Columbus,  Ohio;  at  Indianapolis,  in  Indiana;  and  at 
Eock  Island,  in  Illinois.  They  are  parts  of  the  military  estab- 
liahnaent  of  the  country,  and  belong  to  the  "War  Department. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
ARTICLES  OF  WAR 

1.  An  army  is  designed,  in  idea,  to  supply  a  powerful 
instrument  of  offense  and  defense,  that  shall  so  thoroughly 
organize  and  fuse  together  a  large  number  of  individuals  that 
the  whole  shall  act  as  one,  and  be  perfectly  under  the  control 
of  the  directing  mind.  An  army  fully  realizing  this  idea, 
would  suppress,  in  its  military  acts,  all  thoughts  and  sentiments 
of  its  individuals,  and  be  used  by  its  commanding  general  as  he 
would  use  his  own  hand,  arm  and  foot.  It  should  move  at 
his  will,  strike  where,  as  long  and  as  heavily  as  he  saw  best, 
and  be  to  him  a  perfect  machine  as  to  obedience. 

2.  This  idea  is  seldom  more  than  partially  realized;  but  it 
is  the  aim  of  all  military  drill,  discipline,  and  law.  The  Arti- 
cles of  War  are  the  body  of  laws  enacted  by  Congress  defining 
the  relations  of  soldiers  to  their  officers,  so  as  to  secure  as  fully  as 
possible  among  a  free  people  this  thorough  subordination,  defin- 
ing the  conduct  of  the  soldier  toward  his  superior,  prescribing 
the  duty  of  the  ofiicer,  and  securing  as  far  as  possible  in  con- 
nection with  such  subordination  the  rights  of  the  soldier. 

3.  They  contain  general  directions  concerning  the  organi- 
zation, enlistment,  and  discharge  of  men,  rules  for  leaves  of 
absence,  punishment  for  absence  without  leave,  or  for  desertion, 
and  other  penalties  for  'conduct  improper  or  criminal  in  a  sol- 
dier. Many  of  these  rules  are  very  strict  and  the  penalties 
severe,  since  a  neglect  to  obey  might  endanger  the  safety  of  an 
army  or  the  country,  or  interfere  with  the  most  important 
operations.     War  is  a  very  exacting  ^iTirsuit. 


800  MIUTART   HOSPITALS   AND   ASYLUMS. 

4.  It  is  relaxing  also  in  some  directions  and  rules  are  made 
requiring,  and  often  without  effect,  obedience  to  some  of  the 
most  common  principles  and  practices  of  morality.  It  often 
becomes  quite  impossible  to  enforce  these  amid  the  fierce  excite- 
ment and  wild  disorder  of  active  warfare. 

5.  Offenses  committed  in  the  army  are  not  tried  before  a 
civil  tribunal,  but  by  a  military  court  called  a  "  Court  Martial," 
for  the  guidance  of  which  a  special  code  of  rules  is  prepared. 
These  are  characterized  by  the  brevity,  decisiveness,  and  sum- 
mary action  that  is  so  important  to  the  effectiveness  of  all  mil- 
itary affairs.  Tlie  decisions  of  a  court  martial  may  impose  all 
punishments  even  to  condemning  a  man  to  death;  but  they 
are  subject  to  modification,  or  commutation,  or  even  may  be 
wholly  set  aside  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who  is 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army. 

The  Articles  of  War  relate  to  all  things  important  to  the 
welfare,  effectiveness,  and  safety  of  an  army,  and  aim  to  pro- 
vide for  the  comfort  and  protect  the  rights  of  the  individual 
as  well  as  circumstances  permit!  They  consist  of  one  hundred 
and  one  articles.  The  first  one  requires  every  officer  in  the 
army  to  subscribe  to  them  before  he  enters  on  his  duties. 


CHAPTEE    XXI. 
MILITAKY  HOSPITALS  AND  ASYLUMS. 

1.  It  is  plainly  a  dictate  of  humanity  that  a  government 
should  provide  for  the  comfort  and  skillful  treatment  of  those 
persons  who  are  wounded  in  its  service,  or  who  become  diseased 
under  the  hardships  of  a  military  life  and  are  disabled  from 
active  duty.  Our  century  is  specially  distinguished  by  the 
benevolent  care  bestowed  on  the  indigent  and  the  sui^fering,  in 
all  civilized  countries,  and  we  have  reason  to  expe^^*  fKat  the 


INSANE   ASYLUM.  301 

Cnited  States  would  take  a  leading  place  in  this  care  for  her 
own  citizens. 

2.  This  has  been  done,  and  all  the  thoughtful  attention 
that  the  case  called  for  has  been  given  to  hospitals  and 
asylums  for  the  disabled  and  suffering,  both  of  the  Army 
and  Navy,  equally  in  peace  and  war. 

3.  In  1851,  Congress  passed  an  act  for  the  establishment  of 
military  asylums,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  same  pro- 
vision for  wounded  and  disabled  soldiers  as  had  already  been 
made  for  that  class  of  seamen.  These  institutions  are  located 
in  different  sections  of  the  country  where  deemed  most  eligi  ble 
and  convenient  for  those  who  need  such  a  place  of  refuge. 
They  are  placed  under  the  government  of  a  board  of  commis- 
sioners,  consisting  of  the  general  in  chief,  and  eight  other 
military  officers  of  high  rank,  who  submit  their  acts  to  the 
Secretary  of  "War  for  his  approval. 

4.  The  officers  of  these  asylums  must  be  taken  from  the 
army,  and  consist  of  a  governor,  a  deputy  governor,  and  secre- 
tary, who  is  also  treasurer.  The  funds  for  their  support  are 
raised  by  a  tax  of  twenty-five  cents  per  month  on  the  soldiers, 
to  which  are  added  the  fines  and  penalties  adjudged  against 
soldiers  by  courts  martial,  with  forfeitures  for  desertion,  &c. 

Persons  receiving  pensions  from  the  government  may  be 
admitted  into  these  asylums  upon  condition  that  they  surren- 
der their  pensions  to  the  use  of  the  institution  while  they 
remain  in  it. 

The  commissioners  are  authorized  to  buy  sites  and  buildings 
for  these  institutions,  and  to  receive  donations  of  them.  They 
also  furnish  them  with  whatever  is  necessary  for  the  comfort 
of  the  inmates,  and  make  such  laws  and  regulations  for  their 
government  as  they  deem  proper. 

Deserters,  mutineers,  and  habitual  drunkards,  are  excluded 
from  the  benefits  of  these  asylums. 

INSANE   ASYLUM. 

5.  Among  these  benevolent  institutions  provided  by  a  gen- 
erous government  for  the  support  of  those  who  have  faithfully 


302  NAVY    DEPARTMENT. 

served  their  country,  the  insane  asylum  ought  to  be  noticed. 
The  title  of  this  establishment  is  "  the  government  hospital  for 
the  insane."  Its  objects  are  the  cure  and  kind  treatment  of 
the  insane  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of  nine  visitors,  all  of 
whom  must  be  citizens  of  the  said  District.  They  are  appointed 
by  the  President,  and  annually  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  the  condition  of  the  asylum  and  its  inmates.  They 
serve  without  compensation, 

6.  The  superintendent  must  be  a  physician.  There  is  a 
farm  attached  to  the  asylum,  which  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  superintendent,  who  receives  patients  upon  the  order  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  War,  or  the  Navy,  and  upon  the  order  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.  He  may  receive  indigent  insane 
persons  residing  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  If  other  than 
indigent  persons  are  admitted,  they  must  pay  for  the  privilege 
a  sum  not  less  than  the  cost  of  their  support. 

7.  The  military  hospitals  in  time  of  war  are  for  temporary 
purposes,  and  are  established  wherever  the  army  happens  to  be, 
and  especially  near  where  the  great  battles  have  been  fought, 
that  immediate  relief  may  be  given  to  the  sick  and  wounded. 
These  are  established  by  the  commanders  of  the  army,  and  are 
under  their  control.  And  here  let  it  be  recorded  to  their  praise, 
that  since  military  hospitals  were  known,  never  have  any  been 
seen  which  for  order,  cleanliness  and  efficiency  in  administeringr 
to  the  comfort  and  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  sur- 
passed those  of  the  United  States  during  the  late  civil  war. 


CHAPTEE    XXII. 

NAYY   DEPAETMENT. 

The  position  of  the  United  States  naturally  gives  it  great 
prominence  as  a  naval  power.     Situated  between  the  two  great 


KAVY   DEPARTMENT.  303 

oceans,  with  thousands  of  miles  of  coast  on  each,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  good  harbors,  bays,  and  great  rivers,  accessible  to 
large  ocean  vessels  for  long  distances  into  the  interior;  with  a 
soil  of  great  fertility,  and  numerous  and  inexhaustible  sources 
of  mineral  wealth,  besides  all  the  conditions  favorable  to  the 
establishment  and  success  of  manufactures — it  requires  large 
foreign  markets  for  its  various  products,  and  an  extensive  com- 
merce is  essential  to  its  development.  It  should  be,  and  per- 
haps it  is,  the  strongest  naval  power  in  the  world. 

The  War  of  Independence  was  much  increased  in  length  and 
difficulty  by  the  want  of  a  navy,  the  maritime  resources  of 
England  giving  her  a  great  superiority  in  striking  suddenly, 
and  in  force,  at  distant  points. 

It  was  natural,  then,  that  so  important  an  arm,  for  both 
attack  and  defense,  should  be  prepared  to  act  with  energy,  and 
this  was  one  of  the  first  cares  of  the  new  government;  and  so 
efficient  did  this  branch  of  national  strength  become  in  the 
thirty  years  of  peace,  to  the  war  of  1812  with  England,  that 
the  easiest  and  some  of  the  most  important  successes  of  the 
Americans,  in  that  conflict,  were  on  the  sea. 

Tlie  care  of  Naval  affairs  was,  at  first,  committed  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  War.  In  1798  it  was  erected  into  a  separate  Depart- 
ment, and  a  Secretary  placed  at  its  head.  He  was  entitled  to 
a  seat  in  the  Cabinet,  as  one  of  the  advisers  of  the  President, 
and  received  his  appointment  by  nomination  of  the  President 
and  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Heads  of  other  Departments. 

As  the  President  is  the  highest  officer,  in  command,  in  the 
Navy,  he  ranks  as  second,  and  acts  under  his  direction.  It  is 
his  duty  to  procure  naval  stores  and  materials,  and  to  oversee 
the  places  where  they  are  deposited;  to  attend  to  the  construc- 
tion, equipment,  armament,  and  employment  of  vessels  of  war, 
to  make  out  the  commissions  of  naval  officers;  to  see  that 
efficiency  and  discipline  are  maintained  in  the  service;  and  to 
assume  the  control  of  the  movements  of  the  vessels  of  war 
that  are  kept  cruising  in  every  sea  for  the  protection  of  our 


30-i  NAVY   DEPARTMENT. 

commerce  and  citizens  in  foreign  parts,  and  the  preservation 
of  the  international  rights  and  dignity  of  the  United  States. 

3.  A  chief  clerk  was  formerly  the  second  officer  in  rank  in 
the  Department,  but,  in  1861,  provision  was  made,  by  Con- 
gress, for  an  Assistant  Secretary,  who  should  act  as  Secretary 
in  the  absence  of  that  officer. 

Formerly  there  were  five  bureaus  in  this  department,  but  in 
1862,  three  more  were  added,  making  eight,  as  follows: 

1.  A  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks. 

2.  A  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Kecruiting. 

3.  A  Bureau  of  l!^avigation. 

4.  A  Bureau  of  Ordnance, 

6.  A  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repairs 

6.  A  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering. 

7.  A  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing. 

8.  A  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

The  President  and  Senate  appoint  all  the  heads  of  these 
bureaus,  and  select  them  principally  from  officers  of  high  rank 
in  the  navy.     They  are  all  appointed  for  four  years. 

The  Secretary  appoints  all  the  numerous  clerks  employed  in 
the  various  bureaus  and  assigns  their  duties. 

He  must  annually  rejiort  to  Congress  the  condition  of  hia 
department,  the  manner  and  amount  of  all  expenditures,  fur- 
nish estimates  for  the  expenses  of  the  following  year,  and  give 
such  advice  in  regard  to  the  naval  interests  of  the  country  as 
his  intimate  knowledge  of  that  branch  of  the  service  may  sug- 
gest. He  requires  an  intimate  knowledge  of  maritime  affairs, 
and  of  International  law,  and  a  high  and  enlightened  apprecia- 
tion of  the  policy  to  be  pursued  in  our  official  and  commercial 
intercourse  with  all  foreign  nations. 

The  following  list  embraces  the  names  of  all  the  Secretaries 
of  the  Navy,  from  George  Cabot,  the  first,  to  George  M.  Kobe- 
Bon,  the  present  incumbent: 

George  Cabot,  Mass.,  May  3,  1798. 
Benjamin  Stoddert,  Mass.,  May  21,  1798. 
Eobert  Smith,  Md.,  July  15,  1801. 


NAVY   DEPARTMENT.  SOS 

J.  Crowninshield,  Mass.,  May  3,  1805. 
Paul  Hamilton,  S.  C,  March  7,  1809. 
"William  Jones,  Pa.,  Jan.  12,  1813. 
B.  W.  Crowninshield,  Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1814 
Smith  Thompson,  N".  Y.,  Nov.  9,  1818. 
John  Eogers,  Mass.,  Sept.  1,  1823. 
S.  L.  Southard,  N.  J.,  Sept.  16,  1823. 
John  Branch,  JST.  C,  March  9,  1829. 
Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.,  May  23,  1831. 
Mahlon  Dickerson,  K.  J.,  June  30,  1834. 
J.  K.  Paulding,  N.  Y.,  June  20,  1830. 
G.  E.  Badger,  K.  C,  March  5, 1841. 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Va.,  Sept.  13,  1841. 
David  Henshaw,  Mass.,  July  24,  1843. 
^.  W.  Gilmer,  Ya.,  Feb.  12, 1844. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Ya.,  March  14,  1844. 
George  Bancroft,  Mass.,  March  10,  1845. 
John  Y,  Mason,  Ya.,  Sept.  9,  1846. 
William  B.  Preston,  Ya.,  March  7,  1849. 
William  A.  Graham,  K  C.,  July  20,  1850. 
J.  P.  Kennedy,  Md.,  July  22,  1850. 
J.  C.  Dobbin,  K.  C,  March  5,  1853. 
Isaac  Toucey,  Ct.,  March  6,  1857. 
Gideon  Welles,  Ct.,  March  5,  1861. 
Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pa.,  March  5,  1869. 
George  M.  Eobeson,  N.  J.,  June  25,  1869. 
Richard  M.  Thompson,  Ind.,  March  10,  1877. 


20 


CHAPTEE    XXIII. 
THE    UKITED    STATES    NAYY. 

1.  The  original  thirteen  States  were  all  on  the  Atlantia 
coast,  and  had  each  one  or  more  sea  ports.  They  were  natur- 
ally given  to  commerce,  and  the  second  Continental  Congress, 
in  December,  1775,  resolved  to  form  a  navy  of  thirteen  vessels 
of  war.  Eight  were  soon  fitted  out;  but  the  superiority  of 
England  on  the  sea,  and  the  great  financial  difficulties  with 
which  Congress  had  to  struggle  during,  and  for  some  years 
after,  the  Revolutionary  War,  made  it  impossible  to  give  any 
great  degree  of  development  to  naval  affairs.  The  sea  swarmed 
with  American  privateers  during  the  war,  and  many  hundreds 
of  English  merchant  vessels  were  captured;  but  Congress  never 
was  able  to  collect  a  formidable  fleet.  The  daring  exploits  of 
Paul  Jones,  in  European  waters,  and  the  bold  and  suc- 
cessful raids  of  Privateersmen  under  Letters  of  Marque  and 
Reprisal  gave  indication  of  what  might  be  looked  for  in  the 
future,  but  they  could  not  cope  with  British  fleets. 

2.  The  I^Tavy  Department  was  for  some  time  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Secretary  of  "War;  but,  as  the  finances  began  to 
improve,  care  was  taken  to  develop  this  important  branch  of 
national  power,  and  a  special  Secretary  appointed.  In  the  war 
of  1812  with  England  25  years  of  peace  had  unfitted  the  people 
for  great  immediate  success  in  the  army;  but  the  navy  was 
the  pride  and  glory  of  the  nation.  The  disasters  attending  mili- 
tary operations  for  the  first  year  or  two  were  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  brilliant  and  solid  advantages  gained  by  oiu 
men  of  war. 


THE    UNITED   STATES   XAVY.  307 

3.  This  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  naval  tendencies  of  the 
nation,  and  it  soon  became  the  settled  determination  of  the 
people  to  supersede  England  as  the  strongest  naval  power.  She 
had  been  Mistress  of  the  Seas  ;  there  were  strong  reasons  for 
our  ambition  to  become  Masters^  at  least  in  American  Waters. 
We  had  art  extensive  line  of  coast,  and  our  "Monroe  Doctrine," 
that  Americans  ought  to  rule  America,  and  that  European 
governments  should  never  be  permitted  to  acquire  a  preponde- 
rating influence  in  North  America,  rendered  a  strong  navj 
important.  Our  people,  however,  are  so  largely  commercial 
that  skillful  mariners  are  always  at  command;  and  the  govern- 
ment has  never  maintained,  in  time  of  peace,  a  very  large  naval 
force. 

4.  What  they  can  do  in  time  of  need  was  demonstrated 
during  the  Civil  War,  when  the  navy  was  increased  in  two 
years  by  more  than  400  vessels — many  of  them  very  expensive 
and  powerful ;  proving  in  actual  conflict  the  inability  of  the 
strongest  land  fortresses  to  resist  them.  The  thousands  of 
miles  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  blockade,  that  was  ren- 
dered so  efifective  as  to  smother  the  Confederate  government, 
so  to  speak,  destroying  its  finances  by  rendering  its  cotton 
unavailable,  is  the  best  comment  on  the  naval  resources  of  the 
United  States.  The  extreme  boldness  and  vigor  with  which 
the  Confederate  cruisers  that  managed  to  escape  the  blockade 
fell  on  our  merchant  vessels,  and  laid  waste  our  commerce,  is 
another  point  in  the  argument ;  for  they  were  Americans,  and 
demonstrated  the  natural  prowess  of  Americans  on  the  sea, 
of  which  we  could  well  be  proud  but  that  it  did  fatal  harm  to 
our  mercantile  marine. 

5.  Not  half  of  the  vessels  belonging  to  the  navy  are^  how- 
ever, now  (in  time  of  peace)  in  commission — that  is,  in  active 
service.  The  rest  are  either  laid  up,  or  in  process  of  repair. 
Most  of  those  in  commission  are  employed  in  what  is  called 
sqiiadron  service.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navv  in  a  late  report 
enumerates  seven  of  these  squadron::  ,  ,xZ.:  the  European,  the 
Asiastic,  the  North  Atlantic,  the  csouth  Atlantic,  the  Norii 


308  THE   UNITED   STATES   NAVY. 

Pacific,  the  South  Pacific,  and  the  Gulf  squadrons.  The  names 
given  to  these  squadrons  indicate  their  whereabouts,  and  their 
cruising  grounds.  Tliese  squadrons  consist  of  six,  eight,  ten, 
twelve  or  fifteen  vessels,  as  the  work  to  be  done  may  require. 
It  is  their  duty  to  visit  the  seaports  of  the  various  countries 
along  the  coasts  of  which  they  cruise,  in  order  to  protect  our 
merchantmen  against  pirates  or  enemies  of  any  description, 
which  may  molest  them  or  interfere  with  their  rights  and  priv- 
ileges; and  also  to  look  after  the  interests  and  dignity  of  the 
United  States. 

6.  Tlie  squadrons  are  under  command  of  a  high  naval  offi- 
cer of  the  rank  of  commodore  or  rear  admiral,  whose  ship  is 
called  the  fiag  ship  of  the  squadron.  Many  of  our  naval  offi- 
cers have  distinguished  themselves  for  bravery,  skill,  and  patri- 
otic devotion  to  their  country,  and  have  occupied  the  highest 
positions  of  honor,  and  the  most  exalted  places  in  the  esteem 
and  afiection  of  their  countrymen. 

In  1862,  Congress  enacted  that  there  should  be  nine  grades 
of  officers  in  the  navy,  and  that  their  corresponding  rank  with 
military  officers  should  be  as  follows  : 

1.  Rear- Admiral with Major-General. 

2.  Commodores "    Brigadier-Generals. 

3.  Captains "    Colonels. 

4.  Commanders "     Lieutenant-Colonels. 

6.  Lieut.-Commanders. .  .     "     Majors. 

6.  Lieutenants "     Captains. 

7.  Masters "     First-Lieutenants. 

8.  Ensigns "       Second  Lieutenants. 

Midshipmen  have  no  corresponding  rank  in  the  army. 


CHAPTER    XXIY 
NAYY  YAEDS. 

1.  We  have  seen  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  has  several 
different  Bureaus,  having  each  its  separate  part  of  naval  inter- 
ests and  stores  to  care  for.  The  material  for  the  equipment  of 
the  army  is,  in  large  part,  stored  in  arsenals  and  armories ;  in  the 
navy  in  or  near  Navy  Yards.  Here  are  gathered  such  stores 
and  materials  as  are  required  for  the  consti  uction  or  repairs  of 
vessels,  and  hundreds  of  skilled  workmen,  constantly  employed 
in  rendering  the  navy  effective  ;  replacing  vessels  that  have 
become  unseaworthy,  repairing  damages,  or  building  such 
vessels  of  special  construction  as  the  varying  demands  of  the 
service  may  require. 

2.  These  are  established  at  different  places  along  the  coast, 
most  convenient  for  the  purpose.  There  is  one  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  at  Portsmouth,  Ya.,  at  Pensacola,  Fla. 
Here  vessels  are  laid  up  when  not  in  "  commission  "  or  active 
service,  or  are  sent  for  repairs,  or  to  obtain  their  stores  before 
departing  to  their  distant  stations.  All  the  officers  necessary 
for  keeping  all  these  matters  in  order  are  stationed  at  these 
yards;  and  the  Navy  Department,  by  these  means,  preserves 
the  same  perfect  system  of  organization  and  efficiency  as  we 
have  seen  to  characterize  other  branches  of  the  executive 
administration. 


CHAPTER    XXY. 
THE  NAYAL  ACADEMY. 

1.     Naval  affairs,  quite  as  much  as  military,  perhaps  even 
Jnore,  require  the  aids  of  science,  and  a  careful  and  thorough 

(309) 


310  THE   NAVAL   ACADEMY. 

training.  Much  of  this,  indeed,  is  gained  in  active  service, 
but  for  this  a  basis  of  scientific  study  must  be  laid,  and  this 
school  of  preliminary  instruction  is  called  the  Naval  Academy. 
As  a  preliminary  even  to  this,  the  government  has  established 
schools  on  board  of  ships,  for  the  instruction  of  boys  in  navi- 
gation and  naval  warfare.  These  are  called  apprentices  ;  and 
for  good  conduct  and  proficiency  in  their  studies,  they  are 
advanced  to  the  Naval  Academy,  and  placed  in  the  line  of  pro- 
motion. 

2.  This  school  is  now  established  at  Annapolis,  in  the  State 
of  Maryland,  near  Washington.  Like  the  Military  Academy, 
it  has  its  euperintendentand  professors.  The  pupils  are  called 
midshipmen.  They  are  taught  navigation  and  such  other 
branches  of  science  as  are  necessary  to  make  them  good  sea- 
men and  naval  ofiicers.  They  are  selected  upon  nearly  the 
same  plan  as  cadets.  Each  Congressional  District  in  every 
State  and  Territory  is  entitled  to  send  two  students  to  be 
educated  at  the  Academy.  The  District  of  Columbia  is  also 
entitled  to  send  two.  Besides  which,  the  President  is  allowed 
to  appoint  ten  additional  ones  at  large,  and  three  more  from 
the  boys  enlisted  in  the  navy. 

3.  After  their  graduating  examination,  if  they  pass,  they 
are  commissioned  as  ensigns  in  the  navy,  and  rank  according 
to  merit.  Before  admission,  they  are  examined  according  to 
the  regulations  made  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  must 
be  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  seventeen  years,  sound, 
robust,  and  of  good  constitution. 

4.  The  course  of  study  in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  Military 
Academy,  is  adapted  to  the  profession  which  the  students  are 
expected  to  follow — the  one  in  the  navy,  the  other  in  the  army. 
More  are  educated  at  these  great  national  schools  than  the 
government  needs  in  time  of  peace.  Many  of  the  graduates  are 
engaged  in  civil  employment.  Thus  these  institutions  have 
been  of  great  service  to  the  country,  outside  of  the  army  and 
navy,  for  they  have  added  to  the  number  of  well-educated  and 
scientific  men,  who  may  be  useful  in  any  of  the  walks  of  life. 


THE   NifcVAL   OBSEBVATOBY.  311 

Their  graduates  elevate  the  standard  of  intelligence  in  the 
community,  especially  when  they  engage  in  the  work  of  in- 
struction. 

Both  of  these  institutions  are  supported  at  the  expense  of  tVie 
government.  The  tuition  and  board  of  cadets  in  one,  and  of 
the  midshipmen  in  the  other,  costs  them  nothing. 


CHAPTEE    XKYl. 
THE  NAYAL  OBSEEYATOKY. 

1.  An  observatory  is  a  building  erected  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  supplied  with  the  necessary  apparatus  for  study- 
ing the  heavens.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  certain  portions 
of  astronomy  is  indispensable  to  the  commander  of  a  vessel, 
since  it  is  by  means  of  this  alone  that  he  can  ascertain  his 
exact  position  on  the  open  ocean  out  of  sight  of  land.  Nauti- 
cal Science  and  Astronomy  have  advanced  hand  in  hand;  and 
to  perfect  the  former  as  much  as  possible  the  United  States 
Government  established  the  I^aval  Observatory.  This  institu- 
tion is  located  in  Washington,  and  was  originated  by  act  of 
Congress  in  1842,  and  put  in  operation  in  1844. 

2.  Tliis  institution  owes  more  to  that  enlightened  and  truly 
patriotic  President,  John  Q.  Adams,  than  to  any  other  man. 
He  recommended  it  as  far  back  as  1823,  and  again  in  his  first 
message  to  Congress.  But  political  opposition  to  the  man 
ixre  rented  his  recommendations  from  being  acted  upon  till 
nearly  20  years  after  they  were  made.  Tliis  opposition  wa-i 
finally  overcome,  and  we,  and  posterity  after  us,  will  reap  the 
fruits  jf  Mr.  Adams'  suggestions  and  labors. 

3.  The  observatory  was  built  and  furnished  with  various 
astronomical  and  philosophical  instruments,  and  a  corps  of 
professors  were  appointed  to  watch  the  movements  of  th6 
heavenly  bodies,  and  to  make  such  observations  and  experi- 


S12  THE   COAST   STIKVEY. 

merits  as  would  enable  them  to  determine  many  imsettled 
questions  which  relate  to  the  science  of  navigation;  and  inci- 
dentally to  another  great  government  work,  having  especial 
reference  to  the  same  subject;  that  is,  the  coast  survey. 

The  coast  survey  has  already  been  of  great  service  to  the 
interests  of  navigation — whether  national  or  commercial  ves- 
sels are  regarded — and,  when  finished,  much  greater  benefits 
are  to  be  expected.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  observations 
and  experiments  shall  have  been  made  at  the  naval  observa- 
tory, and  published  to  the  world,  much  valuable  information 
will  be  added  to  what  is  already  known.  And  indeed  it  would 
be  disreptutable  to  a  nation  having  so  large  a  navy  and  such  a 
vast  number  of  merchant  ships  upon  the  ocean,  to  do  nothing 
for  or  add  nothing  to  the  science  of  navigation.  It  would  be 
an  unwise  policy  if  economy  only  were  studied,  and  we  would 
justly  deserve  the  reproach  of  being  penurious,  short-sighted, 
and  miserably  wanting  in  disposition  to  promote  the  general 
good  of  the  world. 

4.  The  professors  are  assiduous  in  their  labors,  and  publish 
the  results  of  their  observations  and  the  facts  they  have  deter- 
mined. These  are  not  only  of  use  to  our  own  seamen,  but  to 
those  of  all  nations  who  are  doing  business  on  the  great  deep. 
Here  the  charts  made  by  the  coast  survey  are  deposited,  and 
from  hence  all  our  national  vessels  are  furnished  with  them, 
and  with  all  the  nautical  instruments  they  require. 

The  charts,  instruments  and  books  relating  to  astronomy 
and  navigation,  found  here,  make  it  the  headquarters  and  depot 
of  nautical  science  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER    XXYII. 

THE  COAST  SUEYEY. 

1.    While  the  Naval  Observatory  is  a  government  institution 
for  studying  the  heavens  in  the  interest  of  the  Navy;  the 


THE    COAST    SURVEY.  *313 

Coast  Survey  is  an  organization  employed  in  a  thorough  and 
scientific  study  of  the  shores  of  our  country  for  a  sufficient 
distance  out  from  the  land  to  ascertain  all  the  features  con- 
cealed by  the  water  that  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  safety  of 
our  navy  and  commerce.  One  examines  the  heavens,  the  other 
the  depths  of  the  waters.     They  are  both  of  great  importance. 

2.  This  government  undertaking  has  not  been  as  vigorously 
prosecuted  as  some  other  enterprises  conducted  by  it.  As 
early  as  1807,  Congress  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  President 
to  have  this  work  done.  Much  of  it  has  been  done,  yet  it  is 
not  finished  at  this  day.  Our  acquisition  of  Florida,  Texas, 
and  California  has  greatly  extended  our  sea  coast  since  the 
work  was  commenced,  and  its  accomplishment  has  cost  more 
time  and  labor  than  was  anticipated  at  the  beginning,  yet  we 
think  it  ought  to  have  been  completed  in  much  less  than  60 
years. 

3.  This  work,  like  tluit  relating  to  light  houses,  is  under  the 
management  of  a  board^  consisting  of  a  superintendent,  two 
principal  assistants,  two  naval  ofiicers,  and  four  officers  of  the 
army.  Tliese  nine  constitute  the  board.  Then  there  are  as 
many  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  employed  in  the  execution 
of  the  work  as  are  deemed  necessary.  And  the  public  vessels, 
by  direction  of  the  President,  may  be  used  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  work,  for  much  of  it  must  be  done  at  sea.  The  survey 
extends  20  leagues  from  the  shore.  The  surveyors  must  make 
accurate  charts  of  the  whole  coast,  in  which  are  laid  down  all 
the  islands,  shoals,  roads  or  anchorage  grounds  within  twenty 
leagues  of  any  part  of  the  shore  of  the  United  States.  The 
courses  or  distances  between  the  principal  capes  or  headlands 
must  be  laid  down,  together  with  the  soundings  (depths  of 
water)  and  everything  else  necessary  to  make  a  complete  and 
accurate  chart  of  every  part  of  our  coasts. 

4.  An  annual  report  of  this  work  must  be  made  to  Con- 
gress in  December  of  each  year,  accompanied  with  charts, 
showing  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  number  of  persons 
employed,  the  expenses  incurred,  the  amount  of  work  finished, 


314  LIGHT    HOUSES. 

and  what  is  unfinished.  These  reports  and  charts  are  carefully 
preserved,  and  copies  of  them  may  be  had  at  Washington  for 
tlie  use  of  our  naval  and  merchant  ships,  to  which  they  are  of 
great  service,  as  guides,  whenever  they  are  on  or  near  the  coast. 
This  work,  in  its  utility,  is  not  confined  to  ourselves;  but  the 
important  mformation  obtained  by  it  is  of  great  use  to  the 
navigators  of  all  nations  who  come  into  our  ports  or  cruise  on 
our  coasts.  They  derive  the  same  benefits  from  this  work  that 
we  derive  from  theirs  of  the  same  kind.  It  is  creditable  to 
any  nation  to  do  sucli  things  as  are  beneficial  to  the  world, 
such  acts  as  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  humanity.  Shipwrecks 
belong  to  the  list  of  terrible  calamities  which  often  befall  those 
"  who  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships,  that  do  business  in  great 
waters."     Whoever  diminishes  these  is  a  public  benefactor. 


CHAPTEK    XXYIII. 
LIGHT  HOUSES. 

1.  These,  with  Buoys,  and  Beacons,  are  a  necessary  practi. 
cal  supplement  to  the  labors  of  the  Coast  Survey.  Buoys  and 
Beacons  indicate  the  shoals,  or  dangerous  rocks  and  reefs 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  the  daytime;  while  light 
houses  indicate  the  same,  and  show  the  mariner  the  bearings 
of  the  land,  in  the  night;  and,  by  studying,  in  connection  with 
these,  the  charts  of  the  coast  supplied  by  the  Coast  Survey,  he 
may  make  his  way  as  securely  in  the  night  or  day  through  the 
concealed  dangers  of  the  treacherous  waters  as  a  landsman 
along  a  beaten  highway.  They  are  way-marks  along  the  sea 
coast,  at  the  entrance  of  harbors,  and  on  lakes  and  rivers. 
They  speak  a  language  very  well  understood  by  the  seaman; 
and  are  invaluable  for  the  protection  of  his  vessel  from  the 
dangers  of  the  Deep. 


LIGHT    HOUSES.  315 

2.  Keepers  are  appointed  by  the  government  to  keep,  them 
in  repair,  and  to  see  that  they  are  properly  lighted  every  night. 
We  have  no  means  of  knowing  the  number  of  these  useful 
establishments,  but  there  must  be  several  hundred  of  them ;  for 
we  have  more  sea  coast  than  any  other  nation  upon  the  globe, 
with  a  still  greater  length  of  lake  and  river  shore.  They  are 
located  at  prominent  points,  and  at  dangerous  places,  all  along 
the  extensive  lines  of  coast  and  shores. 

3.  To  the  end  that  light  houses  should  be  constructed  and 
kept  in  repair,  and  that  comjjetent  men  might  have  the  whole 
matter  in  charge,  a  law  of  1852  authorized  the  President  to 
appoint  two  officers  of  the  navy  of  high  rank,  one  officer  of 
the  corps  of  engineers  of  the  army,  one  officer  of  the  topo- 
graphical engineers,  and  two  civilians  of  high  scientific  attain- 
ments, to  form  a  light  house  board  for  the  United  States. 
This  board  is  attached  to  the  Treasury  Department,  and  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  superintends  its  operations.  The 
board  has  in  charge  the  building,  illumination,  and  inspection 
of  light  houses,  light  vessels,  buoys,  beacons,  sea  marks,  and 
their  appendages. 

4.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  president  of  the  board, 
and  may  convene  them  whenever  he  deems  it  necessary. 

Tlie  law  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  board  to  divide  the  whole 
of  the  sea,  gulf,  and  lake  coasts,  into  light  house  districts;  not 
exceeding  12  in  number.  An  officer  of  the  army  or  navy  is 
assigned  to  each  district,  as  a  light  house  inspector. 

They  have  the  control  of  everything  relating  to  light  houses, 
light  ships,  buoys,  beacons,  or  other  means  of  directing  vessels 
in  and  out  of  port,  or  of  guiding  them  while  sailing  along  the 
coast  in  the  night. 

5.  As  foreign  vessels  receive  the  same  benefits  from  our 
light  houses  as  our  own,  there  is  nothing  unfair  or  illiberal  in 
requiring  them  to  contribute  something  towards  the  expense 
of  maintaining  them.  For  this  purpose  Congress  has  imposed 
a  tax,  or  laid  a  duty  of  50  cents  per  ton  on  all  foreign  vessels 
entering  any  ports  of  the  United  States.     This  is  called  "light 


316  LETTERS  OF  MARQUE  AND  REPRISAL. 

MONEY."  It  is  collected  in  the  same  way  as  tonnage  duties 
are,  i.  «.,  by  the  collector  of  the  port  where  the  ship  arrives. 
Light  money  is  not  required  of  vessels  owned  by  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  provided  that  they  are  regularly  registered 
as  the  law  directs,  or  have  a  sea  letter. 

7.  xV  sea  letter  is  a  document  or  certificate,  given  by  the 
collector  of  a  port,  to  the  captain  of  an  American  vessel,  certi- 
fying that  she  belongs  to  a  citizen  or  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  Armed  with  this,  the  captain  can  prove  to  all  whom  it 
may  concern,  anywhere  in  the  world,  the  ownership  and 
nationality  of  his  vessel.  This  is  a  protection  to  her  and  her 
cargo,  especially  in  times  of  war.     It  is  one  of  a  ship's  papers. 


CHAPTEE    XXIX. 
LETTEES  OF  MAEQUE  AND  EEPEISAL. 

1.  The  somewhat  barbarous  custom  has  prevailed  among 
nations,  from  early  times,  of  making  war  in  every  possible  way 
upon  the  citizens  of  a  hostile  country,  and  of  taking  or  destroy- 
ing their  property,  on  the  principle  that  injury  to  the  citizens 
of  the  power  warred  against  would  diminish  its  power  of 
defense  and  attack. 

This  has  been  carried  into  effect  on  the  sea  by  authorizing 
private  vessels  to  be  fitted  out  for  warlike  purposes  and  preying 
on  the  commerce  of  the  enemy.  Such  authority  is  given  by 
Letters  of  Marque  and  Eeprisal.  The  Constitution  confers  on 
Congress  the  power  to  do  this  ;  and  Congress  authorizes  the 
President  to  do  it,  A  law  was  passed  in  1863  expressly  con- 
veying it  to  him. 

2.  It  is  a  formal  commission  given  to  the  commander  of  a 
private  armed  vessel,  called  a  privateer,  authorizing  him  to 
capture  the  ships  and  goods  of  the  subjects  of  a  nation  with 
which  we  are  at  war.     When  such  letters  are  issued  by  the 


LETTERS   OF   MARQUE    AKD   REPRISAL.  317 

United  States  tliey  are  signed  by  the  President  and  sealed  with 
the  great  seal.  Without  such  commission,  thus  signed  and 
sealed,  any  capture  made  by  the  commander  of  a  private  vessel 
w^ould  be  piracy.  If  a  capture  is  made,  it  must  be  made  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  war,  as  recognized  by  civilized  nations,  and 
according  to  the  instructions  given  by  the  President.  Any 
conduct  on  the  part  of  a  privateer,  contrary  to  these  rules, 
M'ould  vitiate  his  proceedings,  and  he  would  not  be  entitled  to 
the  property  he  had  captured. 

3.  The  captured  vessel  is  called  a  prize,  and  must  be  taken 
into  some  port  of  the  United  States,  or  into  some  port  of  a 
country  in  amity  with  the  United  States,  where  legal  proceed- 
ings are  taken  before  some  court  of  competent  jurisdiction  ; 
and  the  capture  and  all  the  circumstances  of  it  inquired  into; 
and  if  all  is  found  to  have  been  done  according  to  the  laws  of 
civilized  nations,  the  captured  vessel  and  cargo  is  condemned 
as  a  prize.  But  if  not  condemned,  the  captors  lose  her.  When 
adjudged  to  be  a  lawful  prize,  the  ship  and  cargo  are  sold,  and 
the  money  is  divided  between  the  officers  and  men,  according  to 
rank,  and  according  to  the  laws  of  Congress  on  this  subject. 
These  laws  give  the  whole  to  the  captors,  when  the  ship  taken 
is  of  equal  or  superior  force  to  the  ship  making  the  capture  ; 
but  if  of  inferior  force,  then  the  United  States  takes  one-half. 

4.  Privateering,  as  this  business  is  called,  was  once  consid- 
ered a  lawful  and  honorable  mode  of  warfare.  It  was  generally 
practiced  between  belligerent  nations  ;  but  in  later  days  its 
propriety  and  morality  have  been  questioned.  It  is  beginning 
to  be  looked  upon  as  a  kind  of  robbery  not  very  distantly 
related  to  piracy.  That  it  is  robbery  no  one  can  deny,  and, 
query,  "  Can  it  be  justified  on  the  ground  that  the  robber  and 
the  robbed  are  the  subjects  of  nations  at  war  with  each  other?" 

5.  In  Europe  an  effort  has  been  made  to  do  away  with  this 
species  of  warfare.  We  hope  it  will  yet  succeed,  and  that  all 
nations  will  agree  to  abolish  this  system  of  plunder.  Innocent 
parties  are  generally  the  sufferers,  while  but  small  injury  is 
done  to  the  power  of  the  hostile  nation. 


CHAPTEE    XXX. 
NAVY  A^D  MAEINE  HOSPITALS. 

1.  These  institutions  are  still  more  important  for  sailors 
fhan  for  soldiers;  as  the  sailor  is  more  likely  to  have  lost  his 
adaptation  to  any  kind  of  business  on  land,  and  to  lose  sight 
of  family  relations  by  reason  of  his  long  absences  to  foreign 
regions.  The  government  very  early  took  this  subject  in  hand 
and  made  ample,  and  extremely  comfortable,  provision  for  dis- 
abled seamen  belonging  to  its  navy. 

2.  In  1811  an  act  was  passed  to  establish  navy  hospitals,  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  such  seamen  as  belonged  to  the  navy.  This 
new  institution  was  at  first  placed  under  the  management  of  a 
board  of  commissioners  known  as  the  commissioners  of  navy 
hospitals.  This  commission  consisted  of  the  Secretaries  of  the 
Navy,  Treasury,  and  War.  But  in  1832  this  was  changed,  and 
the  Secretary  of  the  !Navy  was  made  sole  trustee  of  the  navy 
hospital  fund,  which  was  made  up  of  $50,000  appropriated  by 
Congress  for  that  purpose,  together  with  twenty  cents  per  month 
collected  from  seamen  belonging  to  the  navy,  and  the  fines 
imposed  on  navy  officers,  seamen,  and  marines. 

The  commissioners  were  authorized  to  purchase  or  erect 
suitable  buildings  for  navy  hospitals. 

THE    MARINE    HOSPITALS. 

3.  These  are  located  near  important  seaports.  At  these 
places  seamen  depart  for,  and  arrive  from  their  voyages,  and 
are  found  in  the  greatest  numbers;  and  here  the  funds  for  the 
support  of  the  marine  hospitals  are  collected,  as  is  the  tonnage 
on  ships,  viz. :  by  the  collectors  of  the  ports.  For  this  purpose 
the  law  authorizes  the  collectors  of  customs  to  demand  and 
receive  the  sum  of  twenty  cents  per  month  from  the  wages  of 
every  sailor;  and  every  master  of  a  vessel  is  obliged  to  render 
to  the  collector  an  accurate  account  of  the  number  of  seamen 

(318) 


DEPAKTMENT   OF   THE   INTERIOR  319 

on  board  his  vessel,  and  of  the  time  they  have  been  employed 
by  him,  since  his  last  entry  into  any  port  of  the  United  States. 
These  twenty  cents  the  captain  must  pay  the  collector,  but  he 
is  allowed  to  deduct  it  from  eacli  seaman's  wages.  In  this 
manner  the  funds  for  the  building,  furnishing,  and  support  of 
the  marine  hospitals  are  raised.  The  collectors  of  the  ports 
pay  them  into  the  United  States  Treasury,  and  the  Treasurer 
disburses  them  to  the  directors  of  the  hospitals  as  they  are 
needed.  The  directors  are  appointed  by  the  President.  They 
appropriate  the  funds,  and  have  the  general  direction  and  man- 
agement of  the  institutions. 

4.  These  provisions  are  contained  in  an  act  entitled,  "  An 
act  for  the  relief  of  sick  ^id  disabled  seamen,"  passed  in  1798. 
Seamen,  whether  in  the  merchant  service  or  in  the  naval  service 
of  the  United  States,  were  indiscriminately  taxed  for  the  sup- 
port of  these  hospitals;  and  both  have  the  same  rights,  privi- 
leges and  benefits  in  them.  The  money  thus  collected  from 
seamen  is  called  "hospital  money,"  and  the  fund  is  denomi- 
nated "the  marine  hospital  fund."  In  1864  there  were  24 
marine  hospitals  in  the  United  States. 


CHAPTEK    XXXI. 

DEPAKTMENT  OF  THE  INTEEIOK. 

1.  At  the  first  general  census,  in  1790,  there  were  but  lit- 
tle over  three  millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants  in  the  United 
States,  and  these  mostly  settled  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard; 
the  country  was  oppressed  with  debt,  and  not  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  a  desolating  war.  Its  public  business,  therefore, 
was  comparatively  small  in  amount,  and  was  readily  managed 
by  the  three  Departments,  of  State,  of  the  Treasury,  and  of 
War.  The  energy  of  the  people,  and  the  great  resources  at 
their  command,  enabled  them  to  surmount  all  their  difficulties 


320  iJEPAKTMENT   OF   THE   INTERIOR. 

in  a  short  time,  and  the  country  entered  on  a  career  of  remarks 
able  prosperity.  Its  public  business  kept  pace  with  the  gen- 
eral expansion,  and  new  departments  were  from  time  to  time 
created,  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  public  service. 

2.  In  1849  Congress  passed  a  law  creating  the  Department  of 
the  Interior,  a7id  a  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  having  a  seat  in 
the  Cabinet,  appointed  in  the  same  manner,  and  possessing  the 
same  rank,  as  the  other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  was  installed 
in  oftlce. 

3.  The  bureau  of  the  Commi  ssioner  of  Patents  was  transferred 
from  the  Department  of  State,  and  the  General  Land  Office 
from  that  of  the  Treasury. 

The  supervisory  power  beofore  exercised  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  over  the  accounts  of  the  marshals,  clerks, 
and  other  officers  of  all  the  courts  of  the  United  States, 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  new  Secretary.  The  office 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  heretofore  attached  to 
the  War  Department,  was  also  transferred  to  this  ;  and  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  relation  to  In- 
dian affairs,  were  devolved  on  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

4.  The  Secretaries  of  War  and  of  the  Navy  were  by  the 
same  act  relieved  of  their  duties  in  regard  to  the  Commissioner 
of  Pensions,  and  those  duties  were  thereafter  to  be  performed 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  new  department. 

The  Census  Bureau,  heretofore  attached  to  the  State  Depart- 
ment, and  the  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State  in  relation 
thereto,  were  also  transferred  to  this  department. 

To  the  Secretary  was  also  given  the  supervisory  power  over 
the  lead  and  other  mines  belonging  to  the  United  States,  here- 
tofore executed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

The  powers  of  the  President  over  the  Commissioners  of 
Public  Buildings  were  also  transferred  to  him. 

5.  He  was  also  charged  with  the  control  over  the  Board  of 
Inspectors  and  Warden  of  the  Penitentiary  of  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  has  the  same  power  in  appoint- 


DEPAETMENT   OF   THE   INTERIOR.  321 

ing  and  removing  clerks  and  other  subordinates  in  his  depart- 
ment, that  the  Secretaries  of  the  other  departments  had  over 
these  several  bureaus  before  they  were  transferred  to  this 
department. 

This  office  has  a  seal,  which  must  be  afl&xed  to  the  commis- 
sions of  all  its  subordinate  officers. 

The  President  and  Senate  appoint  the  Assistant  Secretaries. 
From  the  foregoing  it  is  easy  to  understand  what  branches 
of  the  public  service  are  conducted  in  this  office,  and  what  are 
the  duties  of  its  Secretary. 

6.  The  following  is  a  list  of  all  who  have  filled  the  office 
of  Secretary  of  the  Interior  since  the  establishment  of  the 
department : 

Thomas       Ewing,  Ohio,  March  7,  1849. 

T.  M.  T.  McKennan,  Pa.,  1850. 

Alexander  H.  H.  Stuart,  Ya.,  Sept.  12,  1850. 

Eobert  McClelland,  Mich.,  March  5,  1853. 

Jacob  Thompson,  Miss.,  March  G,  1857. 

Caleb  B.  Smith,  Ind.,  March  5,  1861. 

John  P.  Usher,  Ind.,  Jan.  7,  1863. 

James  Harlan,  Iowa,  1865. 

Orville  H.  Browning,  111.,  1866. 

Jacob  D.  Cox,  Ohio,  March  5,  1869. 

Columbus  Delano,  Ohio,  Nov.  1 ,  1870. 

"  "         reappointed  March  17,  1873. 

Z.  Chandler,  Mich.,  Sept.  30,  1875. 

Carl  Schura,  Mo.,  March  10,  lb77. 


'21 


CHAPTEE     XXXII. 
PUBLIC    LANDS. 

1.  All  the  land  in  the  United  States,  to  which  individuals 
or  corporations  have  not  acquired  a  legal  title,  is  held  by  the 
general  government.  This  includes  the  land,  or  the  part  of  it 
not  under  special  reservation,  belonging  to  the  Indians.  As 
the  settlements  push  on  into  the  territory  roamed  over  by  the 
thinly  scattered  Indian  tribes,  an  equitable  arrangement  is 
mado  with  them,  by  whicli  certain  Reservations,  large  enough 
for  their  purposes  are  set  aside  foi  their  occupation;  and  an 
indemnity,  commonly  in  the  form  of  an  annuity,  is  made 
them  for  the  lands  to  which  they  renounce  their  riglit.  As 
they  are  gradually  melting  away,  their  lands  will  soon  become 
all,  or  nearly  all,  the  property  of  the  government. 

2.  The  lands  free  for  settlement  are  sold  under  certain  reg- 
ulations; and  given  to  certain  classes — to  soldiers,  to  actuaV 
settlers  for  Homesteads,  to  corporations  to  aid  in  promoting  the 
public  welfare — as  Railroads  and  Colleges — and  to  support  edu- 
cation in  various  ways;  and  the  remainder  held  until  required 
for  use  in  the  expansion  of  the  country. 

Nearly  200,000,000  acres  have  been  given  to  assist  in  build- 
ing railroads  through  unsettled  parts  of  the  country.  A  large 
part  of  this,  however,  has  been  only  conditionally  given,  and 
not  yet  appropriated  by  the  corporations.  Many  millions  more 
have  been  given  to  the  States  as  a  fund  in  aid  of  public  schools 
and  collegiate  institutions  —  and  one  thirty-sixth  part  is 
reserved,  in  every  new  township  surveyed,  for  the  benefit  of 
public  schools  in  that  township.  The  rest  is  sold,  at  very 
low  rates,  to  any  who  will  buy. 

(322) 


PUBLIC    LAOT)8.  323 

3.  To  manage  this  property  a  bureau  was  established  by 
act  of  Congress,  in  1812,  called  The  General  Land  Office.  It 
was  under  the  oversight  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  until 
1849,  when  the  Department  of  the  Interior  was  established,  to 
which  it  was  then  transferred.     Its  head  is  called 

COMMISSIONER    OF   THE   GENERAL   LAND   OFFICE. 

4.  He  is  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate,  must  take 
the  usual  official  oath  before  entering  on  his  duties,  and  must 
give  the  usual  official  bond.  Pie  keeps  the  seal  of  his  office, 
and  fixes  an  impression  of  it  upon  all  papers  emanating  from 
the  Laud  Office.  He,  with  his  clerks  and  assistants,  forms  the 
bureau,  keeps  all  the  records  and  papers  pertaining  to  the 
public  lands,  and  performs  all  duties  relating  thereto.  He 
receives  reports  from  surveyors  and  from  the  district  land 
officers,  gives  them  their  instructions,  and  reports  to  the  Presi- 
dent and  to  Congress  when  required  to  do  so. 

He  issues  all  patents  for  lands  granted  by  the  United  States, 
and  sends  and  receives  by  mail  all  papers  and  documents  relat- 
ing to  his  official  business,  at  public  expense.  Every  patent 
for  land  is  issued  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  is  signed 
by  the  President  and  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  Land  Office, 
ajid  is  then  recorded  in  books  kept  for  that  purpose. 

8TJRVET0RS   GENERAL   AND   DEPUTY   SURVEYORS. 

5.  Wlien  it  is  deemed  necessary  and  expedient  to  bring  the 
lands  in  any  particular  State  or  section  of  the  country  into 
market,  a  surveyor  general  is  appointed  for  that  State  or  sec- 
tion, and  also  a  sufficient  number  of  deputy  or  assistant  sur- 
veyors to  perform  the  work ;  which  is  done  under  the  direction 
of  the  surveyor  general,  who  is  himself  directed  by  law  as  to 
the  manner  of  procedure.  He  is  appointe'd  for  four  years, 
taking  the  usual  oath,  and  gives  bonds  for  the  faithful  perform- 
ance of  his  duties. 

MODE  OF  SURVEYING  THE  PUBLIC  LANDS. 

6.  The  law  directs  how  the  lands  shall  be  surveyed  and 
mapped.     Where  it   is  practicable,   they  are  laid  out  into 


324  .PUBLIC   I.AOT)S. 

square  miles,  each  of  whicli  contains  640  acres,  and  is  call^id  a 
section. 

These  sections  are  then  sub-divided  into  halves,  quarters,  and 
eighths  of  sections;  that  is,  into  lots  of  320, 160,  and  80  ajres. 
The  boundary  lines  are  all  run  north  and  south,  and  east  and 
west.  Thirtj-six  of  these  sections,  which  make  a  plat  of  six 
miles  square,  are  put  into  a  township.  These  townships  are 
designated  by  numbers,  but  when  inhabited  are  named  by  the 
inhabitants  as  their  fancy  dictates. 

SALE    OF   THE    PUBLIC    LANDS. 

7.  After  the  lands  have  been  surveyed  and  properly  mapped 
into  townships  and  sections,  they  are  brought  into  market  and 
offered  for  sale  in  such  quantities  as  are  wanted  by  the  pur- 
chaser; from  40  acres,  one-sixteenth  of  a  section,  up  to  a 
whole  section;  or  as  many  sections  as  the  buyer  pleases  to 
take. 

DISTRICT   LAND    OFFICES. 

8.  District  land  offices  for  the  sale  of  lands  are  established 
for  this  purpose  at  as  many  places  in  the  State  or  Territory 
where  the  lands  are  situated,  as  is  deemed  necessary  for  the 
convenience  of  purchasers.  Here  are  kept  maps  of  all  the 
lands  lying  in  the  district,  and  buyers  may  make  their  selec- 
tions both  of  quantity  and  location  as  suits  them.  Here  they 
will  find 

A   REGISTER   OF   THE   LAND   OFFICE   AND   A   RECEIVER    OF   PUBLIC 
MONET   FOR   LANDS. 

9.  The  first  named  officer  will  register  the  application 
made  for  land  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose,  and  the  second 
will  receive  the  money  paid  for  it.  These  officers  are  appointed 
by  the  President  and  Senate,  and  report  their  proceedings  to 
the  General  Land  Office  at  Washington.  The  receiver  trans- 
mits all  moneys  received  by  him  to  the  United  States  Treasury 
once  in  a  month  or  once  in  three  months,  as  directed. 

SCHOOL    LANDS. 

10.  As  before  stated,  the  public  lands  are  surveyed  into 


PUBLIC   LANDS.  325 

sections  of  one  mile  square,  and  thirty-six  of  these  sections 
make  a  township.  For  the  purpose  of  encouraging  education, 
Congress  has  enacted  that  section  number  16,  in  every  town- 
ship, shall  not  be  sold,  but  reserved  for  the  township,  to  be 
applied  to  the  support  of  common  schools  in  tliat  town.  By 
this  measure  the  government  appropriated  one  thirty-sixth 
part  of  its  lands  to  aid  the  work  of  educating  the  children  in 
the  new  States.  And  in  addition  to  this  it  has  made  other 
munificent  donations  of  land  for  the  establishment  and  support 
of  colleges  and  other  institutions  of  learning. 

11.  In  addition  to  all  this  the  United  States  have  donated 
large  tracts  of  land  to  the  several  States  in  which  it  lay,  to  aid 
them  in  building  their  State  houses,  &c.  Large  quantities  of 
land  have  also  been  given  to  aid  the  construction  of  railroads. 

HOMESTEADS. 

12.  The  government  has  always  sold  its  lands  at  a  very  low 
price,  preferring  to  give  the  people  cheap  farms,  rather  than  to 
raise  more  revenue  from  this  source. 

But  in  1862,  Congress  passed  an  act  called  "  the  Homestead 
Law,"  the  object  of  which  was  to  cheapen  the  public  lands  to 
a  mere  nominal  price  to  heads  of  families,  male  or  female,  or 
to  persons  21  years  of  age  or  over,  or  to  persons  who  had 
served  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States,  whether  21 
years  old  or  not.  By  the  provisions  of  this  act  such  persons 
are  allowed,  for  the  trifling  sum  of  ten  dollars,  to  enter  upon 
and  claim  160  acres  of  land,  provided  the  claimant  swears  that 
the  land  is  applied  for  his  or  her  own  use,  and  for  settlement 
and  cultivation.  But  no  patent  (deed)  is  to  be  given  until  the 
applicant  has  actually  settled  upon  and  cultivated  the  land  for 
the  space  of  five  years.  Such  applicant  must  also  make  affida- 
vit that  he  has  never  borne  arms  against  the  United  States. 

By  this  liberal  policy,  persons  of  very  limited  means  may 
provide  themselves  with  comfortable  homes  for  life;  and  the 
unoccupied  lands  will  be  settled  and  occupied  faster  than  if 
the  old  price  of  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per  acre  had 


326  PUBLIC    LANDS. 

been  demanded.  The  revenue  from  the  sale  of  lands  will  of 
course  be  less,  but  the  wealth  of  the  country  will  undoubtedly 
be  increased  by  the  measure. 

13.  Exceedingly  rich  and  valuable  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead  and  other  minerals  have  been  found  upon  the  pub- 
lic lands.  That  the  benefits  of  mining  them  might  be 
extended  to  the  many,  instead  of  being  monopolized  by  a  few, 
a  diflPerent  rule  for  selling  them  has  been  made.  After  they 
have  been  surveyed,  mapped  and  described,  they,  like  other 
lands,  are  ofi'ered  for  sale,  but  in  quantities  of  not  more  than 
40  acres.  These  are  generally  sold  at  auction,  but  no  bid  less 
than  five  dollars  per  acre  will  be  received.  If  not  sold  at  public 
sale,  they  are  then  subject  to  private  sale  at  that  price. 


CHAPTEK     XXXIII. 
HOW  TO  SECUEE  PUBLIC  LANDS. 

There  are  two  classes  of  public  lands  subject  to  entry;  one 
at  $1.25  per  acre,  known  as  ininimu7n^  and  one  at  $2.50,  known 
as  double  ininiTmim,  the  latter  being  the  alternate  sections 
along  the  lines  of  railroads.  Title  may  be  acquired  by  pur- 
chase at  public  sale,  or  by  "private  entry,"  and  in  virtue  of 
the  Pre-emption  and  Homestead  Laws. 

At  Public  Sale. —  Lands  are  offered  at  auction  to  the  high- 
est bidder,  pursuant  to  proclamation  or  public  notice. 

Private  Entry. —  Lands  subject  to  private  entry,  are  those 
which  have  been  once  offered  at  public  sale  without  finding 
purchasers.  In  order  to  acquire  title  to  these  lands,  a  written 
application  must  be  made  to  the  Land  Eegister  of  the  District 
in  which  the  land  is  located,  describing  the  tract  desired.  The 
Register  certifies  the  fact  to  the  Receiver,  stating  price,  and  the 
applicant  then  pays  the  money  and  takes  a  receipt,  and  at  the 


HOW   TO   SECURE   PUBLIC   LiLNDS.  327 

close  of  the  month  the  Register  and  Receiver  make  return  of 
the  sale  to  the  General  Land  Office,  when  a  patent  or  full  title 
issues  on  due  surrender  of  the  receipt,  and  will  be  delivered  at 
the  option  of  the  purchaser,  at  the  General  Land  Office  in 
Washington,  or  by  the  Register  at  the  District  Land  Office. 

Land  Warrants. — When  lands  are  to  be  located  with  land 
warrants,  application  must  be  made  as  in  cash  cases,  accompa- 
nied by  an  assigned  warrant.  When  the  tract  is  $2.50  per  acre, 
$1.25  per  acre  must  be  paid  in  addition  to  the  warrant. 
Receipts  are  given  and  patents  delivered,  as  in  the  preceding 
case.  At  the  time  of  location,  a  fee  of  50  cents  for  a  40  acre 
warrant,  and  a  corresponding  amount  for  larger  ones,  must  be 
paid  to  the  Register,  and  a  like  sum  to  the  Receiver. 

Agricultural  College  Scrip. — This  may  be  used  in  the  loca- 
tion of  lands  at  private  entry,  but  is  only  applicable  to  lands 
subject  to  entry  at  $1.25  per  acre,  and  is  restricted  to  a  techni- 
cal "  quarter  section,"  and  to  three  sections  in  each  township 
of  land.  The  proceeding  to  acquire  title  is  the  same  as  in 
cash  and  warrant  cases,  the  fees  being  the  same  as  on  warrants. 
This  scrip  may  be  used  in  payment  of  pre-emption  claims. 

Pre-emption. — Any  person  being  the  head  of  a  family,  or 
widow,  or  single  man  over  21  years  of  age,  and  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  or  a  person  who  has  filed  his  declaration  to 
become  such,  by  settling  upon  and  improving  any  of  the 
"  offered,"  "  unoffered,"  or  unsurveyed  lands  of  the  United 
States,'  may  obtain  a  pre-emption  right  to  purchase  160  acres 
so  occupied,  at  the  regular  government  price,  whether  it  be 
$1.25  or  $2.50  per  acre.  Where  the  tract  is  "offered"  land, 
the  settler  must  file  with  the  District  Land  Office  his  state- 
ment as  to  the  fact  of  settlement,  within  thirty  days  thereafter, 
and  within  one  year  must  make  proof  to  the  Land  Office,  of 
his  actual  residence  and  cultivation,  and  secure  the  land  by 
payment  in  cash  or  Land  Warrant.  Where  the  land  has  been 
surveyed  and  not  offered  at  public  sale,  the  statement  must  be 
filed  within  three  months  after  settlement,  and  payment  made 
within  21  months.     Where  settlement  is  made  upon  unsur- 


S28  HOW   TO    SECURE   PUBLIC   LANDS. 

vejed  lands,  the  settler  is  required  to  file  a  statement  within 
three  months  after  the  survey,  and  pay  within  eighteen  months 
thereafter.  ISTo  person  is  entitled  to  more  than  one  pre-emption 
right. 

The  Homestead  Privilege. — The  Homestead  laws  give  to 
every  citizen  the  right  to  a  Homestead  of  160  acres  minimum, 
or  eighty  acres  double  minimum.  To  obtain  Homestead, 
applicant  must  swear  that  he  is  the  head  of  a  family,  or  over 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  a  citizen,  or  has  declared  his  intention 
to  become  such;  and  that  the  entry  is  for  his  exclusive  use  and 
benefit,  and  for  actual  settlement  and  cultivation.  "When  an 
applicant  has  made  actual  settlement  upon  the  land  he  desires, 
he  must  make  affidavit  of  the  fact  before  the  Land  Register, 
and  pay  fees  amounting,  on  160  acres  of  minimum  land,  to  $18, 
or  an  equal  sum  for  eighty  acres  of  double  minimum,  for  which 
he  gets  a  receipt;  and  after  five  years'  occupation  and  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land,  he  is  entitled  upon  proof  of  such  cultivation 
to  a  patent  or  full  title  to  the  Homestead.  Any  loyal  person 
in  the  naval  or  military  service  of  the  United  States,  may 
acquire  a  Homestead  by  reason  of  his  family  occupying  land 
and  making  the  application  in  his  stead.  All  officers,  soldiers, 
and  sailors  who  have  served  in  the  army  or  navy  for  ninety 
days  and  remained  loyal,  may  enter  160  instead  of  80  acres  of 
double  minimum  lands.  The  fees  above  for  entering  Home- 
stead apply  to  surveyed  lands  in  Michigan,  "Wisconsin,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois.  In  California,  Nevada,  Oregon,  Colorado,  New  Mex- 
ico, "Washington  Territory,  Arizona,  Idaho,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
and  Montana,  the  fees  are  $22  instead  of  $18.  A  settler  hav- 
ing filed  a  pre-emption  declaration,  may  change  his  filing  into 
Homestead,  and  receive  the  benefit  of  the  Homestead  laws.  If 
a  Homestead  settler  does  not  wish  to  remain  five  years  on  his 
land  before  obtaining  title,  he  may  pay  for  it  in  cash  or  Land 
Warrants.     Lands  obtained  under  the  Homestead  laws  are 


HOW   TO    SECURE   PUBLIC   LANDS.  329 

exempt  from  liability  for  debts  contracted  prior  to  the  issuing 
of  the  patent. 

United  States  Land  Offices  are  located  at  Fort  Des  Moines, 
Council  Bluffs,  Fort  Dodge  and  Sioux  City,  Iowa;  Menasha, 
Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Stevens'  Point,  La  Crosse,  Bayfield  and  Eau 
Claire,  Wisconsin;  San  Francisco,  Marysville,  Humboldt, 
Stockton,  Yisalia,  Sacramento,  and  Los  Angeles,  California; 
"West  Point,  Beatrice,  Lincoln,  Dakota  City,  and  Grand  Island, 
Nebraska;  Taylor's  Falls,  St.  Cloud,  Du  Luth,  Alexandria, 
Jackson,  New  Ulm,  and  Litchfield,  Minnesota;  Oregon  City, 
Roseburg,  and  Le  Grand,  Oregon;  Topeka,  Junction  City, 
Humboldt,  and  Augusta,  Kansas;  Carson  City,  Austin,  Bel- 
mont, and  Aurora,  Nevada;  Yermilion,  Springfield,  and  Pem- 
bina, Dakota;  Denver  City,  Fair  Play,  and  Central  City, 
Colorado ;  Boon ville,  Ironton,  and  Springfield,  Missouri ;  Mobile, 
Huntsville,  and  Montgomery,  Alabama;  New  Orleans,  Monroe, 
Natcbiloches,  Louisiana;  Detroit,  East  Saginaw,  lona,  Mar- 
quette, and  Traverse  City,  Michigan;  Little  Bock,  Washington, 
and  Clarksville,  Arkansas;  Boise  City,  and  Lewiston,  Idaho; 
Chillicothe,  Ohio;  Indianapolis,  Indiana;  Springfield,  Illinois; 
Jackson,  Mississippi;  Tallahassee,  Florida;  Olympia,  and  Yan- 
couver,  Washington  Territory;  Helena,  Montana;  Prescott, 
Arizona;  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

PBE-EMPnON   LAWS. 

A  pre-emption  right  is  the  right  of  a  squatter  upon  the 
lands  of  the  United  States  to  purchase,  in  preference  to  others, 
when  the  land  is  sold.  Such  right  is  granted  to  the  following 
persons:  Any  citizen  of  the  United  States;  any  person  who  has 
filed  his  declaration  of  intention  to  become  a  citizen;  any  head 
of  a  family;  any  widow;  any  single  woman  of  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years  or  over;  and  any  person  who  has  made  a  set- 
tlement, erected  a  dwelling-house  upon,  and  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  tract  sought  to  be  entered — ^ovided  such  settlement 
was  made  since  June  1,  1840,  and  previously  to  the  time  of 
application  for  the  land,  which  land  must,  at  the  date  of  the 


3;jO  HOW    TO    SECURE    TLBIJC    LANDS. 

settlement,  have  had  the  Indian  title  extinguished,  and  been 
surveyed  by  the  United  States. 

A  person  bringing  himself  within  the  above  requirements 
by  i3roof  satisfactory  to  the  Register  and  Receiver  of  the  land 
district  in  which  the  land  may  lie,  taken  pursuant  to  the  rules 
hereafter  prescribed,  will,  after  having  taken  the  affidavit 
required  by  the  Act,  be  entitled  to  enter,  by  legal  subdivisions- 
any  number  of  acres,  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty,  oi 
a  quarter-section,  to  include  his  residence;  and  he  may  avail 
himself  of  the  same  at  any  time  prior  to  the  day  of  the  com- 
mencement of  the  public  sale,  including  said  tract,  where  the 
land  has  not  yet  been  proclaimed. 

Where  the  land  was  subject  to  private  entry,  Jime  1,  1840, 
and  a  settlement  shall  thereafter  be  made  upon  such  land,  or 
where  the  land  shall  become  hereafter  subject  to  private  entry, 
and  after  that  period  a  settlement  shall  be  made,  which  the 
settler  is  desirous  of  securing,  notice  of  such  intention  must 
be  given  within  thirty  days  after  such  settlement;  and,  in  all 
such  cases,  the  proof,  affidavit  and  payment  must  be  made 
within  twelve  months  after  such  settlement. 

The  tracts  liable  to  entry  are  embraced  under  the  following 
designations:  First,  a  regular  quarter-section,  notwithstanding 
the  quantity  may  vary  a  few  acres  from  one  hundred  and  sixty; 
or  a  quarter-section,  which,  though  fractional  in  quantity  by 
the  passage  of  a  navigable  stream  through  the  same,  is  still 
bounded  by  regular  sectional  and  quarter-sectional  lines ;  secondf 
a  fractional  section  containing  not  over  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  or  any  tract  being  a  detached  or  anomalous  survey  made 
pursuant  to  law,  and  not  exceeding  such  quantity ;  third,  two 
adjoining  half-quarter-sections  (in  all  cases  to  be  separated  by . 
a  north  and  south  line,  except  on  the  north  side  of  township, 
where  the  surveys  are  so  made  as  to  throw  the  excess  or  defi- 
ciency on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  township),  of  the 
regular  quarters  mentioned  in  the  first  designation  ;  fourth, 
two  half-quarter  or  eighty-acre  subdivisions  of  a  fractional  or 
broken  section,  adjoining  each  other,  the  aggregate  quantity 


HOW   TO    SECURE   PUBLIC   LANDS.  331 

not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  ;  fifths  a  regular 
half-quarter  and  an  adjoining  fractional  section,  or  an  adjoin- 
ing half-quarter  subdivision  of  a  fractional  section,  the  aggre- 
gate quantity  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres;  sixth, 
if  the  pre-emptor  do  not  wish  to  enter  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  he  may  enter  a  single  half-quarter  section  (made  by  a 
north  and  south  line),  or  an  eighty-acre  subdivision  of  a  frac- 
tional section  ;  seventh,  one  or  more  adjoining  forty-acre  lots 
may  be  entered,  the  aggregate  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and 
sixty  acres  ;  and,  eighth,  a  regular  half-quarter,  a  half-quarter 
subdivision,  or  a  fractional  section,  may  each  be  taken,  ^vith 
one  or  more  forty-acre  subdivisions  lying  adjoining,  tlie  aggre- 
gate not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres.  Forty-acre 
tracts,  or  quarter  quarter-sections,  may  be  entered  in  the  same 
manner  that  eighty-acre,  or  half-quarter  sections,  have  been. 

Only  one  person  upon  a  quarter-section  is  protected,  and  he 
the  one  who  made  the  first  settlement,  provided  he  conform  to 
the  other  provisions  of  the  law.  A  person  who  has  once  availed 
himself  of  the  provisions  of  the  Pre-emption  Act,  cannot,  at 
any  future  period,  or  at  any  other  land  office,  acquire  any  other 
right  under  it.  No  person,  who  is  the  proprietor  of  three 
hundred  and  twenty  acres  of  land  in  any  State  or  Territory  of 
the  United  States,  or  who  quits  or  abandons  his  residence  on 
his  own  land  to  reside  on  the  public  land  in  the  same  State  or 
Territory,  is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  Pre-emption  Acts. 

The  approval  of  the  tracts  by  the  local  land  office  is  the  evi- 
dence of  the  survey ;  but  the  land  is  to  be  construed  as  surveyed 
when  the  requisite  lines  are  run  on  the  field,  and  the  corners 
established  by  the  deputy  surveyor,  l^o  assignment  or  trans- 
fers of  pre-emption  rights  are  recognized  at  the  land  office ;  the 
patents  issuing  to  the  claimants,  in  whose  names  alone  the  entries 
are  made. 

The  following  description  of  lands  are  not  liable  to  entry  : 
first,  lands  included  in  any  reservation  by  any  treaty,  law,  or 
proclamation  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  lands 
reserved  for  salines  and   for  other  purposes  ;    second,  lands 


332  HOW   TO   SECURE   PUBLIC    LANDS. 

reserved  for  the  support  of  schools  ;  thirds  lands  acquired  by 
either  of  the  last  two  treaties  with  the  Miami  Indians  in  Indi- 
ana, or  which  may  be  acquired  of  the  Wyandot  Indians  in  Ohio, 
or  any  other  Indian  reservation,  to  which  the  title  has  been,  or 
may  be  extinguished  at  any  time  during  the  operation  of  the 
Pre-emption  Acts,  by  the  United  States  ;  fourth,  sections  of 
lands  reserved  to  the  United  States,  alternate  to  other  sections 
granted  to  any  State  for  the  construction  of  any  canal,  railroad, 
or  other  public  improvement ;  fifth,  sections,  or  fractions  of 
sections,  included  within  the  limits  of  any  incorporated  town; 
sixth,  every  portion  of  the  public  lands  which  has  been  selected 
as  a  site  for  a  city  or  town ;  seventh,  every  parcel  or  lot  of  land 
actually  settled  and  occupied  for  the  purposes  of  trade  and 
agriculture;  and,  eighth,  all  lands  in  which  are  situated  any 
known  salines  or  mines. 

Persons  claiming  the  benefit  of  the  Pre-emption  Acts  are 
required  to  file  duplicate  atiidavits,  such  as  are  specified  by  law, 
and  to  furnish  proof,  by  one  or  more  disinterested  witnesses, 
of  the  facts  necessary  to  establish  the  requisites  mentioned  in 
the  first  paragraph  of  this  article  ;  such  witnesses  having  first 
been  duly  sworn  or  affirmed  by  some  competent  authority. 

If  adverse  claims  are  made  to  the  same  tract,  each  claimant 
is  to  be  notified  of  the  time  and  place  of  taking  testimony,  and 
allowed  to  cross-examine  the  opposite  witnesses,  and  to  furnish 
counter-proof,  itself  subject  to  cross-examination.  If,  by  reason 
of  distance,  sickness,  or  infirmity,  the  witnesses  cannot  person- 
ally appear  before  the  register  of  the  land  office,  their  deposi- 
tions, taken  in  conformity  with  the  following  regulations,  hiay 
be  received: 

The  notice  to  adverse  claimants  must  be  in  writing,  and 
served  in  time  to  allow  at  least  one  day  for  every  twenty  miles 
which  the  party  may  have  to  travel  in  going  to  the  place  of 
taking  evidence.  The  proof,  in  all  cases,  should  consist  of  a 
simple  detail  of  facts  merely,  and  not  of  broad  and  general 
statements.  If  the  pre-emptor  be  "  the  head  of  a  family,"  the 
witnesses  must  ste.te  the  facts  constituting  him  such  ;  whether 


HOW    TO   SECURE   PUBLIC   LANDS.  '6'6S 

he  be  a  husband  having  a  wife  and  children,  or  a  widower,  or 
an  unmarried  person  under  twentj-one  years  of  age,  having  a 
family,  either  of  relatives  or  others,  dependent  upon  him,  or 
hired  persons.  All  the  facts  relative  to  the  settlement  in  per- 
son, inhabitancy,  or  personal  residence,  the  time  of  its  com- 
mencement, the  manner  and  extent  of  its  continuance,  as  also 
those  sharing  the  apparent  objects,  must  be  stated.  It  must 
be  stated  that  the  claimant  made  the  settlement  on  the  land  in 
person  ;  that  he  has  erected  a  dwelling  upon  the  land  ;  that  he 
lived  in  the  same,  and  made  it  his  home,  etc.  In  the  event  of 
a  decision  by  the  land  officer  against  the  claimant,  he  may 
appeal  to  the  Commissioner  of  the  Land  Office  at  Washington. 

No  entry  will  be  permitted  until  the  affidavit  required  of  the 
claimant  is  taken.  Duplicates  thereof  must  be  signed  by  the 
claimant,  and  the  fact  of  the  oath  being  taken  must  be  certified 
by  the  register  or  receiver  administering  the  same;  one  copy  to 
be  filed  in  the  Register's  office,  and  the  other  to  be  sent  to  the 
Land  Office  at  Washington. 

A  purchaser  of  public  land  is  only  required  to  make  written 
application  to  the  Register  of  the  local  land  office  for  the  tract 
desired  to  be  entered,  and  to  pay  to  the  Receiver  the  purchase 
money  therefor.  Blank  forms  of  such  application  are  furnished 
gratuitously  at  the  Land  Office  where  the  tract  is  desired  to  be 
entered. 

SoLDiEKs'  Homestead  Law  of  1872. 

The  following  is  the  full  text  of  the  Amendatory  Soldiers' 
Homestead  Bill,  approved  by  the  President  on  the  3d  of  April, 
1872. 

£e  it  enacted  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  i/n  Congress  assembled : 
That  every  private  soldier  and  officer  who  has  served  in  the 
army  of  the  United  States  during  the  recent  rebellion  for  ninety 
days  or  more,  and  who  was  honorably  discharged,  and  has 
remained  loyal  to  the  government,  including  the  troops  mus- 
tered into  the  service  of  the  United  States  bv  virtue  of  the 


334  HOW   Tf)   SECURE   PUBLIC  LANDS. 

third  section  of  an  act  entitled  "An  act  making  appropriations 
for  completing  the  defenses  of  Washington,  and  foi-  other  pur- 
poses," approved  February  13th,  1862,  and  every  seaman, 
marine,  and  officer  who  has  served  in  the  navy  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  the  marine  corps,  during  the  rebellion,  for  ninety 
days,  and  who  was  honorably  discharged,  and  has  remained 
loyal  to  the  government,  shall,  on  compliance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  an  act  entitled  "  An  act  to  secure  homesteads  to 
actual  settlers  on  the  public  domain,  and  the  acts  amendatory 
thereof,  as  hereinafter  modified,  be  entitled  to  enter  upon  and 
receive  patents  for  a  quantity  of  public  lands  (not  mineral)  not 
exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres,  or  one  quarter-section, 
to  be  taken  in  compact  form  according  to  legal  subdivision, 
including  the  alternate  reserved  section  of  public  lands  along 
the  line  of  any  railroad  or  other  public  work  not  otherwise 
reserved  or  appropriated,  and  other  lands  subject  to  entry  under 
the  homestead  laws  of  the  United  States  :  Provided^  the  said 
homestead  settler  shall  be  allowed  six  months  after  locating 
his  homestead  within  which  to  commence  his  settlement  and 
improvements:  And  provided  also,  the  time  which  the  home- 
stead settler  shall  have  served  in  the  army,  navy,  or  marine 
corps  aforesaid  shall  be  deducted  from  the  time  heretofore 
required  to  perfect  title,  or  if  discharged  on  account  of  wounds 
received,  or  disability  incurred  in  the  line  of  duty,  then  the 
term  of  enlistment  shall  be  deducted  from  the  time  heretofore 
required  to  perfect  title,  without  reference  t©  the  length  of 
time  he  may  have  served  :  Provided,  however,  that  no  patent 
shall  issue  to  any  homestead  settler  who  has  not  resided  upon, 
improved  and  cultivated  his  said  homestead  for  a  period  of  at 
least  one  year  after  he  shall  commence  his  improvements  as 
aforesaid. 

Section  2.  That  any  person  entitled  under  the  provisions 
of  the  foregoing  section  to  enter  a  homestead,  who  may  have 
heretofore  entered  under  the  Homestead  law  a  quantity  of  land 
less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres,  shall  be  permitted  to 
enter  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  so  much  land  as,  when 


HOW   TO   SECtJRE   PUBLIC   LANDS.  335 

udded  to  tiie  quantity  previously  entered,  shail  not  exceed  one 
hundred  and  sixty  acres. 

Section  3.  That  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  any  person  who 
would  be  entitled  to  a  homestead  under  the  provisions  of  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  his  widow,  if  unmarried,  or  in  case  of 
her  death  or  marriage,  then  his  minor  orphan  children,  by  a 
guardian  duly  approved  and  officially  accredited  at  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  benefits  enu- 
merated in  this  act,  subject  to  all  tlie  provisions  as  to  settle- 
ment and  improvements  therein  contained  :  Provided,  that  if 
such  person  died  during  his  term  of  enlistment,  the  whole  term 
of  his  enlistment  shall  be  deducted  from  the  time  heretofore 
required  to  perfect  the  title. 

Section  4.  That  where  a  party,  at  the  date  of  his  entry  of  a 
tract  of  land  under  the  Homestead  laws,  or  subsequently  thereto, 
was  actually  enlisted  and  employed  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the 
United  States,  his  services  therein  shall,  in  the  administration 
of  said  Homestead  laws,  be  construed  to  be  equivalent,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  to  a  residence  for  the  same  length  of  time 
upon  the  tract  so  entered  :  Provided,  that  if  his  entry  has 
been  canceled  by  reason  of  his  absence  from  said  tract  while  in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United  States,  and  such  tract 
has  not  been  disposed  of,  his  entry  shall  be  restored  and  con- 
firmed :  And  provided  further,  that  if  such  tract  has  been 
disposed  of,  said  party  may  enter  another  tract  subject  to  the 
entry  under  said  laws,  and  his  right  to  a  patent  therefor  shall 
be  determined  by  the  proofs  touching  his  residence  and  culti- 
vation of  the  first  tract  and  his  absence  therefrom  in  such 
service. 

Section  5.  That  any  soldier,  sailor,  marine,  officer,  or  other 
person  coming  within  the  provisions  of  this  act  may,  as  well 
BY  AN  agent  as  in  person,  enter  upon  said  homestead  :  Pro- 
vided,  that  the  said  claimant  in  person  shall,  within  the  time 
prescribed  [six  months  from  date  of  entry]  commence  settle- 
ment and  improvement  on  the  same,  and  thereafter  fulfill  all 
the  requirements  of  this  act. 


3^6  PATENTS. 

Section  6.  That  the  commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office  shall  have  authority  to  make  all  needful  rules  and  regu- 
lations to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act." 


OHaPTEE    xxxiy 
PATENTS. 

1.  These  originated  in  the  desire  of  the  founders  of  the 
government  to  encourage  invention,  in  the  belief  that  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  country  would  be  promoted  by  such  a  stim- 
ulus to  genius,  and  the  power  to  grant  patents  was  expr<3ssly 
bestowed  on  Congress,  That  this  was  a  very  wise  fore- 
thought there  is  no  doubt.  The  hope  of  reward  has  given 
birth  to  innumerable  inventions,  among  which  some  have  been 
of  incalculable  value  to  the  country,  increasing  its  wealth 
almost  beyond  our  power  to  estimate.  It  is,  however,  worth 
considering  if  there  may  not  be  a  limit  to  the  usefulness  of  the 
system,  in  its  present  form,  in  the  changed  conditions  of  the 
country.  It  is  often  the  case  that  what  accomplished  the 
greatest  good  in  its  proper  day,  is  at  length  outgrown,  and 
becomes  an  embarrassment,  requiring  to  be  either  essentially 
modified  or  laid  aside. 

2.  A  patent  right  is  an  exclusive  right,  granted  by  an  officei 
denominated  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  in  conformity  to 
law,  to  the  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any  new  and  useful  article. 
The  exclusive  right  is  conferred  by  acts  of  Congress,  on  com- 
pliance of  the  inventor  with  certain  conditions  which  are 
clearly  specified  in  the  law.  The  evidence  that  such  exclusive 
right  has  been  conferred  on  any  individual,  is  contained  in  a 
document,  called  "  letters  patent,"  issued  at  the  patent  ofiice 
in  "Washington;  signed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  (for- 
merly by  the  Secretary  of  State),  countersigned  by  the  Com- 


PATENTS.  337 

missioner  of  Patents,  and  sealed  with  the  seal  of  his  office. 
Thus  protected,  he  alone  can  make,  use  and  sell  the  article  he 
has  invented,  for  the  term  of  fourteen  years;  and  upon  show- 
ing a  good  reason  therefor,  the  commissioner  will  extend  the 
term  seven  years  longer,  or  Congress  will  pass  a  special  act  for 
that  purpose. 

3.  This  was  the  law  up  to  1861;  and  is  still  in  force  as  to 
patents  granted  anterior  to  that  date.  But  a  new  act  was  then 
passed,  extending  the  term  of  an  original  patent  to  seventeen, 
instead  of  fourteen  years,  and  prohibiting  any  extension  of 
such  patents. 

An  inventor,  before  he  can  obtain  a  patent,  must  swear  that 
he  believes  he  is  the  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art,  machine, 
or  improvement,  for  which  he  solicits  a  patent.  He  must  also 
give  in  writing  a  clear,  minute  description  of  it;  and,  when 
necessary,  must  make  and  deliver  a  model  of  his  invention; 
which  in  all  cases  must  be  something  new,  unused  and  unknown 
before,  or  his  application  will  be  rejected.  T..ere  is  considera- 
ble expense  attending  the  procurement  of  a  patent  right. 

4.  But  when  obtained,  no  person  except  the  patentee,  has 
any  right  to  make,  sell,  or  use  the  article  patented,  until  the 
time  has  expired  for  which  this  exclusive  right  was  granted, 
without  the  permission  of  the  patentee.  Any  person  doing  so 
is  liable  to  a  heavy  penalty,  and  may  be  prosecuted  in  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  the  United  States;  this  court  having  original 
jurisdiction  in  all  cases  arising  under  the  patent  laws.  But  a 
writ  of  error  or  an  appeal  lies  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States. 

5.  The  Patent  Office,  when  first  established,  was  a  bureau 
of  the  State  Department,  and  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
acted  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  But  after 
the  creation  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  in  1849,  it  was 
transferred  to  it,  became  a  bureau  of  the  new  department,  and 
the  commissioner  now  acts  under  the  general  direction  of  its 
secretary. 


888  PATENTS. 

THE   COMMISSIONEK   OF   PATENTS 

6.  1b  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate.  His  duties 
are  best  explained  in  the  language  of  the  law  itself,  which,  in 
speaking  of  the  creation  and  appointment  of  this  official,  says 
that  his  duties  shall  be  "  to  superintend,  execute  and  perfonn 
all  such  acts  and  things  touching  and  respecting  the  granting 
and  issuing  of  patents  for  new  and  useful  discoveries,  inven- 
tions and  improvements,  as  are  herein  provided  for,  or  shall 
hereafter  be  by  law  directed  to  be  done  and  performed." 

He  has  the  charge  and  custody  of  all  books,  records,  papers, 
models,  machines,  and  all  other  things  belonging  to  the  patent 
office;  and  has  the  privilege  of  sending  and  receiving  letters 
and  packages  by  mail,  relating  to  the  business  of  the  office,  free 
of  postage.  He  has  the  power  to  appoint  his  clerks,  examin- 
ers and  subordinates;  among  whom  are  patent  office  agents, 
who  may  be  appointed  in  not  more  than  twenty  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  and  towns  in  the  United  States.  It  is  their  duty  to 
forward  to  the  patent  office  all  such  models,  specimens  and 
manufactures,  as  shall  be  intended  to  be  patented. 

7.  In  cases  of  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  commis- 
sioner, the  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  board  of  examiners,  or 
to  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States 
for  the  District  of  Columbia.  There  is  a  seal  for  the  patent 
office,  which  the  commissioner  keeps,  and  which  he  must  affix 
to  patents  when  granted,  and  to  other  papers  and  records  issued 
from  his  office,  which  are  wanted  as  evidence  in  other  places. 

He  is  also  authorized  to  publish  a  classified  and  alphabetical 
list  of  all  patents  issued  at  the  patent  office.  This  he  frs' 
quently  does,  for  the  information  of  the  public. 


CHAPTEK    XXXY. 

FENSIOI^S. 

Peneions  are  a  provision,  made  by  the  general  government, 
for  the  officers  and  privates  of  the  army  and  navy  disabled  in 
the  service  of  the  country.  They  peril  their  lives  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  public,  and  it  has  always  been  regarded  as  just 
that  a  support,  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  injury  received, 
should  be  given  to  them,  or  to  those  dependent  on  them  in 
case  of  their  death.  It  is  properly  a  continuance  of  pay  in 
consideration  of  the  services  rendered.  It  does  not  often 
amount  to  a  full  support,  and  is  graduated  by  the  amount  each 
received,  according  to  rank. 

A    COMMISSIONER    OF    PENSIONS 

"Was  appointed  and  placed  at  the  head  of  a  bureau,  at  first  in 
the  War  Department,  but  afterward  transferred  to  the  care  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  It  is  a  Pension  Office,  in  fact. 
This  commissioner  is  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate 
in  the  same  manner  as  other  important  officers.  It  is  his  duty 
to  carry  into  efiect  the  pension  laws.  He  is  authorized  to 
appoint  pension  agents  in  all  the  States  aiw^  Territories,  who 
receive  and  distribute  the  money  due  to  pensioners  in  their 
several  districts,  the  agents  receiving  from  the  government  a 
percentage  for  their  services. 

There  has  always  been  a  large  number  on  the  list.  At  first 
they  were  the  disabled  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Revolutionary 
War;  then  of  the  War  of  1812  with  England,  followed  in 
1846  by  the  Mexican  War.  But  all  these  were  few  compared 
with  the  number   disabled  in  the  Civil  War.     The  amount 


340  PENSIONS. 

appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  year  1873-4:,  for  pensions  was 
$30,480,000.  The  law  carefully  protects  the  pensions  against 
frauds  and  forbids  its  attachment  by  any  legal  process  what- 
ever.    The  nation  is  grateful  to  its  brave  defenders. 

The  proper  officials  to  whom  all  applications  should  be  made, 
by  letter  or  petition,  in  Washington,  are,  by  a  soldier  having 
his  discharge,  to  the  Paymaster  General;  when  the  discharge 
paper  is  lost,  to  the  Second  Auditor  of  the  Treasury ;  when  by 
those  who  represent  a  deceased  person,  to  the  second  Auditor  of 
the  Treasury;  when  for  commutation  of  rations,  to  the  same 
officer;  when  for  pensions,  or  any  matter  connected  with  pen- 
sions, to  the  Commissioner  of  Pensions. 

Instructions  have  been  prepared  for  all  applicants,  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Pensions  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
fraud  or  misunderstanding.     They  are,  in  substance: 

INSTKUCTIONS. 

By  the  act  ©f  Congress  approved  July  14th,  1862,  and  amen- 
datory acts,  pensions  are  granted  as  follows: 

1.  Invalids,  disabled  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  line  of  duty. 

2.  Widows  of  persons  who  have  been  killed  or  have  died  in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Children  under  sixteen,  of  the  classes  of  persons  on 
account  of  whose  death  widows  are  entitled;  provided  said 
widows  have  died,  or  have  remarried. 

4.  Mothers  of  all  classes  of  persons  on  account  of  whose 
death  widows  are  entitled,  provided  said  mothers  were  depend- 
ent on  the  deceased  for  support  and  no  minor  child  survived. 

5.  Fathers,  the  same  as  mothers,  in  case  of  the  death  of 
the  latter. 

6.  Brothers  and  sisters,  under  sixteen,  provided  they  were 
dependent  for  support  upon  the  person  on  account  of  whose 
decease  they  claim. 

The  First  Section  of  the  Act  of  July  14th,  1862,  showing 
the  rates  of  pension  to  the  several  classes  *nd  grades,  is  ag 
follows: 


PENSIONS.  341 

3e  it  enacted  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representathjea 
of  the  United  States  of  America^in  Congress  assembled,  That 
if  any  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  musician,  or  private 
of  the  army,  including  regulars,  volunteers,  militia,  or  any 
officer,  warrant,  or  petty  officer,  musician,  seaman,  ordinary 
seaman,  flotillaman,  marine,  clerk,  landsman,  pilot,  or  other 
person  in  the  navy  or  marine  corps,  has  been,  since  the  fourth 
day  of  March,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-one,  or  shall  here- 
after be,  disabled  by  reason  of  any  wound  received  or  disease 
contracted  while  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the 
line  of  duty,  he  shall,  upon  making  due  proof  of  the  fact 
according  to  such  forms  and  regulations  as  are  or  may  be  pro- 
vided by,  or  in  pursuance  of  law,  be  placed  upon  the  list  of 
invalid  pensions  of  the  United  States,  and  be  entitled  to  receive, 
for  the  highest  rate  of  disability,  such  pension  as  is  hereinafter 
provided  in  such  cases,  and  for  an  inferior  disability  an  amount 
proportionate  to  the  highest  disability,  to  commence  as  here- 
inafter provided,  and  continue  during  the  existence  of  such 
disability.  The  pension  for  a  total  disability  for  officers,  non- 
commissioned officers,  musicians  and  privates  employed  in  the 
military  service  of  the  United  States,  whether  regulars,  volun- 
teers, or  militia,  and  in  the  marine  corps,  shall  be  as  follows, 
viz.:  lieutenant-colonel  and  all  officers  of  a  liigher  rank,  thirty 
dollars  per  month;  major,  twenty-five  dollars  per  month;  cap- 
tain, twenty  dollars  per  month;  first  lieutenant,  seventeen  dol- 
iars  per  month;  second  lieutenant,  fifteen  dollars  per  month; 
and  non-commissioned  officers,  musicians  and  privates,  eight 
dollars  per  month.  The  pension  for  total  disability  for  officers, 
warrant  or  petty  officers,  and  others  employed  in  the  naval  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States,  shall  be  as  follows,  viz.:  captain, 
commander,  surgeon,  paymaster,  and  chief  engineer,  respect- 
ively, ranking  with  commander  by  law,  lieutenant  command- 
ing, and  master  commanding,  thirty  dollars  per  month; 
lieutenant,  surgeon,  paymaster,  and  chief  engineer,  respect- 
ively, ranking  with  lieutenant  by  law,  and  passed  assistant 
surgeon,  twenty -five  dollars  per  month;  professor  of  mathe- 


342  PENSIONS. 


matics,  master,  assistant  surgeon,  assistant  paymaster,  and 
chaplain,  twenty  dollars  per  month;  first  assistant  engineer  and 
pilots,  fifteen  dollars  per  month ;  passed  midshipman,  midship- 
man, captain's,  and  paymaster's  clerk,  second  and  third  assistant 
engineers,  master's  mate,  and  all  warrant  officers,  ten  dollars 
per  month;  all  petty  officers,  and  all  other  persons  before 
named  employed  in  the  naval  service,  eight  dollars  per  montli; 
and  all  commissioned  officers,  of  either  service,  shall  recei-^e 
such  and  only  such  pension  as  is  herein  provided  for  the  rabk 
in  which  they  hold  commissions. 

Act  of  July  4,  1864. 

Various  supplementary  Acts  have  been  passed  by  the  Act 
of  July  14,  1862,  modifying  in  some  particulars  the  provisions 
of  previous  legislation. 

By  the  Act  of  July  4,  1864,  it  is  provided  that  biennial 
examinations  will  hereafter  be  made  by  one  surgeon  only,  if  he 
is  regularly  appointed,  or  holds  a  surgeon's  commission  in  the 
army.  Examinations  by  unappointed  civil  surgeons  will  not 
be  accepted,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  an  examination  by  a 
commissioned  or  duly  appointed  surgeon  is  impracticable. 

Increased  Pensions  in  Certain  Cases.  —  A  pension  of 
twenty-five  dollars  per  month  is  granted  to  those  having  lost 
both  hands  or  both  eyes  in  the  military  service  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  line  of  duty,  and  twenty  dollars  per  month  to 
those  who,  under  the  same  conditions,  shall  have  lost  both  feet, 
if  such  parties  were  entitled  to  a  lower  rate  of  pension  under 
the  act  of  1862.  This  higher  pension  will  date  only  from  the 
4th  day  of  July,  1864,  in  case  of  pensioners  already  enrolled, 
or  of  applicants  discharged  prior  to  that  date. 

Evidence  of  Muster-in. — In  accordance  with  the  11th  Sec- 
tion of  the  Act  of  July  4,  1864,  evidence  of  the  muster-in  of 
the  soldier  will  not  be  required  in  any  case,  but  there  must  be 
positive  record  evidence  of  service.  Evidence  of  muster-in  in 
the  case  of  commissioned  officers  is  still  required. 
Act  of  June  6,  1866. 

The  Supplementary  Pension  Act,  approved  June  six,  eigh- 


PENSIONS.  348 

teen  hundred  and  sixty-six,  provides  increased  rates  of  pensions 
over  those  granted  bj  the  Act  of  July  fourteen,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty-two,  in  the  following  cases,  viz. : 

1.  Twenty-five  dollars  per  month  to  all  thoge  invalids  enti- 
tled, under  the  Act  of  July  fourteen,  eighteen  hundred  and 
sixty-two,  to  a  lower  rate  of  pension,  on  account  of  service 
rendered  since  March  four,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-one, 
"  who  shall  have  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes,  or  who  shall  have 
lost  both  hands,  or  been  permanently  and  totally  disabled  in 
the  same,  or  otherwise  so  permanently  and  totally  disabled  as 
to  render  them  utterly  helpless,  or  so  nearly  so  as  to  require 
the  constant  personal  aid  and  attendance  of  another  person." 

2.  Twenty  dollars  per  month  to  those  invalids  who,  being 
entitled  under  like  conditions  to  a  lower  rate  of  pension,  "  shall 
have  lost  both  feet,  or  one  hand  and  one  foot,  or  been  totally 
and  permanently  disabled  in  the  same,  or  otherwise  so  disabled 
as  to  bo  incapacitated  for  performing  any  manual  labor,  but  not 
so  much  so  as  to  require  constant  personal  aid  and  attention." 

3.  Fifteen  dollars  per  month  to  those  invalids  who,  under 
like  conditions,  "  shall  have  lost  one  hand  or  one  foot,  or  been 
totally  and  permanently  disabled  in  the  same,  or  otherwise  so 
disabled  as  to  render  their  inability  to  perform  manual  labor 
equivalent  to  the  loss  of  a  hand  or  a  foot." 

In  order  to  obtain  the  benefits  of  the  foregoing  provisions, 
pensioners  already  enrolled  will  file  an  application  in  accord- 
ance with  form  F,  appended  hereto.  Proof  in  addition  to 
that  on  file  with  the  previous  application  need  not  be  forwarded, 
except  as  shall  be  specially  required  in  each  case,  after  the 
application  is  received.  The  applicant  need  only  be  examined 
by  a  pension  surgeon  when  expressly  required,  on  due  notice 
from  this  office.  Applicants  not  already  pensioned,  who  believe 
themselves  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  foregoiug  provisions, 
will  specifically  set  forth  such  claim  in  their  declarations,  care- 
fully stating  the  nature  of  the  disability  on  account  of  which 
such  higher  rate  of  pension  is  claimed.  The  declaration  must 
be  made  before  some  officer  of  a  court  of  record,  or  before  a 


§44  PENSIONS. 

pension  notary  designated  by  this  office,  as  provided  by  the 
third  section  of  the  act  of  July  four,  eighteen  hundred  and 
sixty-four. 

The  above  specified  increased  rates  of  pension  will  be  allowed 
only  to  those  disabled  since  the  fourth  day  of  March,  eighteen 
hundred  and  sixty-one,  and  will  date  only  from  the  sixth  day 
of  June,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six. 

Teamsters^  Artificers^  and  other  Enlisted  Men, — not  em- 
braced in  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  July  fourteen,  eighteen 
hundred  and  sixty-two,  or  of  Acts  supplementary  thereto,  are, 
by  the  tenth  section  of  the  Act  of  June  six,  eighteen  hundred 
and  sixty-six,  included  in  the  administration  of  the  pension 
laws,  in  the  class  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates. 

Minor  Children  to  he  Pensioned,  in  Certain  Cases,  instead 
of  the  Widow. — ^The  eleventh  section  provides  that  when  any 
widow,  entitled  to  a  jjension  under  previous  Acts,  has  aban- 
doned the  care  of  a  child  or  children  of  her  deceased  husband, 
under  sixteen  years  of  age,  "  or  is  an  unsuitable  person,  by 
reason  of  immoral  conduct,  to  have  the  custody  of  the  same," 
the  pension  shall  be  paid  to  the  duly  authorized  guardian  of 
such  child  or  children,  while  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years, 
and  not  to  the  widow.  The  proper  proof  in  such  case,  as  pro- 
vided by  this  section,  is  the  certificate  of  the  judge  of  any 
court  having  probate  jurisdiction,  "  that  satisfactory  evidence 
has  been  produced  before  such  court  "  to  the  effect  above  indi- 
cated. In  presenting  an  application  under  this  section,  the 
guardians  of  the  minor  child  or  children  will  make  a  declara- 
tion in  accordance  with  the  appended  form  G. 

Pensions  Granted  to  Dependent  Fathers  and  to  Dependent 
Orphan  Brothers. — By  the  twelfth  section  the  provisions  of 
the  Act  of  July  fourteen,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-two,  are 
extended  so  as  to  include  the  dependent  brother  or  brothers  of 
a  deceased  officer,  soldier  or  seaman,  and  the  dependent  father 
of  such  deceased  persons,  under  like  limitations  as  apply  in 
the  case  of  dependent  sisters  and  mothers;  but  not  more  than 
one  pension  is  granted  on  account  of  the  same  person,  or  to 


PENSIONS.  346 

more  than  one  of  said  classes.  The  forms  prescribed  for  the 
latter  cases  may  be  used,  with  obvious  variations,  in  applica- 
tions made  by  dependent  fathers  or  on  behalf  of  dependent 
brothers. 

Limitations  as  to  If  umber  and  Date  of  Pensions. — The 
thirteenth  section  declares  that  but  one  pension  shall  be  granted 
to  any  person  at  the  same  time;  and  that  when  application  is 
not  made  within  three  years  after  the  death  or  discharge  of  the 
party  on  whose  account  a  pension  is  claimed,  such  pension,  if 
allowed,  "  shall  commence  from  the  date  of  filing  the  last 
paper  in  said  case  by  the  party  prosecuting  the  same,"  This 
limitation  applies  to  all  classes  of  pensions. 

Evidence  of  Marriage  of  Colored  Applicants. — The  four^ 
teenth  section  provides  that  habitual  recognition  of  the  marriage 
relation  between  colored  parties — that  is,  in  the  absence  of  the 
usually  required  proof — when  shown  by  "  proof  satisfactory  to 
the  Commissioner  of  Pensions,"  shall  be  accepted  as  evidence 
of  marriage,  and  the  children  of  such  parties  shall  be  regarded 
as  if  borM  in  lawful  wedlock.  When  the  usual  proof  of  mar- 
riage can  be  furnished,  it  will  be  required  as  heretofore.  When 
only  evidence  of  cohabitation  and  mutual  recognition  can  be 
adduced,  as  provided  in  this  section,  the  testimony  of  two  cred- 
ible and  disinterested  witnesses  will  be  required,  who  must 
state  how  long  they  have  been  personally  acquainted  with  the 
parties,  and  for  how  long  a  period  the  latter  are  known  to  have 
recognized  each  other  as  man  and  wife.  If  such  acquaintance 
is  deemed  to  be  of  too  recent  date  to  warrant  the  acceptance 
of  this  testimony,  or  if  there  is  reason  to  doubt,  in  any  instance, 
that  the  marriage  relation  existed  in  good  faith,  more  specific 
instructions  will  be  issued,  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
particular  case. 

Act  of  July  25,  1866. 

Provost  Marshals,  Enrolling  (Officers,  and  others  Entitled 
to  the  Benefits  of  the  Pension  Laws. — The  first  section  of  the 
Act  of  July  twenty-five,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six,  extend* 


346  PENSIONS. 

the  benefits  conferred  by  the  pension  laws  to  provost  marshals, 
deputy  provost  marshals,  and  enrolling  ofiicers  disabled  in  the 
line  of  their  official  duty  as  such,  and  to  the  widows  or  depend- 
ents of  such  officers  in  like  manner. 

Declarations  will  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  instructions 
issued  under  the  Pension  Act  of  July  fourteen,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  sixty-two,  and  supplementary  Acts.  The  grade  of 
such  officers,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  rates  of  pen- 
sions under  this  section,  is  fixed  as  follows:  Provost  marshals 
will  rank  as  captains;  their  deputies  as  first  lieutenants;  and 
enrolling  officers  as  second  lieutenants. 

Increased  Pensions  to  Widows,  and  Orphan  Children 
Under  Sixteen  Years  of  Age. — The  second  section  of  this  act 
allows  to  those  who  are  or  shall  be  pensioned  as  widows  of  sol- 
diers or  sailors,  two  dollars  per  month  additional  pension  for 
each  child  (under  sixteen  years  of  age)  of  the  deceased  soldier 
or  sailor  by  the  widow  thus  pensioned. 

On  the  death  or  remarriage  of  such  widow,  or  on  the  denial 
of  a  pension  to  her,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  sec- 
tion eleven  of  the  Act  of  June  six,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty- 
six,  the  same  amount  to  which  she  would  otherwise  be  entitled, 
under  this  and  previous  provisions,  is  allowed  to  the  minor 
children.  The  number  and  names  of  the  children,  with  their 
ages,  must  be  proved  by  the  affidavits  of  two  credible  and  dis- 
interested witnesses.  The  provisions  of  this  section  only 
include  the  children  of  the  widow,  and  not  those  of  her 
deceased  husband  by  a  previous  marriage.  The  widows  of 
minor  children  of  officers  are  not  entitled  to  this  increase. 
Declarations  for  an  increase  under  this  section,  if  for  the 
widow,  will  be  made  in  accordance  with  form  H,  appended 
hereto;  and  if  for  minor  children,  according  to  form  I.  The 
pension  certificate  must  be  sent  with  all  applications  filed 
subsequently  to  September  four,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty- 
six. 

Increase  of  Pensions  under  Acts  prior  to  July  4,  1862.— 
All  pensioners  under  Acts  approved  prior  to  July  fourteen. 


PENSIONS.  347 

eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-two,  are,  by  the  third  section  of  the 
present  act,  granted  the  same  rights  as  those  pensioned  under 
acts  approved  at  or  since  that  date,  so  far  as  said  Acts  may  be 
applicable,  with  the  exception  of  soldiers  of  the  Revolution  or 
their  widows.  This  section  applies  only  to  pensioners  who 
were  such  at  the  date  of  the  approval  of  this  Act. 

Declaration  of  claimants  under  this  section  will  be  made  in 
accordance  with  the  forms  previously  issued  under  Act  of  July 
fourteen,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-two,  and  subsequent  pen- 
sion acts,  with  the  necessary  modifications,  and  the  pension 
certificates  will  be  returned. 

Invalid  Pensions  of  Claimants  Dying  while  their  Appli- 
cations are  Pending,  the  Evidence  iei/ng  Completed. — The 
fourth  section  of  this  act  is  construed  in  connection  with  the 
tenth  section  of  the  Act  of  July  four,  eighteen  hundred  and 
sixty-four,  and  the  sixth  section  of  the  Act  of  June  six,  eigh- 
teen hundred  and  sixty-six,  to  which  it  is  supplementary.  If 
an  applicant  for  invalid  pension  dies  while  his  claim  is  pend- 
ing, the  evidence  having  been  completed,  the  pension,  under 
the  provisions  of  this  section  and  of  those  sections  of  previous 
acts  above  referred  to,  is  disposed  of  as  follows: 

1.  If  he  left  a  widow,  or  minor  child,  or  children  under 
sixteen  years  of  age,  or  other  dependent  relatives,  and  died  of 
wounds  received  or  of  disease  contracted  in  the  service  or  in 
the  line  of  duty,  no  invalid  pension  certificate  will  issue,  but 
such  widow  or  dependent  relatives  will  receive  a  pension,  in 
their  own  right,  taking  precedence  in  the  order  prescribed  by 
law  in  other  cases. 

2.  If  the  claimant  left  a  widow  or  dependent  relatives,  but 
did  not  die  of  wounds  received,  or  disease  contracted  in  the 
service  and  in  the  line  of  duty,  so  that  neither  widow  nor 
dependent  relatives  would  be  entitled  to  a  pension  on  his 
account,  then  the  certificate  will  be  issued  in  his  name,  and  the 
pension  paid  to  the  widow  or  to  the  dependent  relatives,  as  the 
case  may  be,  in  the  same  order  in  which  they  would  have  been 
pensioned,  if  entitled,  as  set  forth  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 


348  PENSIONS. 

3.  If  the  claimant  left  no  widow  or  dependent  relatives,  the 
certificate  will  issue  in  his  name,  and  the  pension  will  be  drawn 
by  his  executor  or  administrator. 

Certain  Accrued  Rights  Reserved  v/ader  Repealed  Enact- 
ments.— ^The  fifth  section  reserves  all  rights  that  may  have 
accrued  under  the  fifth  section  of  the  pension  Act  of  July  four, 
eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-four,  and  the  third  section  of  the 
pension  Act  of  March  three,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-five, 
though  repealed  by  the  first  section  of  the  Act  of  June  six, 
eighteen  hundred  sixty-six. 

Widows  Remarrying  while  thei/r  Claims  are  Pending^ — 
Are  entitled,  under  the  sixth  section,  if  their  claims  are  other- 
wise valid,  to  receive  pensions  to  the  date  of  remarriage,  if  the 
deceased  ofiicer,  soldier  or  sailor,  on  whose  account  they  claim, 
left  no  legitimate  child  under  sixteen  years  of  age. 

Joseph  H.  Barkett, 
CommissioTier  of  Pensions. 

Pension  Office,  August  4,  1866. 

Act  of  July  27,  1868. 

Section  1. — Dependent  Relatives. — In  this  section  prece- 
dence  is  given  to  the  dependent  relatives  hereinafter  mentioned, 
in  the  following  order,  to  wit:  First,  mothers;  secondly,  fath- 
ers; thirdly,  orphan  brothers  and  sisters  under  sixteen,  who 
shall  be  pensioned  jointly ;  and  the  persons  enumerated  shall 
each  be  entitled  in  their  order,  after  the  death  of  the  one  pre- 
ceding. 

Sect.  2. — Invalids  Disabled  Subsequent  to  Passage  of  this 
Act. — This  section  specifies  as  to  pensions  by  reason  of  disabil- 
ities incurred  subsequent  to  the  passage  of  this  Act,  and  enume- 
rates the  circumstances  under  which  said  disabilities  must  have 
been  contracted. 

Sect.  3. —  Unclaimed  Pensions. — ^This  section  provides  that 
pensions  remaining  unclaimed  for  fourteen  months  after 
the  same  have  become  due,  shall  be  adjusted  at  the  Pen- 
sion Agency  instead  of  at  the  ofl&ce  of  the  Third  Auditor;  and 


PENSIONS.  349 

tK  Jailure  of  any  pensioner  to  claim  his  or  her  pension  for 
thr.je  years,  shall  be  deemed  presumptive  evidence  that  the 
same  has  legally  terminated.  On  a  new  application,  with  evi- 
dence satisfactorily  accounting  for  such  failure,  the  pensioner 
may  be  restored  to  the  rolls. 

Sect.  4 — Increase  of  Pensions  of  Widows  and  of  Chi^ 
dren  hy  a  former  Wife. — This  section  gives  an  increase  of 
two  dollars  per  month  for  each  minor  child  of  a  deceased  sol- 
dier, to  commence  from  the  death  of  their  father,  and  continue 
until  they  severally  attain  the  age  of  sixteen  years;  and  pro- 
vides that  the  children  of  a  former  marriage  shall  be  "  entitled 
to  receive  two  dollars  per  month,  to  commence  from  the  death 
of  their  father,  and  continue  until  they  severally  attain  the  age 
of  sixteen  years,  to  be  paid  to  the  guardian  of  such  child  or 
children  for  their  use  and  benefit;  Provided,  however,  That  in 
all  such  cases  such  widow  is  charged  with  the  care,  custody, 
and  maintenance  of  such  child  or  children,  the  said  sum  of  two 
dollars  per  month  for  each  of  said  children  shall  be  paid  to  her 
for  and  during  the  time  she  is  or  may  have  been  so  charged 
with  the  care,  custody,  and  maintenance  of  such  child  or  chil- 
dren, subject  to  the  same  conditions,  provisions  and  limitations 
as  if  they  were  her  own  children  by  her  said  deceased  husband. 

Sect.  5. —  Widows  and  Minors  not  Debarred,  etc. — By  this 
section  no  widow  or  guardian  to  whom  an  increase  of  pension 
has  been  or  may  hereafter  be  granted  on  account  of  minor  chil- 
dren, shall  be  deprived  thereof  by  reason  of  their  being  main- 
tained or  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  State  or  of  the  public. 

Sect.  6. — Extension  of  Limitation. — This  section  provides 
that  all  pensions  applied  for  within  five  years  after  the  right 
thereto  shall  have  accrued,  and  which  have  been  or  may  be 
granted  under  the  Act  of  July  14,  1862,  or  Acts  supplemen- 
tary thereto,  shall  commence  from  the  discharge  or  death  of  the 
person  on  whose  account  the  pension  has  been  or  shall  be 
granted;  and  in  cases  of  insane  persons  and  minors,  who  were 
without  guardians  or  other  proper  legal  representatives  pre- 
vious  to  said  limitation,  applications   may  be  filed  in  their 


350  PENSIONS 

behalf  after  its  expiration.  This  section  applies  solely  to  cases 
in  which  the  title  to  pension  has  accrued  subsequent  to  March 
4,  1861. 

Sect.  7. — Arrears. — In  which  notification  of  title  to  arrears 
of  pension,  under  the  foregoing  section  is  provided  for;  and 
also  that  no  claim  agent  or  other  person  shall  be  entitled  to 
compensation  for  services  in  making  application  for  such 
arrears. 

Sect.  8. —  Widow^s  Pension  to  Children,  etc. — In  which 
the  requirement  of  the  certificate  of  the  court  that  satisfactory 
evidence  has  been  adduced  of  the  abandonment  of  the  care  of 
the  minor  child  or  children  of  a  deceased  soldier  by  his  widow, 
or  of  her  unsuitableness  to  have  custody  of  them  is  dispensed 
with.  The  furnishing  of  satisfactory  evidence  thereof  to  the 
commissioner  shall  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  suspension  of  said 
widow's  pension. 

Sect.  9. — Pending  Claim  may  he  Completed  hy  Heifrs. — 
In  which  if  any  person  entitled  to  a  pension  has  died  since 
March  4,  1861,  his  heirs  or  legal  representatives  shall  be  enti- 
tled to  receive  the  accrued  pension;  provided  no  widow  or 
minor  child  survives  the  applicant. 

Sect.  10. — Remarriage. — This  section  provides  for  pension 
to  the  widow  or  dependent  mother,  from  the  death  of  soldier 
to  the  date  of  claimant's  remarriage,  (provided  no  children 
under  sixteen  survive.) 

Sect.  11. — Extension  of  Time. — This  section  provides  for 
the  continuance  in  force  of  the  Act  of  July  4,  1864,  from  the 
4th  July,  1867,  for  five  years. 

Sect.  12. — Loss  of  an  Eye. — This  section  allows  twenty- 
five  dollars  as  a  pension  for  total  loss  of  sight  from  wounds 
received  or  disease  contracted  in  the  service,  though  the  pen- 
sioner may  have  had  only  one  eye  when  entering  the  service. 

Sect.  13. — Pension  hy  reason  of  Bight  Accrued  since  Rev- 
olution.— ^By  this  section  all  persons  pensioned  by  reason  of 
services  rendered  since  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  prior  to 
March  4,  1861,  are  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  those  pen- 


INDIAN   AFFAIRS.  ggl 

eioned  under  Acts  passed  since  that  time;  and  grants  eight 
dollars  per  month  to  the  widows  of  revolutionary  soldiers  and 
eailors  now  pensioned  at  less  than  that  amount. 

Sect.  14, — Limbs  to  Officers. — By  this  section  captains  in 
the  army  and  lieutenants  in  the  navy,  and  those  of  less  rank, 
who  have  lost  a  leg  or  an  arm  in  such  service,  shall  be  entitled 
to  receive  an  artificial  Jimb  upon  the  same  terms  as  privates  in 
the  army. 

Sect.  16. — Special  Acts. — By  this  section  all  pensions 
granted  by  special  Acts  shall  be  subject  to  be  varied  in  amount, 
according  to  the  provisions  and  limitations  of  the  pension 
laws. 

Sect.  16. — Repealing  Clcmse. — By  this  section  all  Acts  and 
parts  of  Acts  inconsistent  with  the  foregoing  provisions  of 
this  Act  be  and  the  same  are  hereby  repealed. 


CHAPTEE    XXXYI. 
INDIAN  AFFAIRS. 

When  America  was  discovered,  in  1492,  the  whole  continent 
"was  thinly  populated  (except  in  some  few  regions  where  a 
considerable  degree  of  civilization  and  skill  in  agriculture  had 
been  attained,  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru)  by  roving  tribes  of 
natives,  of  unknown  origin.  These  were  called,  by  Europeans, 
Indians,  from  the  erroneous  idea  of  Columbus,  and  the  men 
of  that  age  at  first,  that  there  was  only  one  continent;  and 
that  they  had  reached  the  eastern  shore  of  Asia,  when  America 
was  discovered. 

The  whole  of  the  region  comprising  our  country  was  in  the 
possession  of  a  great  number  of  these  tribes.  Their  number, 
when  permanent  settlements  began  to  be  made,  is  not  knovm, 
but  probably  amounted,  in  aU  the  vast  territory,  to  only  a 


352  INDIAN   AFFAIRS. 

few  million — perhaps  two  or  three.  They  divided  the  country 
between  them,  in  an  indefinite  way,  war  and  hunting  being 
their  chief  occupations.  They  attempted  very  little  cultivation 
of  the  soil.  The  settlements  of  the  Indians  were  as  indefinite 
and  moveable  as  their  boundaries,  and  they  attached  little  value 
to  land.  Territory  was  acquired  from  them  partly  by  force 
and  partly  by  purchase.  These  last  were  usually  made  for  a 
nominal  sum,  and  with  little  comprehension,  on  their  part,  of 
the  importance  and  future  efiects  of  its  alienation. 

As  the  settlements  of  Europeans  extended,  frequent  and  bar- 
barous wars,  greatly  exasperating  the  whites,  arose  as  a  revenge 
for  private  injuries,  or  in  retaliation  of  encroachments  on  their 
hunting  grounds.  As  these  always  ended,  ultimately,  in  favor 
of  tlie  settlers,  and  the  Indians  were  driven  farther  back,  the 
country  was  taken  possession  of  as  the  spoils  of  conquest. 
These  desolating  contests  ,  and  the  easily-acquired  vices  of  the 
whites  constantly  diminished  their  numbers.  They  were  so 
inherently  wild  men  that  the  conquered  remnants  usually 
withered  and  faded  away  under  the  process  of  civilization. 

When,  after  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  the  settlements  came 
to  be  consolidated  and  extensive,  under  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  population,  lands  were  reserved  for  these  remnants ;  treaties 
were  made  with  them,  as  with  independent  nations;  and,  from 
their  improvidence  and  carelessness  as  to  the  economical  pres- 
ervation of  their  resources,  the  indenmities  allowed  them  for 
the  lands  to  which  they  renounced  all  claim  were  paid  to  them 
in  installments,  or  as  annuities,  by  the  government.  This  sys- 
tem has  been  continued  to  the  present  day,  and  has  occasioned 
the  establishment  of  the 

INDIAN   BUKEAU   OF    THE  INTERIOR   DEPARTMENI. 

It  is  presided  over  by  the  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs, 
appointed  in  the  usual  way  by  the  President  and  Senate. 
Numerous  Superintendents  and  agents  are  appointed  to  reside 
near  the  different  locations  assigned  to  the  Indians,  to  conduct 


INDIAN   AEFAIRS.  353 

the  business  under  his  supervision,  and  receive  and  distribute 
the  goods  and  moneys  given  by  treaty  to  each  tribe.  They  give 
bonds  for  faithfulness  in  the  employment  of  funds  destined 
for  the  Indians.  They  are  appointed  for  four  years,  and  report 
and  account  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Except  a  few  who  are  taxed,  the  Indians  are  not  counted 
among  our  population  as  citizens.  They  have,  therefore,  no 
representative  in  Congress,  nor,  except  the  criminal  law  to 
some  extent,  are  they  amenable  to  other  of  our  laws  than  such 
as  the  treaties  have  established.  Their  internal  government  is 
conducted  by  themselves  alone,  neither  governor,  judge,  nor 
courts  being  established,  as  in  other  Territorial  jurisdictions. 

They  are  difficult  to  control,  however,  not  recognizing,  as 
civilized  people  do  (except  a  small  number  who  are  far  on  the 
way  to  civilization),  the  obligations  of  treaties  and  pledges. 
Dishonest  and  self-seeking  men  often  take  advantage  of  their 
ignorance  and  their  love  of  ardent  spirits  and  trinkets,  to  cheat 
and  injure  them.  To  remedy  this  as  far  as  possible,  white 
men  are  not  permitted  to  reside  on  their  reservations  unless  by 
special  license  of  the  government.  Nor  can  they  alienate  their 
lands  to  white  men  not  officials  acting  under  government 
supervision. 

All  pains  are  required  to  be  taken  by  the  government  officers 
to  promote  their  interests,  and  schools  and  missions  are  encour- 
aged among  them,  and  agricultural  implements  are  furnished 
so  far  as  they  can  be  persuaded  to  use  them.  In  short,  it  is 
the  benevolent  and  enlightened  aim  of  the  government  to  act 
as  the  guardians  of  their  true  interests,  to  encourage  mental 
and  moral  culture  among  them,  and  assist  them  toward  the 
acquisition  of  the  arts  and  comforts  of  civilized  life. 

It  will  easily  be  comprehended  that  many  difficulties  oppose 
themselves  to  this  effiDrt  with  a  race  whose  instincts  are  so  wild 
and  fierce,  and  who  adopt  our  vices  so  much  more  readily  than 
our  virtues,  and  are  so  easily  influenced  by  bad  and  designing 
men.     Still,  progress  is  made,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  case  ol 

23 


354  INDIAN   ATFAIES. 

THE   INDIAN   TERKITOKY. 

It  is  situated  south  of  the  37th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and 
"weet  of  the  States  of  Arkansas  and  Missouri.  Texas  bounds 
it  on  the  south.  It  has  71,127  square  miles,  and  is  about  a 
third  larger  than  the  State  of  Illinois.  It  is  very  fertile,  for 
the  most  part,  and  a  beautiful  region.  It  is  inhabited,  in  great 
part,  by  Indians  who  have  been  transferred  from  the  regions 
«ast  of  the  Mississippi,  mostly  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws, 
and  Seminoles.  Some  of  these  were  removed  by  persuasion, 
and  some  by  force,  from  their  former  homes,  where  they  were 
disturbed  by  proximity  to  the  rapidly  increasing  white 
population. 

Each  tribe  has  its  own  section  of  the  Territory.  Here  they 
practice  their  own  customs  unmolested,  and  conduct  their  own 
government.  Many  of  them,  especially  the  Cherokees,  are 
intelligent  and  industrious.  They  have  churches  and  schools 
and  factories,  highly-cultivated  farms  and  good  buildings. 
Improvement  is  so  marked  among  them  that  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  they  may  at  some  future  time  become  a  State  in  our 
Union.  At  present  they  are  amenable  to  the  Circuit  and 
District  Courts  of  tlie  adjoining  States  when  certain  crimes  are 
committed  by  them  against  the  whites  in  those  States,  but 
our  courts  have  no  authority  over  their  relations  to  one  another. 

The  population  of  the  Territory  is  70,000.  The  entire 
Indian  population  of  the  country  is  over  300,000.  They  are 
scattered  over  the  States  and  Territories  between  the  Missouri 
river  and  the  Pacific  coast,  and  those  outside  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory are  often  at  war  with  each  other  and  with  our  citizens, 
requiring  many  troops  and  a  large  expense  to  keep  them  in 
subjection.  It  is  probable  that,  as  a  race,  they  will  soon  become 
extinct,  except,  perhaps,  those  in  the  Indian  Territory.  They 
are  uneasy,  and  dangerous  neighbors  to  the  whites  in  those 
sparsely-settled  regions.  The  amount  appropriated  to  the 
Indians  by  Congress  for  the  year  1873-4,  was  $5,513,937,  which 
was  exclusive  of  their  annuities,  or  funds  invested  for  them, 
of  which  they  receive  the  annual  interest. 


CHAPTEK    XXXYII. 
CENSUS  BUREAU. 

1.  A  census  is  an  enumeratipn,  or  counting,  of  the  inhat 
itants  of  any  country.  History  informs  us  that  this  was  done 
in  very  ancient  times.  Onfi  of  the  books  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (JSTumbers)  was  named  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
contains  an  account  of  the  numbering  of  the  Israelites,  by 
the  order  of  Moses.  That  numbering  was  a  census  of  the  peo- 
ple composing  the  Jewish  nation.  It  not  only  gives  us  the 
total  number  of  the  people,  but  that  of  each  tribe;  much  after 
our  own  mode  of  doing  the  same  thing.  We  take  ours  by 
States,  and  we  find  the  total  of  the  whole  nation.  In  ancient 
times  a  census  seems  to  have  been  taken  more  for  military 
than  for  any  other  purpose.  This  is  one  of  the  objects  in  the 
present  day;  but  in  modem  times  many  uses  are  made  of  a 
census.  It  not  only  shows  the  military  power  of  a  nation,  but 
when  taken  with  the  distinction  of  sex,  and  age,  with  an 
account  of  the  births,  marriages,  and  deaths  during  each  year, 
it  throws  much  light  upon  a  variety  of  interesting  topics ;  such 
as  the  longevity,  the  rate  of  mortality,  the  ratio  of  increase, 
and  the  average  duration  of  human  life.  These,  and  many 
other  important  facts  are  obtained  by  a  census. 

2.  In  the  United  States  the  census  is  the  only  means  by 
which  Congress  determines  the  number  of  Representatives 
each  State  is  entitled  to  have  in  that  body.  Hence  the  Con- 
stitution itself  makes  provision  for  the  enumeration  of  the 
people  once  in  ten  years — called  a  decade.  The  first  was  made 
in  1790,  the  next  in  1800,  and  so  on  every  tenth  year.  If  tlie 
number  of  any  year  ends  with  a  cipher,  we  know  that  the 
United  States  census  was  taken,  or  will  be  taken,  in  that  year, 
whether  we  look  backward  or  forward. 

3.  Up  to  the  present  time,  according  to  the  provisions  made 


356  CENSUS    BUEEAU. 

in  the  Constitution,  a  census  has  been  taken  nine  times,  and 
under  the  head  of  recapitulation  (see  index)  we  find  what  it 
was  each  time.  "We  also  find  that  from  the  first  (1790),  to  the 
last  (1870),  the  population  had  increased  from  3,929,827,  to 
38,558,371.  Therefore  it  approximates  very  nearly  to  40,000,- 
000;  indicating  a  growth  unparalleled  by  any  nation  in  ancient 
or  modern  times. 

We  will  next  state  how  this' great  national  work  is  performed. 
The  Constitution  simply  declares  that  it  shall  be  done,  but  the 
laws  specify  how  it  shall  be  done,  and  who  shall  do  it. 

The  United  States  Marshals  are  the  ofiicers  designated  by  the 
law  as  the  persons  who  sliall  make  the  enumeration  of  the  peo- 
ple in  each  State  and  Territory;  in  addition  to  which  they  are 
also  required  to  procure  other  statistical  matter,  as  directed  by 
Congress. 

4.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  work,  it  is  necessary  to 
employ  a  number  of  assistant  marshals,  one  of  whom  must 
visit  every  house  in  his  district,  and  ascertain  the  number  ot 
persons  belonging  to  it,  together  with  such  statistical  informa- 
tion as  is  required.  This  is  all  returned  to  the  Marshal,  and 
by  him  sent  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior  at  Washington, 
where,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  it 
is  made  into  a  report,  and  then  laid  before  Congress,  to  be  used 
by  it  in  apportioning  to  the  States  their  quota  of  Representa- 
tives. This  apportionment  is  actually  made  in  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  and  then  laid  before  Congress  for  its  examina- 
tion and  approval.  The  Marshal  appoints  and  commissions 
his  deputies,  who  must  be  sworn  to  perform  the  duties  assigned 
to  them,  to  the  best  of  their  ability. 

5.  In  the  department  of  the  Interior  there  is  a  board  whose 
duty  it  is  to  superintend  the  work  of  taking  the  census.  It 
prepares,  prints,  and  sends  to  every  Marshal  the  blanks  to  be 
used  by  him  and  his  assistants;  and  when  they  have  made 
returns  of  their  work,  the  board  arranges  them  preparatory  to 
laying  them  before  Congress.  After  this  they  are  published, 
and  make  a  valuable  work  of  reference;   for  they  contain  a 


CENSUS   BUKEAU.  357 

vast  amount  of  statistical  information — such  as  the  number 
of  acres  of  land  under  cultivation,  the  number  of  bushels  of 
grain  of  every  kind  produced  in  the  year;  the  number  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  &c.,  raised;  the  number  of  manu- 
facturing establishments,  and  the  amount  of  their  productions; 
the  number  of  churches,  schools,  colleges,  &c.;  the  number  of 
deaf,  blind,  idiotic,  and  insane  persons;'  together  with  much 
other  matter,  quite  too  voluminous  for  insertion  here. 

6.  All  this  is  done  by  order  of  Congress,  and  of  course 
paid  for  from  the  United  States  Treasury. 

Elsewhere  in  this  book  (see  index)  we  give  a  tabular  state- 
ment of  the  population  of  each  State  and  Territory,  at  each 
time  the  census  has  been  taken  by  the  United  States.  It  shows 
the  increase  at  each  decade  from  1790,  the  first  time  it  was 
taken,  to  1870 — the  last  at  this  date.  This  table  also  shows 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  States,  from  the  original  13  to 
the  present  38,  besides  the  Territories,  which  alone  are  larger 
than  the  original  13  States,  and  nearly  as  numerous. 


CHAPTER    XXXYIII. 

THE  DEPAETMENT  OF  AGEICULTURE 

"Was  establislied  by  an  act  of  Congress,  May,  1862.  It  is 
not,  like  the  other  Departments  of  the  Executive  Branch  of 
the  government,  superintended  by  a  Secretary  with  a  seat  in 
the  President's  Cabinet.  Its  Head  is  called  The  Commissoner 
of  Agriculture,  and  he  is  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  like  other  civil  offi- 
cers. The  creation  of  this  office  is  a  recognition  of  the  extreme 
importance  of  this  industry  to  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of 
the  nation.  Our  country  is  eminently  an  agricultural  one;  and 
the  interests  confided  to  this  department  are  those  of  a  class 
■of  the  people  more  numerous  than  any  other,   and  on  the^ 


358  THE   DEPABTMENT  OF  AQBICULTUEE. 

success  of  whose  labors  depends  the  well  being  of  all.  In 
proportion  as  this  industry  attains  a  high  state  of  development, 
and  is  generally  prosperous,  do  the  professional,  mercantile, 
and  manufacturing  classes  increase  in  wealth.  It  is  the  found- 
ation on  which  they  build. 

The  great  fertility  of  our  country,  and  the  breadth  of  area 
adapted  to  all  the  most  useful  products  of  the  world,  and  the 
need  of  instruction,  suggestion,  and  aid  in  properly  adapting 
agricultural  products  to  the  soil  and  climate,  by  the  large 
number  of  settlers  in  regions  with  whose  peculiarities  they  are 
but  partially  familiar,  give  a  special  interest  and  value  to  this 
new  Department. 

Its  duty  is  to  watch  over  this  large  field  and  make  such 
suggestions  to  Congress  in  regard  to  legislation  as  shall  seem 
called  for;  to  disseminate  such  practical  information  among 
the  people  as  it  may  be  able  to  acquire  by  intelligent  observa- 
tion in  this  and  other  countries ;  and  the  testing  and  dissemina- 
tion of  rare  and  untried  plants  of  other  countries  that  promise 
to  increase  our  agricultural  resources. 

For  experiments  in  the  latter  case,  a  propagating  garden 
and  grounds  are  provided,  and  the  most  skillful  and  intelligent 
officers,  bringing  all  the  lights  of  science  to  their  assistance, 
devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  these  plants,  as  to  the  soil 
and  climate  best  adapted  to  them,  the  proper  modes  of  culti- 
vation, and  to  acclimating  them  to  our  country.  This  branch 
of  the  department  sends,  to  suitable  sections  of  the  country, 
such  plants  and  seeds  as  it  has  reason  to  believe  it  will  be 
profitable  to  introduce  and  cultivate.  This  usage,  continued 
for  many  years,  will,  no  doubt,  contribute  very  greatly  to  the 
variety  of  useful  products  which  add  to  our  comfort  and 
wealth. 

The  department  keeps  skillful  chemists  and  naturalists  con- 
stantly employed  to  gather  information  of  various  kinds,  that 
may  be  useful  to  agriculturists.  The  character  of  soils,  the 
influences  of  climate,  the  best  system  of  farming,  the  diseases 
of   domestic  animals,   and   plants   and    their  cure,  the  best 


THE   DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE.  359 

mode  of  preserving  crops  from  the  -  ravages  of  insects,  and 
many  others  are  the  subjects  of  careful  investigation,  and  the 
information  thus  gained  is  freely  communicated  to  the  country 
at  large. 

There  is  a  statistical  division,  in  which  facts  are  gathered 
from  the  whole  country  and  published 'monthly.  This  serves 
many  useful  purposes.  It  also  collects  data,  for  purposes  of 
comparison  and  instruction,  from  foreign  countries.  Whatever 
facts  it  may  be  most  useful  for  farmers  to  know,  whatever  crops 
^t  may  be  most  profitable  for  them  to  produce,  and  whatever 
improvements  in  the  modes  of  agriculture  and  in  agricultural 
implements  are  discovered  to  be  possible  are  communicated 
to  all  without  cost. 

Agricultural  education  receives  much  attention  from  the 
department,  and  all  the  facts  and  influences  that  can  aid  in 
making  farmers  thoroughly  intelligent  in  their  own  pursuit, 
are  p-athered  and  employed  with  efiect.  Agriculture  cannot 
but  improve  immeasureably  under  this  fostering  care,  and  this 
Department  is  likely  to  become  one  of  the  most  important  and 
useful  in  the  government.  It  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  has 
already  accomplished  much  good. 

The  commissioner  reports  annually  to  Congress.  He  has 
power  to  appoint  such  officers  as  Congress  considers  necessary. 
In  1868  a  fine  building  for  this  department  was  completed  at  a 
cost  of  $140,000.  In  contains  a  chemical  laboratory  with  all 
the  necessary  apparatus  and  materials,  and  a  museum,  or  col- 
lection of  specimens,  of  value  in  the  study  of  agriculture, 
store-rooms  for  seeds  to  be  sent  throughout  the  country,  &c. 
The  beauty  of  the  building  and  grounds  adds  a  very  attractive 
feature  to  the  National  Capital,  and  the  Institution  itself  is  a 
favorable  comment  on  the  wise  and  provident  care  bestowed 
by  the  government  on  the  leading  interest  of  the  people. 


CHAPTEE    XXXIX. 

POST  OFFICE  DEPAKTMENT  AND  POST   MASTER 
GENERAL. 

This  department  of  the  government,  whose  head,  the  Post 

»    Mastei-  General,  is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  exists  bj  virtue 

of  Section  8,  Article  1st  of  the  Constitution,  where  are  these 

words:     "Congress  shall  have  the  power  to  establish  post 

offices  and  post  roads." 

From  small  beginnings,  in  earlj  colonial  times,  and  contin- 
ued through  the  Revolutionary  War,  it  has  grown  to  be  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  important  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  security,  speed,  and  cheapness  of  intercourse 
between  all  parts  of  the  country  and  with  foreign  lands,  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  business  and  commerce;  it  encourges 
social  intercourse  and  intimate  relations  among  the  people,  and 
is  of  no  small  consequence  in  developing  their  intelligence  and 
promoting  their  improvement. 

By  successive  laws  of  Congress  it  has  been  perfected  to  its 
present  state  of  excellence.  The  duties  connected  with  it  are 
performed  by  many  thousands  of  persons  in  every  part  of  the 
countiy.  They  are  of  average  intelligence  and  education,  and 
must  be  trained  to  their  work  almost  without  personal  instruc- 
tion or  supervision,  yet  so  complete  is  the  organization,  and  so 
pervading  the  influence  of  the  central  power,  the  regulations 
80  simple,  clear,  and  precise,  that  mistakes  are  extremely  rare, 
considering  the  great  number  of  transactions,  and  instances 
of  misconduct  in  office  are  probably  less  frequent  than  in  any 
other  branch  of  the  public  service,  though  employing  persons 
well  trained  and  iinder  close  surveillance. 

'llie  Post  Master  General  is  appointed  by  the  President  and 
the  Senate  for  four  years.  His  office  is  in  the  General  Post 
Office  at  Washington.     He  has  three  assistants,  appointed  in 


POST   OFFICE   DEPARTMENT.  361 

the  same  manner  as  himself.  He  has  a  seal  of  his  office,  an 
impression  from  which  must  be  affixed  to  the  commission  of 
every  postmaster  in  the  United  States;  and  also  to  all  copies 
of  papers  and  documents  that  may  be  wanted  from  his  office. 
This  only  can  give  them  official  value  of  the  same  importance 
as  the  original  papers.  He  must  give  bonds  as  security  for 
faithfulness  in  office,  and  take  the  usual  official  oath. 

He  has  the  entire  direction  and  management  of  the  Depart- 
ment, and  the  appointment  of  all  local  postmasters  (in  law 
considered  as  his  deputies),  whose  salary  is  less  than  $1,000 
per  annum.  All  others  are  appointed  by  the  President  and 
Senate. 

That  its  business  may  be  more  conveniently  arranged  and 
prepared  for  his  final  action,  it  is  distributed  among  several 
bureaus,  or  minor  departments  as  follows: 

THE   APPOINTMENT    OFFICE 

Includes  the  divisions  of  appointments;  bonds  given  by 
postmasters,  agents,  and  clerks ;  salaries  and  allowances,  where 
they  are  not  provided  for  by  law;'  free  delivery  in  cities;  and 
the  agency  of  blanks  used  in  the  extensive  business  and  reports 
of  the  department.  This  office  is  in  charge  of  the  First 
Assistant  Post  Master  General. 

THE   CONTRACT   OFFICE. 

This  includes  the  divisions  of  contracts  for  carrying  the 
mails,  by  persons  or  companies;  the  inspection  of  the  entire 
process  of  carrying  the  mails,  to  secure  their  safe,  regular,  and 
prompt  delivery;  mail  equipment,  or  the  supply  of  all  the 
material  and  conveniences  for  transportation  of  the  mail,  fur- 
nished by  the  department;  special  agents,  and  mail  depreda- 
tions, which  has  the  care  of  all  violations  of  law  and  the  con- 
duct and  accounts  of  all  agents  employed  for  the  suppression 
and  prevention  of  abuses;  and  the  Topographical,  which  has 
charge  of  maps  and  diagrams  of  mail  routes,  and  geographical 
information,  required  for  the  various  branches  of  the  service. 
It  is  in  charge  of  the  Second  Assistant  Post  Master  General. 


362  ^OSI  OFFICE   DEPAKTMENT. 

THE    FINANCE   OFFICE. 

This  is  separated  into  the  divisions  of  Finance,  which  ha» 
charge  of  the  entire  cash  receipts,  transfers,  and  disbursements 
of  the  department;  of  postage  stamps  and  stamped  envelopes, 
newspaper  wrappers,  and  postal  cards;  registered  letters  and 
seals;  and  the  examination  of  Dead  Letters  and  their  return 
to  the  writers.  Dead  letters  are  those  not  taken  out  of  the 
office  to  which  they  were  sent.  After  being  advertised  three 
weeks  in  some  newspaper  near  the  office  where  they  were  sent, 
they  are  returned  to  the  General  Post  Office,  where  they  are 
examined;  and  if  they  contain  money  or  valuable  papers  they 
are  returned  to  the  writers  and  an  account  of  them  kept  at  the 
General  Post  Office.  The  sums,  so  lost  and  taken  care  of, 
amount  annually  to  tens  of  thousands  of  dollars.  The  Third 
Assistant  Post  Master  General  has  charge  of  it. 

THE    MONEY    ORDER    OFFICE. 

The  Money  Orders  System  furnishes  very  convenient  and 
safe  banking  facilities  for  the  transfer  of  money  in  small  sums. 
It  diminishes  as  much  as  possible  the  exposure  of  money  to 
loss  by  theft  or  otherwise,  through  the  plan  of  depositing  in 
one  office,  and  sending  a  certificate  of  such  deposit  which  i& 
good  for  the  money  at  another  office.  Immense  sums  are  so 
exchanged  and  business  facilitated  without  any  actual  passage 
of  the  money  from  one  point  to  the  other.  When  it  is  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  balances  it  is  done  by,  and  at  the  risk  of> 
the  department. 

No  more  than  fifty  dollars  can  be  sent  in  one  order,  nor  more 
than  three  orders  to  the  same  person  in  one  day.  The  number 
of  these  offices  is  more  than  1,400. 

The  rates  of  commission  on  money  orders  are, 
On  orders  not  exceeding  $15 10  cents. 

«     $15,    "     "        "  $30 15  cents. 

«    $30,    "     "        "  $40 20  cents. 

•'    $40,    "     "        "  $50 25  cents. 

No  fractions  of  cents  allowed  in  orders. 


POST   OFFICE   DEPAKTMENT.  363 

When  a  money  order  has  been  lost  or  destroyed,  a  duplicate 
can  be  got,  by  the  person  who  bought  the  order  or  by  the  per- 
son it  was  bought  for,  by  applying  either  at  the  office  where  the 
order  was  bought  or  at  the  office  where  it  should  be  paid.  The 
Money  Order  Department  is  in  charge  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Money  Order  System. 

An  international  money  order  system,  between  the  United 
States  and  Switzerland,  went  into  operation  September  Ist,. 
1869,  whereby  the  exchange  of  Postal  orders  between  the  two 
countries  is  effected  through  the  agency  of  two  Post  Offices 
termed  International  Exchange  Offices.  The  Office  of  New 
York  City  being  set  apart  for  the  United  States,  and  that  of 
Basle,  in  Switzerland,  for  that  country.  The  amount  drawn 
for  cannot  exceed  tifty  dollars  in  one  order,  three  orders  only 
can  be  obtained  by  the  same  person  in  one  day.  The  system 
works  satisfactorily,  and  will  no  doubt  be  extended  to  Great 
Britain,  and  perhaps  other  European  Nations  at  an  early  day. 

THE   OFFICE   OF   FOBEIGN   MAILS. 

It  has  the  care  of  all  foreign  postal  arrangements  and  the 
Bupervision  of  the  ocean  mail  service.  It  is  presided  over  by 
a  Superintendent. 

THE  ATJDITOE   OF   THE   TREASURY   FOR   THE   POST   OFFICE 
DEPARTMENT. 

This  is  a  bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department,  which,  for 
convenience,  is  located  in  the  General  Post  Office.  To  this 
officer  is  assigned  the  duty  of  auditing  the  accounts  of  the  Post 
Office  Department,  all  communications  relating  to  the  accounts 
of  postmasters,  mail  contractors,  and  other  agents  of  the 
Department,  are  addressed  to  this  officer. 

The  head  of  so  large  and  important  a  department  of  the 
public  service  is  properly  a  chief  officer  of  the  government  and 
has  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 


364 


POST    OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


NUMBER   OF    POST   OFFICES   AND   MILES    OF   POST  ROADS  IN   THE  U.  S 

In  1790  there  were  but  75  post  offices,  and  1,875  ra.  of  post-roads. 


1800 

903    ' 

20,817 

(( 

1810 

2,300 

'      36,400 

(( 

1820 

4,500    ' 

'      72,492 

(( 

1830 

8,450 

*     115,176 

u 

1840 

13,463 

'      155,739 

u 

1850 

18,417   * 

'      178,672 

a 

1860 

28,498    ' 

'      240,594 

u 

1870 

28,492    ' 

231,232 

« 

POSTMAOTERS   GENERAL. 


Samuel  Osgood,  Mass.,  Sept.  26,  1789. 
Timothy  Pickering,  Mass.,  Aug.  12,  179L 
Joseph  Habersham,  Ga.,  Feb.  25,  1795. 
Gideon  Granger,  Ct.,  Nov.  28,  1801. 
Keturn  J.  Meigs,  O.,  March  17,  1814. 
John  McLean,  O.,  June  25,  1823. 
William  T.  Barry,  Ky.,  March  9,  1829. 
Amos  Kendall,  Ky.,  March  1,  1835. 
John  M.  mies,  Ot.,  May  18,  1840. 
Francis  Granger,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1841. 
Charles  A.  Wickliff,  Ky.,  Sept.  13,  1841. 
Cave  Johnson,  Tenn.,  March  5,  1845. 
Jacob  Collamer,  Vt.,  March  7,  1849. 
Nathan  K.  Hall,  N.  Y.,  July  20,  1850. 
S.  D.  Hubbard,  Ct.,  Aug.  31,  1852. 
James  Campbell,  Pa.,  March  5,  1853. 
Aaron  Y.  Brown,  Tenn.,  March  6,  1857. 
Joseph  Holt,  Ky.,  March  14,  1859. 
Horatio  King,  Jan.  1,  1861. 
Montgomery  Blair,  Md.,  March  7,  1861. 
William  Dennison,  O.,  Oct.  1,  1864. 
Alexander  W.  Randall,  Wis.,  July  15,  1866. 
J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Md.,  March  5,  1869. 
Marshall  Jewell,  July,  1874. 
Jas.  K  Tyner,  Tnd.,  1876. 
D.  M.  Key,  Tenn.,  1877. 


CHAPTEE     XL. 
RATES    OF    POSTAGE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

On  each  letter  weighing  not  more  than  one-half  ounce  three 
cents,  and  for  each  additional  half-ounce  or  fraction  thereof, 
three  cents. 

All  packages  containing  matter  not  in  itself  chargeable  with 
letter  postage,  but  in  which  is  enclosed  or  concealed  any  letter, 
memorandum,  or  other  thing  chargeable  with  letter  postage,  or 
upon  which  is  any  writing  or  memorandum ;  and  manuscripts 
for  publication  in  newspapers,  magazines,  or  periodicals  — 
three  cents  for  each  half-ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Weight  of 
packages  limited  to  four  pounds. 

On  local  or  drop  letters,  at  offices  where  free  delivery  by  car- 
riers is  established,  two  cents  for  each  half  ounce  or  fraction 
thereof;  and  where  free  delivery  has  not  been  established,  one 
cent  for  each  half  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

On  seeds,  cuttings,  bulbs,  roots  and  scions,  one  cent  for  each 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Weight  of  packages  limited  to 
fonr  pounds. 

On  pamphlets  apd  occasional  publications,  all  transient 
printed  matter,  unsealed  circulars,  book  manuscripts,  proof 
sheets,  corrected  proof  sheets,  maps,  prints,  engravings,  etc., 
one  cent  for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof.  Weight  of 
packages  limited  to  four  pounds. 

On  samples  of  ores,  metals,  minerals,  and  merchandise,  one 
cent  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Weight  of  packages 
limited  to  four  pounds. 

On  books,  one  cent  for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 
Weight  of  packages  limited  to  four  pounds. 

(365) 


366  BATES   OF   POSTAlSE   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

All  domestic  matter,  including  newspapers,  magazines  and 
periodicals  sent  to  actual  subscribers  from  a  known  office  of 
publication,  must  be  prepaid  by  postage  stamps  affixed  thereto. 

Newspapers  issued  weekly,  or  oftener,  and  sent  from  pub- 
lishers or  news  agents,  to  subscribers  or  dealers,  two  cents  per 
pound;  and  if  not  issued  as  often  as  weekly,  three  cents  per 
pound. 

Papers  sent  miscellaneously,  and  not  regularly,  postage  the 
same  as  qu  books. 

The  franking  privilege  has  been  restored  to  the  following 
extent,  viz.: 

MAIL   MATTERS   THAT   MAT   BE   SENT   FEEE. 

1.  All  public  documents  printed  by  order  of  Congress. 

2.  Seeds  transmitted  by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture, 
or  by  any  member  of  Congress,  procured  from  that  depart- 
ment. 

3.  Letters  and  packages  relating  exclusively  to  tne  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  mailed  only  from  an  Executive 
Department,  or  a  bureau  or  office  of  the  same,  in  specially 
printed  envelopes. 

4.  The  President  and  Yice-President  of  the  United  States 
and  members  of  Congress  may  frank  written  and  printed 
communications,  not  exceeding  two  ounces  in  weight. 

5.  All  newspapers  sent  to  subscribers  within  the  county 
where  printed. 


KATES  OF   FOKBIGN    POSTAGE. 


3or 


Prepayment  optional  in  case  of  country  marked  with  a  star,  embraced  in  the  Postal  Union  Treaty  of  1874. 
When  not  prepaid,  double  rates  are  collected. 


Destination, 


\fHca,  British  Possessions  on 

W.  Coast,  by  British  Mail ... 

Africa,  Spanish  Possessions  on 

Northern  Coast 

.\rgentine  Confederation... 

A.astralia,  except  New  South 

Wales  and  Queensland,  U.  S 

Mail 

Austria 

Azores.  

Balearic  Isles 

Belgium 

Bermuda 

Bolivia,  British  Mail,  via 
Aspinwall 

Brazil,  British  Mail 

British  Columbia 

Buenos  Ayres. 

Burmah,  German  Mail 

'•        British  Mail,  via  Brin 
disi 

•Canada 

Canary  Islands 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

■Carthagena,  New  Grenada 

Ceylon,  British  Mail,  via  South- 
ampton   

Chili,  British  Mail 

China,  via  San  Francisco 

Gosta  Kica,  dire.ct  Mail,  via 
Aspinwall 

■Cuba,  direct  Mail 

■Curacoa.  British  Mail,  via  St. 
Thomas 

Denmark 

E.  Indies,  via  Southampton... 

Ecuador 

Jlgypt 

England 

Faroe  Islands 

Fiji  Islands,  direct,  via  San 
Francisco 

Finland 

France 

French  Colonies 

Gambia,  British  Mail 

Germany 

Gibraltar,  British  Mail 

Gold  Coast,  British  Mail 

Grand  Duchy  of  Finland 

Great  Britain... 

Greece 

Greenland 

Greytown,  British  Mail 

Guadaloupo,    "         " 

Guatemala,  direct  Mail 

Guiana,  British,  French  and 
Dutch 

Havana 

Hawaiian  Kingdom,  direct  Mail 

Hayti,  by  direct  steamer 

Hong  Kong,  Canton,  Swatow. 
Amoy  and  Foo  Chow,  via  Sau 
Francisco 

Iceland 

India,  British  Mail 

Ireland 

Italy 


Let- 
ters. 


Cts. 
15 


5 
*5 
*5 
*5 
•5 

5 

17 

*10 

3 

27 

17 

*10 

3 

*5 

15 

13 

m 

17 
10 

5 
5 

13 

♦5 
27 
20 
♦5 
*5 
*5 

5 

5 

*5 

*10 

*10 

*5 


News- 
papers 


Destination. 


Cts. 
4 


Jamaica 

Japan,  dir.,  via  San  SYancisco 
Java,  British  Mail,  via  South- 

j    ampton 

Liberia,  British  Mail, i^ia  South 

[    ampton 

Luxembourg 

Madeira 

Malta 

Martinique,  British  Mail,  -via 

St.  Thomas 

Mexico,  by  sea 

"        overland 

Morocco,  British  Mail 

"         Western  Coast — 

Spanish  Postal  Stations.. 

Nassau,  N.  P 

Netherlands 

iNew  Brunswick 

New  Foundland-. 

New  Grenada,  direct  Mail.. 
New  South  Wales,  direct  Mail 
New  Zealand,  direct  Mail .. 

Nicaragua,  direct 

Norway 

Nova  Scotia 

Panama,  direct  Mail 

Paraguay,  U.  S.  Packet 

Peru,  British  Mail 

Poland 

Porto  Rico,  British  Mail,  via 

St.  Thomas 

Portugal 

Prince  Edward  Island 

Queensland 

Itoumania 

Russia 

Salvador,  direct  Mail 

Sandwich  Islands,  direct  Mail, 

via  San  Francisco 

Scotland 

Servia -. 

Shanghai 

Siam,  dir.  from  Sau  Francisco 
Sierra  Leone,  British  Mail,  via 

Southampton 

Spain .■ 

St.  Domingo,  direct  Steamer.. 

St.  Helena,  British  Mall 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tangiers,  via  Spain 

Tripoli,  Italian  Mail 

Tunis,  Italian  Mail 

Turkey 

Turk's  Island,  British  Mail 

Uruguay 

Van  Diemen's  Land 

Venezuela,    British    Mail,    via 

St.  Thomas 

Victoria 

West  Indies,  British  Mail,  via 

St.  Thomas 

West  Indies,  direct  Mail 

"  '•        French  Colonies, 

via  France 

Zanzibar,    British    Mail,    via\ 

Southampton 


Let-  News- 
ters.  papers 


Cts. 

*5 

*10 


*10 


*5 


*10 


♦10 


Cts. 
2 
4 


368  REGISTERED    AUD   DEAD   LETTERS. 


CHAPTEE    XLI. 
KEGISTEKED  AND  DEAD  LETTERS. 


REGISTERED   LETTERS. 


"Within  the  last  few  years  the  Registered  Letter  Department 
has  grown  to  enormous  proportions.  In  former  times  the 
registering  of  a  letter  was  only  a  notice  to  those  handling 
it  that  it  was  valuable,  the  process  being  to  simply  paste  a  Reg- 
istered Letter  Bill  to  the  letter  and  place  it  among  the  ordinary 
letters.  If  any  officer  was  dishonest  and  wanted  the  letter,  all 
he  had  to  do  was  to  take  it  and  destroy  the  bill,  and  the  chances 
of  detection  were  very  slight.  The  fee  was  small  and  the 
safety  smaller.  Under  the  new  system  which  has  been  in  ope- 
ration some  few  years,  and  is  copied  from  England,  the  safe 


EEGISTEKED   AND   DEAD    LETTERS.  ,'169 

transmission  and  delivery  of  money  and  valnables  is  almost 
certain.  Only  letters  or  other  mail  matter  on  which  letter 
rates  of  postage  are  fully  prepaid  can  be  registered.  Each 
postmaster  is  furnished  with  all  the  proper  blanks,  including 
tlie  package  envelopes  and  seals.  The  latter  is  a  large  whitish 
brown  envelope,  longer  and  broader  than  an  ordinary  othcial 
size  envelope,  and  "Registered  Letter"  printed  in  large  red 
letters  across  the  face.  The  seal  is  similar  to  a  postage  stamp, 
only  larger,  and  is  placed  over  the  lap  after  the  envelope  is 
sealed,  and  then  cancelled.  When  a  letter  is  presented  for 
registration  at  any  post  office,  the  postmaster  must  require 
that  the  name  and  post  office  address  of  the  writer  thereof  be 
endorsed  on  its  face;  he  must  also  see  that  the  postage,  as  well 
as  the  fee  for  registering,  is  fully  prepaid  by  stamps  affixed  to 
such  letter;  he  will  then  fill  out  a  receipt,  entering  thereon  the 
number  of  the  letter,  the  date  and  name  of  his  office,  the  name 
and  address  of  the  writer,  and  the  address  of  the  letter, 
sign  and  deliver  it  to  the  person  presenting  the  letter.  The 
postmaster  then  makes  out  his  "  registered  letter  bill " 
and  "return  registered  letter  bill"  each  of  which  con- 
tains a  full  description  of  the  letter  consisting  of  address 
and  number.  The  registered  letter  bill  is  then  placed  in 
the  package  envelope  with  the  letter.  The  package  is  then 
sealed  up  and  the  name  of  the  post  office  for  Avliich  it  is  des- 
tined, and  the  number  and  stamp  of  the  mailing  office  are 
plainly  marked  upon  the  package.  It  is  then  ready  for  deliv- 
ery to  the  route  agent  or  postal  clerk  upon  whose  route  it 
properly  belongs,  who  is  required  to  give  a  receipt  for  it,  and 
also  to  keep  a  complete  record  of  it,  as  are  all  officers  of  the 
Department  who  handle  registered  matter  in  transit.  He  must 
also  take  a  receipt  from  the  officer  to  whom  he  next  delivers 
the  package.  Tlie  return  registered  letter  bill  is  sent  in  an 
ordinary  envelope  in  the  regular  mail  to  the  office  of  final 
destination,  which  will,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  no  registered 
letters  are  sent  in  through  mails,  and  only  in  charge  of  postal 
clerks  upon  day  trains,  nearly  always  reach  the  office  in  advanae 
24 


370  REGISTERED   AND   DEAD    LEITERS. 

of  the  registered  letter;  and  the  postmaster,  then  kno^ng 
that  such  letter  is  on  the  way,  is  on  the  lookout  for  it,  and  if  it 
comes  in  due  time  signs  the  receipt  and  returns  it  to  the 
mailing  office.  All  this  is  done  for  a  fee  of  only  ten  cents 
in  addition  to  the  regular  postage. 

If  a  registered  letter  should  not  reach  its  destination  in  a 
reasonable  length  of  time  after  the  receipt  of  the  return  bill, 
the  post  master  will  notify  the  post  master  at  the  mailing  office 
of  the  non-receipt  of  the  letter.  It  then  becomes  the  duty  of 
the  last  mentioned  officer  to  inform  a  special  agent  of  the  fact, 
who  yill  make  out  what  is  called  a  "  tracer,"  wliich  is  a  com- 
plete description  of  the  letter,  with  blank  space  for  each  per- 
son who  handled  the  original  letter  to  state,  from  his  records 
and  receipts,  exactly  what  disposition  he  made  of  it  and  whose 
receipt  he  holds;  he  then  passes  it  along  to  the  next.  Thus  by 
this  complete  chain  of  records  and  receipts,  though  it  may 
reach  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  a  registered  letter  may 
be  readily  traced  to  its  final  destination,  or  until  the  records 
cease.  If  a  break  should  occur  in  the  chain  and  the  loss  be 
fastened  upon  any  post  office  or  mail  agent,  the  case  is  rigidly 
"  investigated  "  by  the  proper  officer,  and  if  it  appears  that 
the  looS  occurs  through  carelessness,  the  loser  is  made  to  pay 
the  value  of  the  lost  letter,  and  receive  a  severe  reprimand, 
and  if  it  should  occur  again  is  very  apt  to  be  dismissed  the 
service.  If  the  special  detective  is  convinced  that  the  missing 
letter  is  stolen,  he  then  takes  a  different  course  and  commences 
his  system  of  "  decoys,"  etc.,  to  catch  the  thief,  and  is  almost 
always  successful,  as  the  man  who  robs  the  mails  always 
becomes  careless,  and  grows  bolder  vrith  each  repetition  of  the 
offense. 

The  amount  and  extent  of  the  registered  letter  business  may 
be  judged  when  it  is  stated  that  during  the  month  of  January, 
1874,  at  the  post  office  in  New  York  over  sixty  thousand  reg. 
istered  letters  were  received,  nearly  thirty  thousand  of  which 
were  for  delivery  in  the  city,  and  the  rest  for  other  places,  New 
York  being  a  distributing  office. 


BEGISTEBED   AND    DEAD    LETTERS.  371 

DEAD   LETTEKS. 

About  all  that  people  know  or  understand  of  the  workings 
of  the  Dead  Letter  bureau  of  the  Post  Office  Department  is 
that  if  a  letter  is  not  delivered  in  due  time  it  is  sent  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Office,  and  there  opened  and  returned  to  the 
writer.  When,  each  year,  they  see  the  report  of  the  Postmaster 
General,  the  amount  of  money  and  number  of  letters  that  are 
returned  to  the  senders  seems  enormous,  but  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  millions  of  letters  and  thousands  of  dollars  are 
carried  and  safely  delivered  correctly  each  year  in  the  United 
States,  the  number  that  fails  of  delivery,  by  contrast,  does  not 
seem  so  great.  During  the  month  of  November,  1873,  nearly 
ten  millions  of  letters  were  received  and  dispatched  in  New 
York  City. 

Every  effort  is  always  made  to  return  money  or  any  arti- 
cles of  value  which  may  be  found  in  dead  letters.  It  is 
required  that  everything  valuable  shall  be  registered  free  when 
returned  to  the  owners;  but  if  for  any  reason  it  cannot  be 
delivered  to  the  rightful  owner,  it  is  held  in  the  Department 
subject  to  the  owners  control  for  four  years,  and  after  that  time 
it  is  conveyed  to  the  Treasury,  and  goes  towards  decreasing  the 
annual  deficit  in  the  Post  Office  Department.  All  letters 
which  are  properly  stamped  and  addressed,  and  go  to  their  des- 
tination, but  are  not  delivered  at  the  end  of  one  week,  by  reason 
of  the  person  addressed  not  being  found,  are  advertised,  either 
by  publishing  once  in  a  daily  or  weekly  paper,  or  by  posting 
the  list  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  office.  At  the  end  of 
four  weeks  all  then  undelivered  are  sent  to  the  dead  letter  office. 
The  matter  of  advertising  in  newspapers  is  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  Postmaster  General,  and  it  is  but  few  of  the  larger 
offices  that  are  allowed  to  do  so.  The  compensation  is  fixed  by 
law  at  one  cent  for  each  letter,  which  is  to  be  paid  by  the  per- 
son receiving  the  letter;  but  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  by  far 
the  larger  portion  of  those  advertised  are  not  delivered,  the 
expense  is  so  great  that  but  few  offices  can  be  allowed  to  adver- 
tise.    All  letters  which  are  dropped   into  an  office  without 


372  ATTORNEY    GENERAL. 

stamps  or  only  part  paid,  or  the  address  is  not  readable,  are 
sent  at  once  to  the  Dead  Letter  ofiBce,  except  in  some  few 
offices  where  a  bulletin  board  is  provided  for  the  purpose  of 
displaying  to  the  public  letters  of  this  character.  When  a 
letter  which  is  wholly  or  in  part  unpaid,  and  upon  which  the 
address  is  legible,  is  found  to  contain  a  valuable  enclosure  a 
printed  circular  is  sent  to  the  party  addressed  requesting  that 
the  requisite  amount  of  postage  be  forwarded  in  stamps  and 
the  letter  will  be  forwarded  to  its  proper  address. 

A  great  many  articles  which  are  of  value  only  to  the  send- 
ers or  the  persons  for  whom  they  are  intended,  such  as  little 
baby  shoes,  stockings,  photographs,  etc.,  etc.,  find  their  way  to 
the  Dead  Letter  office.  Special  effort  is  always  made  to  deliver 
things  of  this  character.  Perhaps  the  little  shoe  or  stocking 
may  have  belonged  to  some  little  one  whose  feet  are  still  for- 
ever, and  is  being  sent  to  a  grandmother  or  some  other  near 
relation  as  a  memento  of  the  little  one  that  is  gone.  Such 
;.rticles  as  this  may  be  of  no  possible  value  to  any  one  but  the 
owners,  but  the  post  office  authorities  make  as  great  an  effort, 
even  greater  to  deliver  this  class  of  articles,  than  they  do 
money  or  jewels.  At  the  present  time  in  the  Dead  Letter 
office  are  great  stores  of  small  articles  of  very  little  or  no 
value  to  any  but  the  owners,  waiting  to  be  called  for. 


CHAPTEE     XLII. 

ATTORNEY  GENERAL. 

It  will  be  readily  perceived  that,  in  a  country  developing  so 
rapidly  as  ours,  producing,  thereby,  an  almost  unbroken  series 
of  new  situations,  requiring  a  cautious  application  of  old 
laws  and  the  constant  enactment  of  new  ones,  and  so,  a  danger 
of  confusion  of  legislative  rules,  that  the  President  and  his 


ATTORNEY    GENERAL.  373. 

Cabinet  would  need  a  legal  adviser  of  eminent  ability,  and  of 
extensive  acquirements  in  legal  affairs,  to  give  instruction  and 
counsel  on  various  lines  of  action  contemplated  by  the  execu- 
tive branch  of  the  government,  and  of  the  lawful  course  to  be 
taken  in  the  numerous  particular  cases  constantly  coming  up 
for  determination.  Besides,  various  suits  require  to  be  insti- 
tuted or  defended  in  the  courts,  by  the  government,  and  some 
officer  is  needed  to  prosecute  or  defend  them  in  its  name  and 
interest. 

To  answer  these  requirements,  the  office  of  Attorney  Gen- 
eral was  "^'^'.  :3d  oy  the  first  Congress  in  1 789.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  CaDinet,  is  nominated  by  the  President,  and  confirmed 
by  the  Senate,  and  is  removable  at  the  pleas ui-e  of  the  Presi- 
dent. He  has  an  assistant  and  various  clerks  to  aid  him  in  the 
discharge  of  his  responsible  duties. 

By  an  act  passed  in  1861  he  is  made  Superintendent  of  all 
the  Attorneys  and  Marshals  in  all  the  Judicial  Districts  of  the 
United  States.     His  office  is  at  the  seat  of  Government 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  Attorneys  General: 

ATTORNEYS   GENERAL. 

Edmund  Kandolph,  Va.,  Sept.  26,  1789. 
William  Bradford,  Pa.,  June  27, 1794. 
Charles  Lee,  Ya.,  Dec.  10,  1795. 
T.  Parsons,  Mass.,  Feb.  20,  1800. 
Levi  Lincoln,  Mass.,  March  5,  1801. 
Kobert  Smith,  Md.,  March  2,  1805. 
John  Breckinridge,  Ky.,  Dec.  1806. 
Caisar  A.  Eodney,  Del.,  Jan.  20,  1807. 
William  Pinckney,  Md.,  Dec.  11,  1811. 
Richard  Rush,  Pa.,  Feb.  10,  1814. ' 
William  Wirt,  Md.,  Dec.  16,  1817. 
John  McPherson  Berrien,  Ga.,  Mar.  9,  1829. 
Roger  B.  Taney,  Md.,  July  20,  1831. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  15,  1833. 
Felix  Grundy,  Tenn.,  July  7,  1838. 


374  PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTOKS. 

Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Pa.,  Jan.  11,  1840. 
John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky,,  Mar,  5,  1841. 
Hugh  S.  Legare,  S.  C,  Sept.  13,  1841. 
John  Nelson,  Md.,  July  1, 1843. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Ya.,  Mar.  5,  1845. 
Kathan  Clifford,  Me.,  Oct.  16,  1846. 
Isaac  Toucey,  Ct.,  Jan.  21,  1848. 
Eeverdy  Johnson,  Md.,  Mar.  7,  1849. 
John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky.,  July  20,  1850. 
Caleb  Cushing,  Mass.,  Mar.  5,  1853. 
Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Pa.,  Mar.  6,  1857. 
Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pa.,  Dec.  14,  1860. 
Edward  Bates,  Mo.,  Mar.  5,  1861. 
James  Speed,  Ky.,  Dec.  1864. 
Henry  Stanberry,  O.,  July,  1866. 
William  M.  Evarts,  I^.  Y.,  1868. 
Eben  R  Hoar,  March  5,  1869. 
Amos  T.  Akerman,  Ga.,  July  8,  1870. 
George  H.  Williams,  Oregon,  1871. 
Eklward  Pierrepout,  New  York,  1876. 
Alonzo  Taft,  O.,  1876. 
C.  Devens,  Mass.,  1877. 


CHAPTEE    XLIII.      - 

PEESIDENTIAL  ELECTOES. 

An  Elector,  in  the  sense  of  the  Constitution,  is  one  who 
has  been  appointed  to  choose  or  elect  the  President  of  the 
TJnited  States.  Electors  have  been  chosen  in  various  ways.  At 
first  they  were  often  appointed  by  the  State  Legislatures,  or 
these  passed  a  law  directing  their  election  by  the  people.  Thi& 
has  gradually  disappeared,  and  now  the  people,  by  law  of  Con- 
gress assemble  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November  preceding  the  close  of  a  presidential  term,  and  vote  for 
the  electors.     The  electors  in  each  State  are  called  its  Electoral 


FRESIDENTIAL   ELECTORS.  375 

College.  They  meet  on  the  first  W  ednesday  in  December  fol- 
lowing their  election,  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  a  President  and  Vice-President.  These  cannot  both, 
According  to  the  Constitution,  be  citizens  of  the  same  State. 
They  count,  certify,  and  seal  these  votes  and  send  the  sealed 
package  by  a  messenger,  appointed  for  that  express  purpose,  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States  Senate.  On  the  second 
Wednesday  in  February  following,  the  members  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  assemble  together,  the  pack- 
ages are  opened  and  the  votes  counted  in  their  presence,  and 
the  result  is  officially  proclaimed.  It  is  evident  that  this  is 
now  a  mere  form,  and  the  President  and  Vice-President  are 
virtually  determined  by  the  people  in  November.  It  is  not  in 
harmony  with  the  other  parts  of  our  system  of  government, 
«vhich  aims  at  simplicity  and  practical  usefulness,  and  it  will 
probably  soon  be  dispensed  with.  It  was  originally  designed, 
by  those  who  framed  the  Constitution,  to  act  as  a  check  to 
party  spirit,  and  was  expected  to  serve  a  very  useful  pur- 
pose. They  felt  the  great  importance  attaching  to  the  office 
of  Chief  Magistrate,  on  whom  they  had  conferred  so  much 
power,  and  thought,  by  this  means,  to  raise  his  election  above 
disturbing  influences.  It  was  not  expected  that  the  candidates 
for  those  offices  would  come  in  question,  in  the  popular  elec- 
tions. The  choice  was  designed  to  be  left  with  the  electors, 
with  whom,  being  chosen  by  the  people  for  that  purpose,  it  was 
supposed  they  would  feel  safe  in  leaving  it.  It  was  believed 
that  a  select  body  of  eminent  men  would  act  with  more  pru- 
dence and  wisdom  than  the  people  at  large.  But  the  people 
felt  themselves  competent  to  judge  for  themselves,  and  have, 
like  imperious  sovereigns,  imposed  their  choice  on  the  Electors, 
so  that  that  part  of  our  constitutional  machmery  has  become 
a  dead  letter.  The  people  know  their  own  minds  better,  and 
are  more  resolute  in  imposing  their  will  on  their  representa- 
tives than  was  expected;  and  tlieyhave  favorably  disappointed 
the  best  hopes  of  those  who  believed  most  in  their  discretion. 
So  we  see  that  the  failure  of  the  Electoral  System,  planned 


376  PEESIDENTIAL    ELEOIOKS. 

by  the  Fathers  of  the  Republic,  is  an  lionorable  commentary 
on  the  ability  of  the  people  for  self-government. 

Their  success  in  making  their  own  choice  authoritative  has 
led  them  to  overlook  the  incongi-uity  of  the  system,  so  that 
they  have  never  resolutely  required  it  to  be  abolished.  Per- 
haps the  idea  that  it  might  be  useful  in  some  important  crisis 
of  national  aftairs  has  had  an  influence  to  prevent  interference 
with  it.  As  its  retention  is  attended  with  considerable  expense, 
when  questions  of  Economy  come  to  take  a  leading  place  in 
public  policy  it  is  likely  to  be  laid  aside,  in  form,  as  well  as 
in  fact. 

The  elections  for  President,  Congressmen,  Governors  of  the 
States  and  their  Legislatures,  determining  the  general  policy 
of  the  government,  and  the  class  of  men  who  shall  be  appointed 
to  the  various  minor  offices  under  its  control;  those  who  feel  a 
strong  interest  in  that  policy  from  their  judgment  of  its 
effect  on  the  welfare  of  the  country,  or  their  desire  to  promote 
special  measures;  and  those  who  are  anxious  to  obtain  or  hold 
office,  are  very  warmly  interested  in  them.  They  divide  into 
parties  according  to  their  views  and  exert  themselves  to  the 
utmost  to  influence  the  result. 

Most  human  affairs  have  their  good  and  bad  side,  and  this 
is  not  an  exception.  This  party  warmth  is  useful  in  causing 
discussion,  examination,  and  thought,  and  stirring  up  the 
people  to  a  careful  study  of  their  institutions  and  the  princi- 
ples of  government,  and  the  effect  which  particular  measures 
may  have  on  the  public  welfare.  Its  tendency,  in  this  direc- 
tion is,  to  make  all  the  people  statesmen— a  point  of  the  high- 
est importance  in  a  free  government,  where  the  People  are 
Sovereign.  The  disadvantage  is,  that  it  often  awakens  an 
undue  degree  of  passion  and  prejudice,  the  parties  and  men  who 
are  candidates  for  office  abuse  and  misrepresent  each  other  in 
order  to  destroy  each  others  influence,  when,  perhaps,  they  are 
equally  in  earnest  in  seeking  the  good  of  the  country.  For 
this  there  is  no  apparent  remedy,  but  in  the  intelligence  and 
good  sense  of  the  people  themselves.     They  must  learn  to  b « 


HISTORY    OF   PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS.  377 

careful  and  candid  in  their  judgment  of  men  and  measures, 
and  to  examine  all  sides  of  a  question  before  rendering  a 
decision.  All  should  strive  toward  this  intelligent  moderation 
during  important  elections. 


CHAPTER    XLIY. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTIONS. 

The  Presidents  of  the  Continental  Congress — as  the  Legisla- 
tive body  of  the  United  States  was  called  up  to  1789,  when  the 
new  Constituion  went  in  effect — were  chosen  by  its  members, 
which  then  consisted  of  only  one  House,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  is  chosen  now ; 
nor  was  his  authority  more  extensive.  He  was  simply  the 
presiding  officer  of  a  legislative  body;  and  one  that  had  by  no 
means  the  effective  authority  of  our  present  Congress,  although 
no  body  in  the  world  ever  more  deserved  the  gratitude  and 
reverence  of  all  time;  for  it  founded  and  gave  direction 
and  character  to  a  great  nation — it  may  be,  the  greatest  the 
world  will  ever  know. 

These  Presidents  had  little,  except  the  name,  in  common 
with  the  Presidents  of  the  United  States,  as  the  Constitution 
made  them.  The  Presidents  were  now  to  be  appointed  by 
the  people,  and  become  the  depositaries  of  the  Power  of  the 
Nation  in  Action.  It  was  fit  that,  in  a  government  deriving 
all  its  authority  from  the  People,  as  the  source  of  power,  its 
Special  Agent,  its  acting  Representative,  should  be  chosen  by 
them. 

In  the  summer  of  1788  three-fourths  of  the  States  had 
ratified  the  Constitution,  and  it  became  authoritative  as  the 
Fundamental  Law  of  the  country.  The  Continental  Congress, 
therefore,  closed  its  own  career  by  ordering  elections  for  the 


378  HISTOKY   OF  PKE8IDENTIAL   ELECTIONS. 

new  Congress,  and  for  the  electors  who  were  to  appoint  the  first 
President.  It  directed  that  these  elections  should  take  place 
on  the  first  "Wednesday  in  January,  1789 ;  that  the  electors  should 
meet  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  February  following,  to  discharge 
the  duty  to  which  they  were  appointed ;  and  that,  on  the  first 
Wednesday  in  March,  (which,  in  that  year,  was  the  fourth,) 
Congress  should  meet,  the  President  be  inaugurated,  and  the 
new  government  be  put  in  operation. 

This  brought  all  these  important  events  close  upon  the  heels 
of  one  another;  and  on  the  4th  of  March  there  was  not  a 
quorum  of  the  Members  of  Congress  assembled.  The  States 
lay  far  apart,  and  the  roads  were  bad  in  those  times,  and  at  thac 
season  of  the  year.  Though  a  bare  quorum  had  gathered  by 
the  last  of  March,  and  many  measures  of  pressing  necessity 
were  attended  to,  a  full  representation  was  waited  for  before 
the  President  elect  was  notified  that  they  were  ready  for  his 
inauguration;  and  that  event  took  place  only  on  the  30th  of 
April.  The  presidential  term,  however,  was  considered  to  have 
legally  commenced  at  the  time  previously  ordered,  and  closed 
on  that  day  of  the  year  and  month ;  so  that  it  became  the  first 
day  of  our  political  year.  It  commences  and  closes  the  Presi- 
dent's term  of  office  and  ends  the  regular  session  of  Congress 

FiROT  Election,  1789. 

There  were  but  69  electors,  and  the  choice  of  George  Wash- 
ington for  President,  and  John  Adams  for  Yice-President,  was 
unanimous.  He  had  declared,  when  resigning  his  commission 
as  commander-in-chief,  that  he  took  leave  "  of  all  the  employ- 
ments of  public  life,"  and  only  the  earnest  solicitations  of  the 
leading  public  men  ofi  the  time,  and  their  opinion  that  he 
alone  could  successfully  inaugurate  the  new  government, 
decided  him  to  leave  his  cherished  retirement.  Washington's 
ambition  was  known  to  be  free  from  spot  or  stain  of  self  seek- 
ing, and  his  moderation  and  judgment  were  trusted  in  as  the 
sheet  anchor  of  a  new  government  which  many  feared  would 
become   too   strong  for  the   liberties   of  the  people.     They 


HI8T0KY   OF   PEE8IDENTIAL   ELECTIONa  379 

dreaded  an  abuse  of  power;  but  they  had  no  fear  of  such 
abuse  while  wielded  by  Washington.  There  was  a  solid  foun- 
dation to  Washington's  fame,  in  his  character. 

The  presidential  electors  were  mainly  chosen  by  the  State 
legislatures  during  the  times  immediately  following  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution.  That  instrument  did  not  decide  how 
they  should  be  chosen,  but  left  it  to  the  discretion  of  the  State 
governments.  In  some  States  conventions  chose  them,  and  the 
practice  was  various;  but  after  a  time  it  proved  to  be  more 
satisfactory  to  refer  the  choice  directly  to  the  people,  and  very 
soon  the  people  themselves  practically  selected  the  President, 
the  electors  being  pledged  to  the  choice  of  the  candidate 
favored  by  their  constituents,  so  that  their  significance  was 
lost.  It  is  a  proof  of  the  popular  character  of  our  government. 
The  system  of  electors  indicated  a  fear  of  the  people;  a  want 
of  confidence  in  their  judgment  and  self  control.  The  elect- 
ors, it  was  supposed,  would  be  wiser,  less  accessible  to  passion 
and  caprice  than  those  who  elected  them.  The  people  set 
them  quietly  aside,  and  proceeded  to  do  tlieir  own  work  them- 
selves, using  the  electors  only  to  register  their  decision.  Public 
men  have  seldom  ventured  to  oppose  the  clearly  formed  and 
definite  purposes  of  the  people. 

The  Second  Election,  1792, 
Washington  was  again  unanimously  elected.  He  desired  to 
lay  down  the  burdens  of  ofiice;  but  so  mSny  perplexing 
questions  and  disturbing  influences  threatened  the  stability  of 
the  government  that  he  could  not  be  spared.  His  name  and 
character  were  a  rock  of  strength.  John  Adams  was  re-elected 
Vice-President.  Only  11  States  had  voted  at  the  first  election; 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  not  having  then  ratified  the 
Constitution.  They  had  now  done  so,  and  Vermont  and  Ken- 
tucky had  been  admitted,  so  that  there  were  15  States  voting 
at  this  election.  There  were  132  electors.  Washington 
declined  another  election  absolutely,  and  the  government  had 
proved  so  suitable  as  to  be  fairly  settled  in  the  confidence  of 
the  people. 


380  history  of  presidential  electiona 

The  Third  Election,  1796. 
Four  persons  were  voted  for  at  this  election. 

John  Adams  received  71  electoral  votes. 

Thomas  Jefferson  "      69  "            " 

Thomas  Pinckney  "      59  "            " 

Aaron  Burr            "     38  "           " 

As,  by  the  Constitutional  provision  regarding  electors,  the 
person  having  the  largest  number  of  votes  became  President, 
and  the  one  who  had  the  next  in  number  became  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Adams  was  now  President,  and  Jefferson  Vice-Presi- 
dent. Tennessee  had  now  been  admitted  into  the  Union,  and 
there  were  16  States  voting. 

Conflicting  views  on  foreign  policy,  and  vexing  questions  of 
internal  administration  began  to  exert  a  strong  influence,  and 
party  spirit,  for  the  next  twenty  years,  was  very  bitter.  Mr. 
Adams  was  a  Federalist;  Mr.  Jefferson  was  an  anti-Federalist. 

The  Fourth  Election,  1800. 

The  same  candidates  were  again  in  the  field.  The  political 
parties  had  become  clearly  defined.  Adams  and  Pinckney 
were  the  Federal  candidates,  receiving — Adams,  64,  Pinckney 
63,  electoral  votes,  while  Jefferson  and  Burr  had  each  73. 
They  were  of  the  anti-Federal,  or  Republican  party. 

The  election  did  not  decide  which  of  the  two,  Jefferson  or 
Burr,  should  be  President  and  Vice-President,  and,  by  the 
provisions  of  the  Constitution,  the  House  of  Representatives 
decided  it  in  favor  of  Jefferson.  Party  heats  were  so  great 
that  it  took  7  days  and  36  ballots  to  reach  this  result.  It  was 
felt  that  there  was  a  defect  in  the  Constitutional  provision  that 
left  it  undecided,  in  such  a  case,  which  of  the  candidates  was 
the  choice  of  the  electors  for  President,  and  it  resulted  in  the 
ratification  of  the  12th  amendment  before  the  next  election. 

The  Federal  party  never  regained  the  power  of  adminis- 
tration lost  at  this  election,  though  they  continued  to  be  a 
strong  opposition  until  the  close  of  the  war  of   1812.     But 


HISTORY    OF   PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS.  381 

an  opposition,  to  criticize  and  point  out  faults,  is  often  more 
useful  out  of  office  than  in;  and  the  Eepublican  party  was 
obliged  to  adopt  substantially  the  general  features  of  the 
policy  pursued  by  their  predecessors,  while  they  added  some 
very  important  ones  of  their  own,  in  tlieir  disposition  to 
favor  popular  riglits. 

The  FiiTH  Election,  1804. 

Thomas  Jeiferson  and  George  Clinton  were  the  candidates 
of  the  Republicans.  Charles  C.  Pinckney  and  Rufus  King  of 
the  Federalists. 

Jefferson  was  popular,  and  received  162  votes  —  Clinton 
receiving  the  same.  Pinckney  and  King  received  only  14 
votes.  The  admission  of  Ohio,  in  1802,  made  17  States  to 
vote  at  this  election, 

Tlie  Federal  party  was  much  weaker  than  in  the  following 
election. 

The  Sixth  Election,  1808. 

James  Madison  was  the  Eepublican  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent, and  Geo.  Clinton  for  Yice-President.  Pinckney  and 
King  were  again  candidates  on  tlie  part  of  the  Federalists. 

Madison  received  123  electoral  votes. 

Clinton         "  113        «  " 

Pinckney  and  King  each,    47        "  " 

Geo.  Clinton  died  before  the  end  of  his  term.  There  was  the 
same  number  of  States  voting  as  in  the  previous  election, 
viz.:  17. 

The  Seventh  Election,  1812. 

Madison  was  re-elected,  with  Elbridge  Gerry  as  Yice-Presi- 
dent.    They  each  received  128  electoral  votes. 

De  Witt  Clinton  and  Jared  Ingersoll,  the  candidates  of  the 
Federal  party,  received,  Clinton  89,  Ingersoll  57,  votes.  Louis- 
iana having  been  recently  admitted  into  the  Union,  there 
were  now  18  States. 

War  with  England  was  formally  declared  this  year.     It  had 


382  HISTORY    OF   PEESEDENTIAL   ELECTIONS. 

actually  began  on  the  ocean  sometime  before.  It  was  a  very 
trying  and  painful  presidential  term,  owing  to  the  violent 
and  injudicious  opposition  made  to  the  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  unfortunate  choice  of  generals  for  the  first  two 
years;  yet  the  ultimate  result  was  highly  creditable  to  the 
standing  and  reputation  of  the  United  States,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  annoying  and  insulting  interferences  with  our 
vessels  and  commerce  that  had  brought  it  on.  It  was  a  war 
waged  for  the  honor  and  inviolability  of  our  Flag,  which  was 
ever  after  duly  respected. 

The  Eighth   Election,  1816. 

James  Monroe  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins  were  the  candidates 
of  the  Republicans,  who  now  began  to  be  called  Democrats. 
The  Federalist  party  was  now  near  its  end.  It  nominated 
Rufus  King  who  received  34  electoral  votes,  Monroe  obtain- 
ing 183. 

Indiana  was  admitted  this  year  in  time  to  vote,  making  19 
States.  This  period  marked  an  important  era  in  the  internal 
history,  as  well  as  foreign  relations,  of  the  country.  The 
period  of  trial  for  the  Constitution  was  passed,  and  full  confi- 
dence began  to  be  felt  in  the  system  it  had  founded. 

The  Ninth  ELEcrnoN,  1820. 

Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  re-elected,  the  vote  being  sub- 
stantially unanimous,  for  the  first  and  last  time  since  Wash- 
ington. The  close  of  this  term  made  the  Republican  rule  in 
the  administration  24  years  in  succession,  under  three  Presi- 
dents, each  once  re-elected,  and  all  citizens  of  Virginia. 

Four  new  States  had  been  admitted  during  the  previous 
term,  viz.:  Mississippi,  Illinois,  Alabama,  and  Maine,  so  that 
23  States  took  part  in  this  election. 

The  Tenth  Election,  1824. 

Four  candidates  were  in  the  field  for  the  presidency  at  this 
election.     Missouri  having  been  admitted  since  the  ninth  elec- 


HISl^RY    OF    PRESroENTIAL   ELECTIONS.  383 

tioD  there  were  24  States  to  vote.     The  whole  number  of  electors 
wa&  261 ;  necessary  to  a  choice,  131. 

The  candidates  and  votes  were  as  follows: 

Andrew  Jackson 99 

John  Quincy  Adams 84 

Wm.  H.  Crawford 41 

Henry  Clay 31 

By  the  Constitution  the  House  of  Representatives  was 
required  to  select  the  President  from  the  3  candidates  having 
the  highest  number  of  votes.  They  were  to  vote  by  States, 
and  a  majority  of  States  would  elect.  J.  Q.  Adams  received 
the  vote  of  13  States,  and  was  declared  elected.  John  C.  Cal- 
houn having  received  182  electoral  votes  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency, was  thereby  elected  to  that  office.  18  of  the  States 
appointed  the  electors  by  popular  vote  and  6  appointed  them 
hj  their  legislatures. 

The  Eleventh  Election,  1828. 
Andrew  Jackson  was  elected  President,  and  John  C.  Cal- 
houn re-elected  Yice-President. 

John  Quincy  Adams  and  Richard  Rush  were  also  candidates 
for  President  and  Yice-President,  respectively.  The  contest 
was  very  hot  and  bitter.  Jackson  received  178,  and  Adams 
171  electoral  votes.  The  Popular  vote  was  650,028  for  Jack- 
son to  512,158  for  Adams.  The  number  of  electors  was  the 
same  as  in  the  10th  election.  The  most  violent  excitement 
divided  the  north  and  the  south  on  the  tariff  question,  which 
■culminated  during  this  term  in  the  "  nullification  ordinance," 
which  Jackson  met  with  the  decision  and  vigor  for  which  he 
was  distinguished,  ending  in  the  submission  of  the  nullifiers. 
Calhoun  resigned  his  office  as  Yice-President,  Dec.  28th, 
1832.     He  was  the  leader  of  the  nullifiers. 

The  Twelfth  ELEcnoN,  1832. 
Jackson's   vigorous   dealing  with   nullification  was   highly 
approved  by  the  people,  and  he  was  re-elected,  with   Martin 
Van  Buren  as  Vice-President. 


384  HISTOKY   OF   I'KESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS. 

Henry  Clay  was  the  candidate  of  the  Whig  party  for  Presi- 
dent, and  John  Sergeant  for  Vice-President. 

Jackson  received  682,502  popular,  and  219  electoral  votes. 
Clay  "         550,189         "        "       49 

Jackson's  majority       132,313  170 

Van  Buren  received  189  electoral  votes  for  Vice-President. 
Twenty-four  States  voted  at  this  election. 

The  Thirteenth  Election,  1836. 

Van  Buren  was  run,  by  the  Democrats,  for  the  Presidency, 
and  Richard  M.  Johnson  for  the  Yice-Presidency,  against  "Wm. 
H.  Harrison,  Hugh  L.  White,  Daniel  Webster,  and  W.  P. 
Mangum.  Van  Buren's  vote  was  762,149  popular,  and  170 
electoral.  Harrison  and  the  others  united  was  736,736  popu- 
lar, and  124  electoral.  The  whole  number  of  electors  being 
294,  the  number  necessary  to  a  choice  was  148.  Johnson 
failed  by  one  electoral  vote  to  be  elected  to  the  Vice-Presidency, 
and  the  case  went  to  the  Senate  for  decision,  as  directed  by  the 
Constitution.  The  remaining  electoral  votes  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent being  divided  between  3  candidates,  Johnson  was  appointed 
by  the  Senate. 

Michigan  and  Arkansas  having  been  admitted  this  year  took 
part  in  the  election,  making  26  States. 

The  Fourteenth  Election,  1840. 

The  Whig  party  this  year  concentrated  on  Wm.  H.  Harri- 
son for  President,  and  John  Tyler  for  Vice-President. 

Tlie  Democrats  opposed  them  with  Van  Buren  and  Johnson 
again.  The  country  had  been  passing  through  a  financial 
crisis  of  extreme  severity  during  the  thirteenth  presidential 
term,  and  this  election,  involving  the  decision  of  a  financial 
policy,  was  very  exciting. 

Harrison  was  an  Ohio  farmer,  and,  the  Democrats  said, 
"lived  in  a  log  cabin  and  drank  hard  cider."  The  Wliigs  took 
the  hint,  built  log  cabins  to  hold  their  campaign  gatherings  in, 
drank  much  hard  cider,  and  sung  stirring  political  songs. 


HISTOKY    OF    PKESroENTIAL    ELECTIONS.  385 

Harrison's  popular  vote  was  1,274,783 — his  electoral  vote  234 
VanBuren's     "        "       "     1,128,702       "  «  "       60 

Majority,  46,081  174 

Tyler's  vote  as  Vice-President  was  the  same  as  Harrison's. 

Harrison  died  on  the  4th  of  April,  one  month  after  his 
inauguration,  and  John  Tyler  succeeded  to  the  Presidency.  His 
term  was  made  remarkable  by  his  disagreement  with  the  meas- 
ures of  Congress,  on  financial  questions. 

This  was  the  first  time  a  Yice-President  had  been  called  on 
to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  President.  There  were  26 
States  taking  part  in  this  election. 

The  Fifteenth  Election,  1844. 

The  slavery  question  entered  into  this  election  as  a  leading 
point.  The  Republic  of  Texas  asked  admission  into  the  Union. 
As  it  would  be  certain  to  be  a  slave  State,  and  many  of  the 
people  objected  to  extending  that  institution  while  others 
favored  it,  the  parties  took  it  up;  the  Democrats  favoring  the 
admission,  the  Whigs  opposing. 

James  K.  Polk  was  the  candidate  for  President,  and  Geo.  M. 
Dallas  for  Yice-President,  run  by  the  Democrats. 

The  Whigs  opposed  against  them  Henry  Clay  and  Theodore 
Frelinghuysen. 

The  vote  for  Polk  and  Dallas  was  1,335,834,  electoral  vote  170 
"    "    Clay  and  Frelinghuysen  1,297,033,        "  "     105 

Polk  and  Dallas'  majority,  38,801  65 

This  was  the  third  time  Mr.  Clay  had  been  defeated  as  a 
candidate  for  the  Presidency,  to  the  great  regret  of  many,  even 
of  those  who  voted  against  him. 

The  war  with  Mexico  followed  as  a  consequence  of  the  pol- 
icy of  the  United  States  government,  decided  upon  in  this 
election.  Texas  had  formerly  been  a  part  of  Mexico,  and  that 
country  considered  its  admission  into  the  Union  as  an  act  of 
hostility  to  herself. 

25 


386  history  of  fresidential  elections. 

Sixteenth  Election,  1848. 

The  Whigs  were  successful  in  this  election,  owing  to  a  divis- 
ion in  the  ranks  of  the  Democratic  party.  The  Whigs  nomi- 
nated  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  for  President,  and  Millard  Fill- 
more for  Yice-President;  the  Democrats  Lewis  Cass  for  Presi- 
dent, and  Wm.  O.  Butler  for  Vice-President;  the  Free  Soil 
Democrats — who  opposed  the  extension  of  slavery — Martin 
Van  Buren  for  President,  and  Charles  F.  Adams  for  Vice- 
President. 

The  vote  resulted  thus : 
Taylor  and  FiUmore's  popular  vote  1,362,024,  electoral  vote  163 
Cass  and  Butler's  "         "       1,222,419,        «        "     127 

Van  Buren  and  Adams'  "         "         291,678. 

The  third  ticket  secured  no  electoral  votes. 

Four  new  States  had  been  admitted  into  the  Union  since  the 
15th  election,  viz.:  Texas,  Florida,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin;  and 
30  States  voted  this  year. 

Gen.  Taylor  died  July  9th,  1860,  one  year,  four  months,  and 
four  days  after  his  inauguration,  and  Mr.  Fillmore  fiUed  out 
his  term  of  oflBce. 

The  Seventeenth  Election,  1852. 

During  the  previous  Presidential  term  the  subject  of  slavery, 
and  the  strategy  of  politicians  in  favor  of  and  against  it, 
absorbed  public  attention.  The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise of  1820  opened  the  whole  question,  and  a  trial  of 
strength  as  to  which  side  should  occupy  the  new  territory,  was 
prepared  for.  The  crisis  of  preparation  had  not  been  reached 
when  this  election  occurred,  and  comparatively  little  interest 
was  taken  in  it. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Franklin  Pierce  for  President, 
and  Wm.  li.  King  for  Vice-President ;  the  Whigs  chose  as 
their  candidates  Gen.  Winiield  Scott  for  President,  and  Wm. 
A.  Graham  for  Vice-President. 

Pierce  and  King  received,  of  popular  votes  1,590,490,  of 
electoral,  254.     Scott  and  Graham  received,  of  popular  votes, 


HISTORY   OF    PKESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS.  387 

1,378,589,  of  electoral,  42.  Pierce's  majority,  on  popular  vote, 
211,901,  on  electoral,  212. 

California  had  been  admitted  since  the  16th  election,  and 
there  were  31  States  to  vote  in  this. 

This  was  the  last  election  in  which  the  Whig  party  nomi- 
nated a  candidate.  The  contest  in  regard  to  slave  and  free  ter- 
ritory absorbing  all  the  interest  of  the  country,  the  parties 
were  rearranged,  those  in  favor  of  slavery,  or  wishing  to  leave 
tliat  institution  undisturbed, gathered  to  the  Democratic  party; 
while  those  wishing  to  actively  oppose  the  extension  of  slavery 
CO  territory  not  yet  occupied  by  it,  united,  under  the  name  of 
the  Republican  party,  the  Wliigs  becoming  extinct,  as  a  party. 
The  Eighteenth  ELEcnoN,  185(3. 

The  Democrats  nominated  James  Buchanan,  and  John  C. 
Breekeuridge  for  President  and  Vice-President;  the  Republi- 
cans, John  C.  Fremont  and  William  L,  Dayton.  A  third 
party,  in  favor  of  putting  only  native  Americans  in  office,  voted 
for  Millard  Fillmore  and  Andrew  J.  Donnelson.  The  result 
was  the  following: 

Popular  vote  for  Buchanan  and  Breckenridge  1,803,029, 
electoral,  174.  Popular  vote  for  Fremont  and  Dayton  1,342,164, 
electoral,  114.  Popular  vote  for  Fillmore  and  Donnelson. 
874,625,  electoral,  8. 

Buchanan  had  only  what  is  called  a  plurality  popular  vote; 
the  two  others  united  had  a  majority  over  him  of  413,760 
votes.  A  majority  of  electoral  votes,  however,  was  149,  and 
he  received  174,  and  a  majority  of  52  electoral  votes  over  the 
others  united. 

Only  31  States  voted  at  this  election.     Mr.  Buchanan  was 

•inuch  blamed  for  not  taking  more  vigorous  measures  to  quench 

me  secession  movement  that  commenced  in  the  last  months 

of  his  administration.     The  contrast  between  his  course  and 

Jackson's  in  1832  was  very  marked. 

The  Nineteenth  Election,  1860. 
The   Republican    party   nominated   Abraham    Lincoln   for 
President,  and  Hannibal  Hamlin  for  Yice-President.      The 


388  HISTORY   OF   PRESTOENTIAL   ELECTIONS. 

south,  finding  it  impossible  to  uphold  the  slavery  extension 
system  against  the  growing  Republican  party,  and  the  com- 
promise that  had  protected  that  system  having  been  laid  aside 
in  1850,  must  submit  to  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery,  or 
withdraw  from  the  Union.  They  chose  the  latter,  and  favored 
the  division  of  the  Democratic  party,  which  was  still  much 
the  largest,  into  several  parts.  Three  tickets  of  that  party 
were  run,  against  one  in  the  Republican,  which  assured  the 
election  of  Lincoln. 

The  Northern  Democrats  voted  mainly  for  Stephen  A.  Doug- 
las and  H.  Y.  Johnson;  the  Southern  Democrats  for  John  C 
Brecken ridge  and  Joseph  Lane;  and  those  who  wished  to  stop 
the  contest  on  the  slavery  question  altogether,  on  both  sides, 
voted  for  John  Bell  and  Edward  Everett.  The  result  was  as 
follows : 

The  vote  for  Lincoln  and  Hamlin  was  1,866,452,  electoral  180 
"  "     Douglas  and  Johnson        1,375,157,        "         12 

"  «     Breckenridge  and  Lane        847,953,         "        72 

"  *'     Bell  and  Everett  590,631,         "         39 

The  three  divisions  of  the  Democrats  together  had  a  popu- 
lar majority  of  947,289  over  the  Kepublicans,  but  the  latter 
had  a  majority  of  57  electoral  votes  over  all  the  others  united. 

Two  new  States  had  been  admitted  since  the  eighteenth  elec- 
tion, Minnesota  and  Oregon,  and  there  were  33  States  voting. 
The  census  of  1860  gave  the  population  as  31,148,048.  All  the 
votes  cast  at  this  election  amounted  to  4,680,193,  the  largest 
number  by  more  than  500,000  that  had  ever  been  known.  The 
Southern  States  seceded  within  a  few  months,  and  the  CiviJ 
War  began.  It  was  remarkable  as  the  most  gigantic  war  of 
its  kind,  perhaps  of  any  kind,  known  in  history;  and  for  the 
obstinate  bravery  and  resolution  displayed  on  both  sides.  It 
continued  during  this  entire  presidential  term. 
The  Twentieth  Election,  1864. 

The  election  this  year  was  confined  to  the  States  that  had 
remained  loyal  to  the  Constitution  and  the  Union.  Eleven 
States  had  seceded. 


HI8T0KY    OF   PKE8IDENTIAL    ELECTIONS,  389 

The  Republicans  re-nominated  Lincoln  for  President,  with 
Andrew  Johnson  for  Yice-President.  The  Democratic  party 
nominated  Gen.  Geo.  B.  McClellan  for  President,  and  Geo.  H. 
Pendleton  for  Yice-President.     The  result  was  as  follows: 

The  popular  vote  for  Lincoln  and  Johnson  was     2,216,127 
"         "  "       "     McClellan  and  Pendleton    1,808,725 


Lincoln's  popular  majority  407,402 

Electoral  votes  for  Lincoln     212 
"  "       "    McClellan  21 

Lincoln's  electoral  majority  191 

The  total  number  of  popular  votes  was  4,024,852.  Lincoln's 
vote  at  this  election  was  the  largest  that  had  ever  been  cast  for 
one  candidate,  though  there  were  less  votes  cast  by  all  parties  by 
600,000  than  in  the  nineteenth  election.  Two  new  States, 
Kansas  and  West  Virginia,  had  been  admitted  since  the  pre- 
vious election,  which  with  the  11  in  rebellion  omitted,  left  24 
States  voting. 

The  civil  war  closed  with  the  submission  of  the  seceded 
States  to  the  general  government  soon  after  Lincoln's  re-inaug- 
uration; but  he  was  assassinated  about  the  same  time,  on  the 
evening  of  April  13th,  1865,  and  died  on  the  following  day, 
leaving  a  nation  in  mourning,  and  the  civilized  world  struck 
with  horror.  Andrew  Johnson  acted  as  President  during  the 
remainder  of  this  term.  Mr,  Johnson's  administration  was 
marked  by  the  great  difference  in  the  policy  of  reconstructing 
the  seceded  States  adopted  by  him  and  by  the  Congress,  by  the 
limitations  which  the  latter  threw  around  him,  and  the  attempt 
to  impeach  him,  which  failed  by  a  few  votes. 

The  Twenty-First  Election,  1868. 

Gen.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  nominated  by  the  Eepublicans 
for  President,  and  Schuyler  Colfax  for  Yice-President. 

The  nominees  of  the  Democratic  party  were  Horatio  Sey- 
mour and  Francis  P.  Blair. 


390  CA.BINETS  GF  ALL  THE   Pr?^"^^^TTO. 

Grant's  popular  majority  was  309,588.  Questions  of  recon- 
struction and  finance  were  determined  by  this  election,  the 
people  upholding  the  policy  pursued  by  Congress  since  the 
close  of  the  war. 

The  Twenty-Second  Election,  1872. 

Grant  was  nominated  by  the  Republican  party  for  Presi- 
dent, and  Henry  Wilson  for  Yice-President.  The  Democrats 
nominated  Horace  Greeley  for  President,  and  B.  Gratz  Brown 
for  Yice-President.  A  second  Democratic  party  had  a  ticket, 
nominating  Chas.  O'Connor  and  J.  Q.  Adams. 

Grant's  popular  majority  was  730,812 ;  and  he  receiyed  286 
electoral  votes.  30  States  gave  him  majorities,  Pennsylvania 
reaching  137,000  majority  in  his  favor.  The  whole  popular 
vote  at  this  election  was  6,457,106.  The  colored  people  Toted 
for  the  first  time,  under  the  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
abolishing  the  distinction  in  citizenship  in  regard  to  color. 

The  elections  are  now  held  on  the  same  day  in  all  the  States, 
by  a  general  law.  The  number  of  States  voting  at  the  22d 
election  was  thirty-seven.  This  election  set  a  final  seal  on  the 
policy  of  the  Pepublican  party,  leaving  the  country  free  to 
turn  its  attention  to  other  questions  relating  to  its  internal 
interests. 


CHAPTER    XLY. 

CABINETS  OF  ALL  THE  PRESIDENTS. 

For  convenience  of  reference  we  insert  a  list  of  the  members 
of  the  Cabinet  in  each  administration  from  1789  down  to  1877, 
to  which  is  added  the  name  of  the  Yice-President  of  each 
presidential  term,  though  he  is  not  a  member  of  the  Cabinet. 
Fikst  Administration,  FEOM  1789  to  1797 — ^years,  io  months. 

AND  4  DAYS. 

George  Washington,  Ya.,  President. 
John  Adams,  Mass.,  Yice-President 


CABINETS   OF   ALL    THE    PRESIDENTS.  391 

CABINET. 

Thouids  Jefferson,  Ya.,  Secretary  of  State. 

Edmund  Kandolph,  Ya.,      "  " 

Timothy  Pickering,  Mass.,  "  " 

Alexander  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Oliver  Wolcott,  Conn.,  "  "  " 

Timothy  Pickering,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  War. 

James  ikIcHenry,  Md.,  "         "       " 

Houry  Knox,  Mass.,  «         tt       « 

Second  Administration:,  1797  to  1801 — i  years. 

John  Adams,  Mass.,  President. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Ya.,  Yice-President. 
cabinet. 
Timotby  Pickering,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  State. 
John  Marshall,  Ya.,  "         "       " 

Oliver  "Wolcott,  Ct.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.,     "  "  " 

James  McHenry,  Md.,  Secretary  of  War. 
Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.,  "         "       " 

Koger  Griswold,  "         "       " 

George  Cabot,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Benjamin  Stoddert,  Md.,      "  "  " 

Third  Administration,  1801  to  1809 — 8  tears. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Ya.,  President. 

Aaron  Burr,  N.  Y.,  Yice-President. 

George  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  " 

cabinet. 
James  Madison,  Ya.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Albert  Gallatin,  Pa.,  "  «  " 

Henry  Dearborn,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  War. 
Benjamin  Stoddert.  Mr'.  Soe^etary  of  the  Navy. 
Kojert  Smith,  Md.  "         « 

Fourth  Administration,  1809  to  1817 — 8  tears. 

James  Madison,  Ya.,  President. 


392  CABINETS   OF   ALL    THE   PBESroENTSo 

George  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Yice-President. 
Elbridge  Gerrj,  Mass.,  " 

CABINET. 

Robert  Smith,  Md.,  Secretary  of  State. 
James  Monroe,  Ya.,         "  "       " 

Albert  Gallatin,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
George  W.  Campbell,  Tenn.,  "       "  " 

Alexander  J.  Dallas,  Pa.,       "       "  " 

William  Eustis,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  "War. 
John  Armstrong,  JST.  Y.,      "  "       " 

James  Monroe,  Ya.,  "  "       " 

William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.,  "  «       " 

Paul  Hamilton,  S.  C,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
William  Jones,  Pa.,  "  "  " 

B.  W.  Crowninshield,  Mass. "  "  " 

Fifth  Administration,  1817  to  1825 — 8  yeabs. 

James  Monroe,  Ya.,  President. 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  N.  Y.,  Yice-President. 

CABINET. 

John  Q.  Adams,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  State. 

William  H.  Crawford,  Ga.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Isaac   Shelby,   Ky.,   Secretary  of  War. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,     "         "       " 

B.  W.  Crowninshield,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Smith  Thompson,  K  Y.,  «  «  " 

Samuel  L.  Southard,  N.  J.,  "  "  " 

Sixth  Administration,  1825  to  1829 — i  years. 
John  Q.  Adams,  Mass.,  President. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,  Yice-President. 

CABINET. 

Henry  Clay,  Ky.,  Secretary  of  State. 

Kichard  Rush,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

James  Barbour,  Ya.,  Secretary  of  War. 

Peter  B.  Porter,  N.  Y.,     "         "       " 

Samuel  L.  Southard,  N.  J.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy- 


cabinets  of  all  the  pkesidbnt8.  393 

Seventh  Administration,  1829  to  1837 — 8  yeaes. 
Andrew  Jackson,  Tenn.,  President. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  C,  Yice-President. 
Martin  Yan  Buren,  N.  Y.,  " 

CABINET. 

Martin  Yan  Buren,  IST.  Y.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Edward  Livingston,  La., .         "  "       " 

Louis  McLane,  Del.,  "  "      " 

John  Forsyth,  Geo.,  "  «       " 

Samuel  D.  Ingham,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Louis  McLane,  Del.,  '"  "  " 

William  J.  Duane,  Pa.,  "  "  " 

Eoger  B.  Taney,  Md.,  "  «  « 

Levi  Woodbury,  K  H.,  «  «  " 

John  H.  Eaton,  Tenn.,  Secretary  of  War. 
Lewis  Cass,  Mich.,  "  "       " 

Benjamin  F.  Butler,  K  Y.,  "  "       « 

John  Branch,  N.  C,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Levi  Woodbury,  K IL,    "  "  " 

Mahlon  Dickerson,  N.  J., «  "  " 

POSTMASTERS   GENERAL, 
And  for  the  first  time  considered  members  of  the  Cabinet, 

John  McLean,  O. 

William  F.  Barry,  Ky. 

Amos  Kendall,  Ky. 
Eighth  Administration,  1837  to  1841 — 4  years. 
Martin  Yan  Buren,  N.  Y.,  President. 
Richard  M.  Johnson,  Ky.,  Yice-President. 

CA3INET. 

John  Forsyth,  Geo.,  Secretary  of  State. 

Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Joel  R.  Poinsett,  S.  C,  Secretary  of  War. 

Mahlon  Dickerson,  1^.  J.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

James  K.  Paulding,  K.  Y.,       "  "  " 

A^mos  Kendall,  Ky.,  Postmaster  General. 

John  M.  Niles,  Ct.,  "  " 


3  CABINETS   or   ALL  THE   PRESIDENTS. 

KiNTH  Administration,  March  4,  1841,  to  April  4,  1841. 
"William  Henry  Harrison,  O.,  President. 
John  Tyler,  Ya.,  Vice-President. 

CABINET. 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Thomas  Ewing,  O.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
John  Bell,  Tenn.,  Secretary  of  War. 
George  E.  Badger,  N.  C,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Gideon  Granger,  N.  Y.,  Postmaster  General. 

Tenth  Administration,  April  6,  1841,  to  March  4,  1845. 
John  Tyler,  Ya.,  (acting)  President,  by  death  of  Harrison 
cabinet. 
Daniel  Webster,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Ya.,  "         "       " 

John  0.  Calhoun,  S.  C,         "         "       " 
Thomas  Ewing,  O.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Walter  Forward,  Pa.,      "  "  « 

John  C.  Spencer,  N.  Y.,  "  «  « 

George  M.  Bibb,  Ky.,     "  «  « 

John  Bell,  Tenn.,  Secretary  of  War. 
John  0.  Spencer,  N.  Y.,  "      "       " 
James  M.Porter,  Pa.,     "      "       " 
William  Wilkins,  Pa.,    "      ''       " 
George  E.  Badger,  N.  C,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Ya.,  "  «  " 

David  Henshaw,  Mass.,  "  "  " 

G.  W.  Gilmer,  Ya.,  "  "  " 

John  Y.  Mason,  Ya.,  "  "  " 

Hugh  S.  Legar6,  S.  C,  Attorney-General. 
John  Nelson,  Md.,  "  " 

Francis  G.  Granger,  N.  Y.,  Postmaster  General. 
Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Ky.,  " 

Eleventh  Administration,  March  4,  1845,  to  March  4,  1849. 

4  YEARS. 

James  K.  Polk,  Tenn.,  President. 
George  M.  Dallas,  Pa.,  Yice-President. 


CABINETS   OF    ALL    THE   PRESIDENTS.  896 

CABINET. 

James  Buchanan,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Robert  J.  Walker,  Miss.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
William  L.  Marcy,  K.  Y.,  Secretary  of  War. 
George  Bancroft,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Ya.,  "  "         « 

Cave  Johnson,  Tenn.,  Postmaster  General. 
John  Y.  Mason,  Ya.,  Attorney  General. 
Nathan  Clifford,  Me.,        "  " 

Isaac  Toucey,  Ct.,  "  " 

Twelfth  Administration,  March  4,  1849,  to  July  10,  1850 — 
1  year  and  4  months. 

Zachary  Taylor,  La.,  President. 

Millard  Fillmore,  N.  Y.,  Yice-President. 

CABINET. 

John  M.  Clayton,  Del.,  Secretary  of  State. 
George  W.  Crawford,  Geo.,  Secretary  of  War. 
William  M.  Meredith,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury- 
William  B.  Preston,  Ya.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Jacob  Collamer,  Yt.,  Postmaster  General. 
Reverdy  Johnson,  Md.,  Attorney  General. 
Thirteenth  Administration,  July  10, 1850,  to  March  4, 1853. 

2  YEARS  AND  8  MoNTHS. 

Millard  Fillmore,  (acting)  President  by  death  of  Taylor. 
No  Yice-President. 

CABINET. 

Daniel  Webster,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Thomas  Corwin,  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Charles  M.  Conrad,  La.,  Secretary  of  War. 
William  A.  Graham,  N.  C,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Alexander  H.  H.  Stuart,  Ya.,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Nathan  K.  Hall,  N.  Y.,  Postmaster  General. 
John  J.  Crittenden,  Ky.,  Attorney  General. 
Fourteenth  Administration,  March  4, 1853,  to  March  4, 1857. 
Franklin  Pierce,  N.  H.,  President. 


396  CABINETS   OF   ALL   THE    PRESIDENTS. 

William  R.  King,  of  Ala.,  who  was  elected  Yice-Presi. 
dent  with  Mr.  Pierce,  but  died  before  he  took  his  seat,  and  there 
was  no  Yice-President  during  Pierce's  administration. 

CABINEI. 

William  L.  Marcj,  'N.  Y.,  Secretary  of  State. 
James  Guthrie,  Ky.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Jeiferson  Davis,  Miss.,  Secretary  of  War. 
J.  C.  Dobbin,  N.  C,  Secretary  of  the  I^avy. 
Robert  McClelland,  Mich.,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
James  Campbell,  Pa.,  Postmaster  General. 
Caleb  Cushing,  Mass.,  Attorney  General. 
Fifteenth  Administration,  March  4, 1857,  to  March  4, 1861. 
James  Buchanan,  Pa.,  President. 
John  C.  Breckenridge,  Yice-President. 
cabenet. 

Lewis  Cass,  Mich.,  and  Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Pa.,  Secretaries 
of  State. 

Howell  Cobb,  Ga.,  Philip  F.  Thomas,  and  John  A.  Dix, 
N.  Y.,  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury. 

John  B.  Floyd,  Ya.,  and  Joseph  Holt,  Ky.,  Secretaries  of 
War. 

Isaac  Toucey,  Ct.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Jacob  Thompson,  Miss.,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Aaron  Y.  Brown,  Tenn.,  Joseph  Holt,  Ky.,  and  Horatio  King, 
Postmasters  General. 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Pa.,  and  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pa.,  Attor- 
neys General. 

Sixteenth  Administration,  March  4, 1861,  to  April  14,  1865, 
4  years,  1  month,  and  10  days. 

Abraham  Lincoln,  111.,  President. 

Hannibal  Hamlin,  Me.,  Yice-President,  first  term,  and  An- 
drew Johnson,  Tenn.,  Yice-President,  second  term. 

cabinet. 

William  H.  Seward,  N.  Y.,  Secretary  of  State. 

Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio,  William  P.  Fessenden,  Me.,  Hugh 


OABINKTS   OF   ALL   THE    PRESIDENTS.  397 

McCiilloeh,  Ind.,  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury. 

Simon  Cameron,  Pa.,  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pa.,  Secretaries  of 
War. 

Gideon  Welles,  Conn.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Caleb  B.  Smith,  Ind.,  John  P.  Usher,  Ind.,  Sect  of  the  Int 

Montgomery  Blair,  Md.,  William  Dennison,  O.,  Postmas- 
ters General. 

Edward  Bates,  Mo.,  James  Speed,  Ky.,  Attorneys  General. 
Seventeenth  Administration,  April  15, 1865,  to  March  4,1869. 
Andrew  Johnson,  acting  President. 
No  Yice-President. 

cabinet. 

William  H.  Seward,  N.  Y.,  Secretary  of  State. 

Hugh  McCulloch,  Ind.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Pa.,  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  111.,  and  J.  M.  Scho- 
field,  Secretaries  of  War. 

Gideon  Welles,  Conn,,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

James  Harlan,  Iowa,  Orville  H.  Browning,  111.,  Secretaries  of 
the  Interior. 

James  Speed,  Ky.,  Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio,  William  M.  Evarts, 
N.  Y.,  Attorneys  General. 

William  Dennison,  Ohio,  Alexander  W.  Kandall,  Wis.,  Post- 
masters General. 

Eighteenth  Administration,  March  4, 1869,  to  March  4, 1873. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  111.,  President. 
Schuyler  Colfax,"  Ind.,  Yice-President. 

cabinet. 
Elihu  B.  Washburne,  111.,  Secretary  of  State. 
Hamilton  Fish,  N.  Y.,  "  "       " 

George  S.  Boutwell,  Mass.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
John  A.  Rawlins,  Secretary  of  War. 
William  T.  Sherman,   "         "       " 
William  W.  Belknap,  "         "       " 
Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pa.,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
George  M.  Eobeson,  N.  J.,  "  «  " 


398  CABINETS   OF   ALL    THE   PRESIDENTS. 

Jacob  D.  Cox,  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Cohimbus  Delano,  O.,       "  *'  " 

J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Md.,  Postmaster  General. 
Eben  Kockwood  Hoar,  Mass.,  Attorney  General. 
Amos  T.  Akerraan,  Ga.,  "  " 

Nineteenth  Administration,  March  4, 1873,  to  M  Asna  4, 18^7. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  111.,  President. 
*Henry  Wilson,  Mass.,  Vice-President. 
cabinet. 
Hamilton  Fish,  N.  Y,,  Secretary  of  State. 
W.  A.  Richardson,  111.,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
B.  H.  Bristow,  Ky.,  "  «  « 

Lot  M.  Morrill,  Me.,  "  "  " 

W.  W.  Belknap,  Iowa,  Secretary  of  War. 
Alonzo  Taft,  Ohio,  "       '  "       • 

J.  Donald  Cameron,  Pa.,      "  " 

George  M.  Robeson,  N.  J.,  Secretar}^  of  the  Navy. 
Columbus  Delano,  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Z.  Chandler,  Mich., 

J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Md.,  Postmaster  General. 
Marshall  Jewell,  Conn.,         ''  *' 

John  W.  Tyner,  Ind., 

George  H.  Williams,  Oregon,  Attorney  General. 
Edward  Pierrepont,  N.  Y.,  "  " 

Alonzo  Taft,  Ohio,  "  " 

*  Deceased. 

TwBNTraTH  Admikistbation,  Maboh  4, 1877,  to  Maboh  4^  188L 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  President 
William  A.  Wheeler,  of  New  York,  Vice-President 

CABINET. 

William  M.  Evarts,  of  New  York,  Secretary  of  State. 
John  Sherman,  of  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
George  W.  McCrary,  of  Iowa,  Secretary  of  War. 
Richard  W.  Thompson,  of  Indiana,  Secretary  of  the  Na,rj. 
Carl  Schurz,  of  Missouri,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Charles  Devens,  of  Massachusetts,  Attorney  G^neraL 
Dayid  M.  Key,  of  Tenne^ee,  Postmaster  GeneraL 


UNITED    STATES   GOVERNMENT.  399 

UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT. 

1879. 


THE  EXECUTIVE. 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES,  of  Ohio,  President  of  the  United  States....  Salary  «50  00O 
WILLIAM  A.  WHEELER,  of  New  York,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  "         siooo 


THE  CABINET. 

WILLIAM  M.  EVARTS,  of  New  York,  Secretary  of  State Salary  $8  000 

JOHN  SHERMAN,  of  Ohio,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury "8  000 

GEORGE  W.  McCKARY,  of  Iowa.  Sec;-ei!ary  o/"  m<r "        8*000 

RICHARD  W.  THOMPSON,  of  Indiana,  Secretary  of  the  Navy '.  "        s'.OCO 

CARL  SCHURZ,  of  Missouri,  Secretary  of  the  Interior "        8,000 

CHARLES  DEVENS,  of  Massachusetts,  Attorney-General "       8,000 

DAVID  M.  KEY,  of  Tennessee,  Po8</rta«^er-(r«n«ra/ "        8,000 


THE  JUDICIARY. 

SUPREME    COURT    OF    THE     UNITED    STATES. 
Court  meets  first  Monday  in  December,  at  Washington. 

Chief  jMiWce.. -MORRISON  R.  WAITE,  of  Ohio... Fourth  Circuit Salary  $10,500 

.dssociaie  Justice  Nathan  Clifford,  of  Me First        "        '•  10,000 

"               "       Noah  H.  SwATNE,  of  Ohio Sixth        "        "  10,000 

"              "       Samuel  F.  Miller,  of  Iowa Eighth    " "  10,000 

"              "       Stephen  J.  Field,  of  Cal Ninth      "       "  10,000 

"              "       William  Strong,  of  Pa Third       "        "  10,000 

"              "       Joseph  P.  Bradley,  of  N.  J Fifth        "       "  10,000 

"              "       Ward  Hunt,  of  New  York Second    "       '•  10,000 

"              "      John  M.  Harlan,  of  Ky Seventh"        "  10,000 

CIRCUIT  JUDGES. 

First  Circuit Me.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  R.  I John  Lowell,  Mass Salary  $6,000 

Second  Circuit Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Conn Samuel  Blatchford,  N.  Y.  "  6.000 

Third  Circuit Pa.,  N.  J.,  Del William  McKennan,  Pa..  "  6,000 

Fourth  Circuit Md.,  W.  Va.,  Va..  N.  C,  S.  C     Hugh  L.  Bond,  Md "  6,000 

Fifth  Circuit Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.  William  B.  Woods,  Ga....  '•  6,000 

Sixth  Circuit Mich.,  Ohio,  Ky.,  Tenn John  Baxter,  Tenn •'  6,000 

Seventh  Circuit Wis.,  111.,  Ind... Thomas  Drummond,  111..  "  6,000 

Eighth  Circuit Minn.,  Iowa,  Mo.,  Ark.,  Kan., 

Neb.,  Col ...John  F.  Dillon,  Iowa "  6,000 

Ninth  Circuit Ore.,  Cal.,  Nev Lorenzo  Sawyer,  Cal "  6,000 


MINISTERS  TO  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
ENVOYS  EXTRAORDINARY  AND  MINISTERS  PLENIPOTENTIARY. 

COUNTRY.  CAPITAL.  MINISTERS.  SALARY.   APP't'd. 

Ansti-ia-Hungary Vienna John  A.  Kasson,  Iowa $12,000 1877 

Brazil Rio  Janeiro Henry  W.  Hilliard.  Ga 12,000 1877 

Chili - Santiago Thomas  A.  Osborn,  Kansas 10,000 1877 

China Pekin  1 George  F.  Seward,  N.  Y 12,000 1876 

France Paris Edw.  F.  Noyes,  Ohio 17,500 1877 

Great  Britain London John  Welsh,  Pa 17,500 1877 

Italy Rome George  P.  Marsh,  Vt 12,000 1861 

Japan Yeddo John  A.  Bingham,  Ohio 12,000 1873 

Mexico Mexico John  W.  Poster,  Indiana 13.000 1873 

Peru Lima I.  P.  Christiancy,  Mich 10.000 1879 

Germ;in/ Berlin Andrew  D.  White,  N.  Y 17,.500 1879 

Russia St.  Petersburgh  ...E.  W.  Stoughton,  N.  Y 17,1500 1877 

Spain Madrid : James  R.  Lowell,  Mass 12,000 1877 

MINISTERS  RESIDENT. 

Argentine  Republic. ..Buenos  Ayres Thomas  O.  Osborn,  111 7,500 18'4 

Belgium Brussels William  C.  Goodloe,  Ky 7,500 1878 

Bolivia ...La  Paz S.  Newton,  Pettis,  Pa* 5,000-....  1878 

Central  Amer.  States. .Guatemala Cornelius  A.  Logan,  111 10,000 1879 

Hawaiian  Islands Honolulu James  M.  C'omlv.  Ohio 5,000 1877 

Netherlands ...Hague James  Birney,  Mich 7,500 1876 

Sweden  and  Norway  ..Stockho'm John  L.  Stevens,  Me 7,500 1877 

Turkey Constantinople Horace  JIaynard,  Tenn 7,500 1875 

U.  S.  of  Colombia Bogota Earnest  Dichman,  Wis 7,500 1878 

Venezuela Caracas Jehu  Baker,  111 7,500 1878 

Haytl Port-au-Prince John  M.  Langston,  D.  C* 7,500 1877 

Liberia Monrovia. John  H.  Smyth,  N.  C* 4,000 1878 

CHARGE   D'AFFAIRES. 

Denmark Copenhagen M.  J.  Cramer,  Ky 5,000 1870 

Greece Athens J.  Meredith,  Read,  Pa 5,00^) 1873 

Portugal Lisbon Benjamin  Moran,  Pa 5,000 1870 

Switzerland Berne Nicholas  Fish,  N.  Y 5,000 1877 

Uruguay  &  Paraguay. .Montevideo. John  C.  Caldwell,  Me 6,000 1874 

*  Minister  Resident  and  Consul  General. 


LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT. 


CHAPTER    XLYI. 
CONGRESS. 

1.  All  government  consists  of  three  steps,  series,  or 
departments.  It  has  a  Rule  by  which  its  action  is  gov- 
erned; and  this  embraces  the  general  principles  guiding 
all  action,  as  well  as  the  special  rules  of  conduct  in  regard 
to  limited  classes  of  actions  —  the  next  step  in  the  series 
is  the  action  demanded  to  put  its  rules  in  actual  force  — 
to  apply  them  -^  the  third  is,  to  determine  the  application  of 
the  rule  when  supposed  to  be  violated,  and  the  agreement 
of  the  special  rule  with  the  general  principle.  That  is  to  say, 
government  is  divided  into  the  Legislative,  or  law  making 
power;  the  Executive,  or  law  enforcing  power;  and  the  Judi^ 
cial,  or  law  discriminating,  or  judging,  power. 

2.  In  some  governments  all  these  are  in  the  same  hands,  and 
this  produces  a  Despotism.  In  others  they  are  variously  divided 
or  mixed.  In  our  country  the  separation  between  them  is 
made  as  distinct  as  possible.  The  People  are  regarded  as  the 
source  or  fountain  of  Power.  The  Constitution  represents,  in 
its  general  Principles  or  Rules,  the  Will  and  purposes  of  the 
People;  and  outside  of  the  principles  or  regulations  of  this 
instrument  no  legislation  is  valid.  The  Constitution,  ema- 
nating from  the  people,  defines  the  boundary  of  all  the 
Departments,  Congress  is  the  law-making  power,  enacting 
within  the  prescribed  limits.  The  Judiciary  takes  care  that 
these  limits  are  not  overstepped  by  legislative  enactments,  or 

(400) 


CONGEESS.  40r. 

executive  action.     The  executive  power,  or  the  President,  is 
tlie  concentrated  force,  the  vigorous  Ann,  of  the  government. 
It  is  Congress,  the  Legislative  Authority,  that  we  have  now 
to  consider. 

3.  The  National  Congress  is  a  body  of  men  representing,-.. 
and  acting  in  the  place  of,  tlie  people.     They  are  elected  by  the 
people  to  enact  laws  for  the  public  good — to  do  all — and  no- 
more  nor  less — than  the  people  would  do,  if  it  were  possible 
for  them  to  assemble  in  one  great  body  and  make  the  laws  by 
which  they  wish  to  be  governed. 

It  was  constituted  as  wisely,  to  guard  against  the  errors  to- 
which  humanity  is  liable,  as  the  experience  of  the  past  per- 
mitted to  the  thoughtful    and    patriotic  statesmen  who  had! 
charge  of  the  organization  of  the  government,  when  the  sue-  - 
cessful  termination  of  the  War  of  Independence  left  the  inter-  - 
ests  of  a  new  Nation  in  their  hands.     England,  from  which  i 
they  had  mostly  sprung,  and  which  governed  them  until  that 
period,  was  in  possession  of  the  freest  and  most  enlightened 
government  of  those  times,  in  the  Old  World;  and  they  copied 
/rom  her  institutions  and  general  structure  what  they  judged 
adapted   to   our   circumstances;    prudently  avoiding   untried^ 
experiments,  as  far  as  possible. 

4.  Congress,  like  the  English  Parliament,  consists  of  two* 
Houses,  one,  the  House  of  Representatives,  (answering  to  the- 
English  House  of  Commons)  being  directly  elected,  for  a  short" 
term,  by  the  people,  so  as  to  express  their  views  and  interests- 
as  clearly  as  possible;  the  other,  the  Senate,  (answering  par- 
tially to  the  English  House  of  Lords)  appointed  by  the  State - 
Legislatures  for  a  longer  term,  and  from  among  statesmen  of 
acknowledged  ability  and  mature  character  and  experience. . 
This  was  expected  to  supply  the  necessary  check  to  hasty  audi 
ill  considered  action,  as  they  were  required  to  mutually  agree  • 
on  all  laws  enacted. 

5.  Both  are  required  to  assemble,  at  the  same  time,  in  the- 
Capitol  at  Washington,  on  the  iirst  Monday  in  December  of 

h  year.     This  is  the  regular  session — extra  sessions  being 
26 


402  OONQEESS. 

occasionally  called  by  the  President  when  unusual  circumstan- 
ces demand  it. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  elected 
for  two  years,  the  members  of  the  Senate  for  six.  As  the  first 
contains  by  far  the  largest  number,  a  Congress  is  said  to  exist 
for  two  years,  and  the  20tli  Congress  would  be  the  one  existing 
during  the  40th  and  41st  years  of  the  Eepublic,  dating  from 
the  first  Congress  in  1789. 

THE    SENATE 

6.  Is  composed  of  two  persons,  chosen  by  the  legistature 
of  each  State,  to  represent  it  as  a  whole.  It  makes  no  differ- 
ence whether  the  State  be  large  or  small,  whether  population 
counts  by  the  million  or  the  thousand.  The  States  are  sov- 
ereign in  their  sphere,  and  this  constitution  of  the  Senate 
keeps  that  fact  in  view,  operates  against  undue  centralization 
of  power,  and  oppression  of  the  smaller  States  by  the  larger. 

7.  A  Senator  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  must  have  been 
nine  years  a  citizen,  (he  may  have  been  born  in  a  foreign  State, 
and  a  citizen  of  it  previously,)  and  must  be  a  citizen  of  the 
State — (a  voter  in  it)  at  the  time  of  appointment.  He  is 
appointed  for  six  years.  The  Senate  is  arranged  in  three 
classes  so  that  the  terms  of  one-third  of  the  whole  number 
shall  expire  every  two  years.  They  may  be  re-elected  as  often 
as  the  State  legislatures  choose.  In  one  case,  a  Senator  was 
continued  thirty  years  in  the  Senate,  without  intermission.  It 
has  equal  legislative  power  with  the  House  of  Representatives, 
except  that  it  cannot  originate  laws  for  raising  money,  but  it 
must  approve  and  adopt  all  laws  made  by  the  House  to  render 
them  valid.  It  has  some  powers  that  do  not  belong  to  the 
House.  It  confirms  or  rejects  the  nominations  of  the  Presi- 
dent, to  ofiice,  and  the  treaties  he  makes  with  foreign  powers, 
and  is  the  only  High  Court  of  Impeachment. 

8.  When  the  Senate  meets  to  consider  the  nominations  of 
the  President  to  ofiice,  it  is  called  an  Executive  Session,  and 
only  a  majority  of  votes  is  required  to  approve  or  confirm 
them;  but  when  a  treaty  is  to  be  ratified,  or  judgment  given 


CONGRESS.  403 

in  a  case  of  impeachment,  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present  is  required, 

Tlie  Yice-President  of  the  United  States  is  the  presiding 
officer  of  the  Senate;  but  in  case  of  a  vacancy  in  that  office, 
when  lie  is  acting  as  President,  or  if  he  be  absent,  it  chooses 
A  president  from  its  own  members. 

THE   HOUSE   OF   REPRESENTATIVES 

9.  Is  composed  of  persons  elected  by  the  people  in  the 
various  States,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants.  A 
Representative  is  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  He  must 
he  twenty-five  years  of  age,  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  seven  years,  and  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  State 
he  represents.  This  is  often  called  the  "  Lower  House,"  or 
popular  branch  of  the  National  Legislature,  as  the  Senate  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  Upper  House,"  because  it  is  more  select, 
and  greater  in  dignity. 

10.  The  House  of  Representatives  has  the  sole  power  of 
presenting  articles  of  Impeachment,  and  it  alone  can  originate 
law^s  for  raising  revenue.  A  larger  part  of  the  laws  are  actually 
originated  in  it,  because  it  is  more  numerous,  its  members  bet- 
ter known  to  the  people  whom  they  immediately  represent,  and 
the  people  are  better  acquainted  watli  them;  and  more  peti- 
tions for  particular  laws  are  sent  to  them.  Each  represent- 
ative is  voted  for  by  the  people  of  his  Congressional  District 
alone,  and  not  by  all  the  people  of  each  State;  and  he  specially 
represents  the  views  and  wants  of  his  District. 

In  each  branch  of  Congress,  when  a  Bill,  or  plan  of  a  law, 
has  been  passed,  it  is  sent  to  the  other  House,  where  it  is 
referred  to  a  Committee  who  examine  it,  and  report  on  it  to  the 
House;  by  which  it  is  discussed  and  adopted,  amended,  or 
rejected  according  to  its  judgment,  and  returned  to  the  House 
in  which  it  originated.  By  this  method  every  law  is  meant  to 
be  subjected  to  a  careful  and  cool  investigation,  its  defects  dis- 
covered and  corrected,  and  its  appropriateness  clearly  made 
manifest.  Whoever  will  examine,  with  care  and  thoroughness 
the  whole  structure  of  our  government  will  everywhere  dis- 


404  CONGRESS. 

cover  traces  of  the  same  wisdom  and  watchful  foresight.  He 
will  see  reason  for  more  admiration  of  the  prudent  statesman- 
ship of  those  who  organized  our  institutions,  and  feel  less  sur- 
prised at  the  wonderful  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  at  the 
strength  of  the  government  when  subjected  to  the  severest 
trial.  Everything  human  is  more  or  less  imperfect,  and  we 
shall  never  be  without  subjects  of  complaint,  and  opportuni- 
ties for  improvement;  but  every  American,  well  informed  con- 
cerning his  own  and  foreign  governments,  will  discover  many 
weighty  reasons  for  self-congratulation  and  pride  that  our  first 
statesmen  and  people  were  so  wise  and  prudent  in  laying  the 
foundation,  and  that  their  successors  have  built  on  it  with  so- 
much  skill. 

11.  Tlie  presiding  officer  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
is  called  "  The  Speaker,"  and  is  chosen  by  the  House,  at  the 
the  beginning  of  each  Congress.  He  serves  during  its  two 
years  of  existence.  The  Clerk  of  the  House  and  its  minor 
officers  are  chosen  by  its  members — and  each  House  makes 
its  own  rules,  or  Parliamentary  Laws.  The  term  Congress- 
properly  covers  both  branches  of  the  National  Legislature; 
but,  by  custom,  the  members  of  the  upper  house  are  called 
Senators,  and  those  of  the  lower  Members  of  Congress,  (com- 
monly abbreviated  to  M.  C.) 

12.  The  Compensation  of  Members  of  Congress  was  origi- 
nally fixed  at  eight  dollars  a  day,  but  has,  of  late  years,  been 
several  times  changed.  In  1856  it  was  made  $3,000  per  ses- 
sion, or  $6,000  for  a  Congress  of  two  years.  In  1866  it  was. 
increased  to  $5,000  per  session,  and,  in  1873  to  $7,500  per 
session,  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  and  the  President  of  the 
Senate,  by  this  last  law,  receiving  $10,000  per  year;  but  it 
produced  so  much  dissatisfaction  among  the  people  that 
the  law  was  changed  at  the  following  session,  and  they .  now 
receive  $5,000  per  annum. 

13.  The  members  of  each  house  receive  the  same  compen- 
sation. Mileage  is  allowed  them  in  addition  to  the  salary. 
This  has  been  forty  cents  per  mile,  by  the  usual  routes  betweerv 


CONGRESSIONAL   DISTRICTS.  405 

the   memhers    residence  and   Washington.     In   1865    it  was 

reduced   to   twenty  cents   per   mile,  which  still  seems   more 

adapted  to  the  days  of  stages  and  slow  traveling  than  to  the 

modern   improvements  in  rapidity  and  cheapness.     They  for- 

^merly  enjoyed  the  franking  privilege,  so   called,  i.  e.:  they 

•could  send  letters  and  documents  through  the  mails  free.    This 

was  abolished  in  1873,  but  revived  in  1878  as  to  written  and 

printed  matter  not  exceeding  two  ounces  weight. 

14,  The  first  Congress  under  the  Constitution  met  in  New 
York  City,  where  two  sessions  were  held,  when  it  was  removed 
to  Philadelphia.  It  remained  there  until  1800,  when  Wash- 
ington became  the  capital.  The  Capitol  there,  in  which  Con- 
gress meets,  is  one  of  the  largest  buildings  in  the  world; 
and  the  offices  for  the  different  executive  Departments  are 
immense  structures.  In  1877  there  were  38  States  and  there- 
fore 76  Senators.  The  number  of  Representatives  was  fixed 
by  a  law  of  March,  1873,  at  292,  which  was  increased  by  one 
on  the  admission  of  Colorado. 


CHAPTER    XLYII. 

OONGRESSIOIS^AL   DISTRICTS— CONGRESSMEN. 

1.  Each  State  is  entitled  to  a  number  «of  Representatives  in 
Oongress  proportioned  to  its  inhabitants;  but,  instead  of  count- 
ing the  whole  number  together,  and  leaving  all  the  people  in  the 
State  to  vote  for  all  the  representatives  of  their  State,  it  is  divided 
into  districts,  each  containing  the  prescribed  number  entitled 
to  representation.  The  voters,  then,  in  each  district,  select  or 
nominate  the  men  they  wish  to  vote  for — and  thus  they  find  it 
■easy  to  send  men  they  know  and  on  whom  they  can  rely  to 
4secure  their  interests.  Besides,  it  is  more  convenient  for  them 
to  meet  and  ascertain  by  consultation  who  would  be  most 
acceptable  to  the  majority  of  those  interested.  Each  Member 
of  Congress,  therefore,  is  chosen  by  a  single  district.  The  dis- 
tricting of  States  is  done  by  their  State  Legislatures. 


406  CONGRESSMEN. 

2.  Sometimes  a  State  is  admitted  into  the  Union  before  it 
has  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  law  requires  to  one  Congress- 
man, in  which  case  the  law  is  relaxed,  and  they  are  permitted 
at  least  one  Representative.  Contiguous  counties  or  towns- 
are  set  apart  in  this  way  and  numbered  as  1st,  2nd,  3rd,  &c.. 
Congressional  District.  In  large  cities  as  many  wards,  lying- 
together,  as  include  the  requsite  number,  are  erected  into  Dis- 
tricts. In  case  the  number  of  Congressmen  allotted  to  a  State 
is  larger  than  the  number  of  districts,  those  in  excess  are  voted 
for  by  the  State  at  large.  They  are  arranged  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble after  every  census,  so  that  this  does  not  often  occur.  In 
the  Western  States  the  number  continually  increases  and 
changes  must  be  made  after  each  census.  By  this  means  the 
balance  of  power  gradually  follows  the  emigration  from  East 
to  West. 

CONGEE^MEN. 

3.  We  have  already  remarked,  in  the  chapter  on  Congress 
that,  though  the  term  Congressman  properly  applies  to  the 
members  of  both  Houses,  it  is  by  common  usage,  confined  to 
members  of  the  lower  House,  those  of  the  upper  House  being 
distinguished  as  Senators,  so  that  the  abbreviation  M.  C.  (Mem- 
ber of  Congress)  is  understood  to  specify  a  Eepresentative. 

4.  These  are  the  only  members  of  any  branch  of  the  govern- 
ment who  are  chosen  and  elected  directly  by  the  people,  and 
we  may  see  herein  the  propriety  of  their  having  the  control  of  all 
enactments  for  raising  money,  this  being  a  point  of  vital  inter- 
est to  the  people.  The  short  term  assigned  them,  (two  years,) 
and  their  election  by  Districts,  enables  the  people  to  interfere 
very  soon  if  their  purse  strings  are  drawn  too  widely  open — a. 
very  satisfactory  reflection  to  the  economical.  Any  citizen, 
whether  native  or  foreign  born,  may  become  a  Member  of  Con- 
gress, if  he  can  obtain  the  consent  of  the  voters  in  his  district; 
but  he  must  have  been  a  citizen  during  the  previous  seven 
years.  It  is  an  ofiice  of  dignity  and  responsibility,  and  the 
welfare  of  the  country  depends  on  the  wisdom  of  the  people 
in  their  choice. 


CHAPTER    XLYIII. 
CONGRESSIONAL    LIBRARY. 

1.  In  the  capitol  there  is  a  large  library,  consisting  of  two 
parts;  one  part  called  the  Congressional  library,  the  other,  the 
law  library.  The  latter  is  made  a  part  of  the  former  by  an 
act  of  Congress.  Both  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  and  rules, 
and  both  are  supported  by  appropriations  made  by  Congress. 

This  institution,  called  as  a  whole,  "  The  Congressional 
Library,"  contains  the  works  supposed  to  be  useful  to  legisla- 
tors, but  is  not  confined  to  their  use  alone.  Its  use  has  been 
extended  to  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court;  to  all  the  heads 
of  departments;  to  the  Attorney  General;  to  all  the  members 
of  the  diplomatic  corps,  (foreign  ministers);  to  the  secretary 
of  the  Senate;  to  the  clerk  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  to 
the  chaplains  of  Congress,  to  all  ex-Presidents,  and  to  the 
solicitor  of  the  Treasury. 

2.  It  has  a  librarian,  appointed  by  the  President  and  Sen- 
ate, who  is  allowed  to  appoint  two  assistants.  No  book  or 
map  is  allowed  to  be  taken  out  of  the  library  by  any  person, 
except  the  President,  Yice-President,  members  of  the  Senate 
and  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

People  in  general,  who  are  interested  to  do  so,  may  obtain 
information  from  the  bojoks  and  records  when  properly  author- 
ized, under  such  restrictions  as  the  circumstances  require. 

3.  Here  are  kept  all  the  laws  which  have  ever  been  enacted 
by  Congress,  together  with  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings,  the 
laws  of  all  the  different  States,  with  many  of  those  of  foreign 
countries;  also  a  large  collection  of  books  on  promiscuous  sub- 
jects, useful  to  Members  of  Congress  and  to  those  who  have 
to  administer  the  government.  No  where  else  can  so  com- 
plete a  history  of  the  acts  and  proceedings  of  the  government 
be  found,  as  in  the  Congressional  library  at  Washington. 

(407) 


408  •  C0PTKIGHT8. 

This  institution  dates  back  to  the  year  1800,  when  an  act 
■was  passed  making  the  first  appropriation  of  $5,000  for  its 
•establishment.  The  books  purchased  with  this  $5,000,  witli 
those  belonging  to  both  Houses,  were  placed  together,  and 
ihus  this  library  was  commenced. 


CHAPTEE    XLIX. 
COPYKIGHTS. 

A  Copyright  is  an  exclusive  privilege  given  to  any  citizen, 
or  resident  in  the  United  States  to  print,  publish,  or  sell  any 
t)ook,  map,  chart,  engraving,  or  musical  composition  of  which 
lie  or  she  is  the  author  or  proprietor.  This  right  is  given  by 
the  laws  of  Congress.  Ko  State  can  give  it.  The  object  is  to 
•encourage  authors,  and  to  compensate  them  for  their  labors, 
-which  they  could  not  be  sure  of  obtaining  if  any  one  might 
publish  and  sell  their  productions.  A  copyright  conveys  all 
the  rights  of  ownership,  and  may  be  bought  and  sold  like  other 
3)roperty. 

X)lEECnONS   FOR    SECURING  CoPYRIGHl-S  UNDER  THE   E.EVISED  AcT 

OF  Congress,  which  took  EFFEar  July  8,  1870. 

1.  A  printed  copy  of  the  title  of  the  book,  map,  chart, 
^dramatic  or  musical  composition,  engraving,  cut,  print,  pho- 
tograph, or  a  description  of  the  painting,  drawing,  chromo, 
^statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the  fine 
.arts,  for  which  copyright  is  desired,  must  be  sent  by  mail, 
prepaid,  addressed,  "Librarian  of  Congress,  "Washington, 
D.  C."  This  must  be  done  before  publication  of  the  book  or 
other  article. 

2.  A  fee  of  50  cents,  for  recording  the  title  of  each  book  or 
other  article,  must  be  inclosed  with  the  title  as  above,  and  50 
.cents  in  addition  (or  $1  in  all)  for  each  certificate  of  copyright 


COPYRIGHTS.  409 

under  the  seal  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  which  will  be 
transmitted  by  return  mail. 

3.  Within  ten  days  after  publication  of  each  book  or  other 
article,  two  complete  copies  of  the  best  edition  issued  must 
be  sent,  to  perfect  the  copyright,  with  the  address 

Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 
It  is  optional  with  those  sending  books  and  other  articles  to 
perfect  copyright,  to  send  them  by  mail  or  express  ;  but,  in 
either  case,  the  charges  are  to  be  prepaid  by  the  senders. 
Without  the  deposit  of  copies  above  required,  the  copyright  is 
void,  and  a  penalty  of  $25  is  incurred.  No  copy  is  required 
tc  be  deposited  elsewhere. 

4.  No  copyright  hereafter  issued  is  valid  unless  notice  is 
gi»'en  by  inserting  in  every  copy  published,  on  the  title  page 
or  the  page  following,  if  it  be  a  book;  or,  if  a  map,  chart, 
musical  composition,  print,  cut,  engraving,  photograph,  paint- 
ing, drawing,  chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design 
int*»nded  to  be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscrib- 
ing upon  some  portion  of  the  face  or  front  thereof,  or  on  the 
face  of  the  substance  on  which  the  same  is  mounted,  the  fol- 
lowing words,  viz.  :     Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress^ 

in  the  year ,  hy ,  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian 

of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

The  law  imposes  a  penalty  of  $100  upon  any  person  who  has 
not  obtained  copyright  who  shall  insert  the  notice  '•'■Entered 
according  to  act  of  Congress^''  etc.,  or  words  of  the  same 
import,  in  or  upon  any  book  or  other  article. 

5.  Any  author  may  reserve  the  right  to  translate  or  dram- 
atize his  own  work.  In  this  case  notice  should  be  given  by 
printing  the  words.  Right  of  translation  reserved,  or.  All 
rights  reserved,  below  the  notice  of  copyright  entry,  and  noti- 
fying the  Librarian  of  Congress  of  such  reservation,  to  be 
entered  upon  the  records 

6.  Each  copyright  secures  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing 
the  book  or  article  copyrighted  for  a  term  of  twenty-eight 
years.     At  the  end  of  that  time,  the  author  or  designer,  or  his 


410  COPYRIGHTS. 

widow  or  children,  may  secure  a  renewal  for  the  further  term 
of  fourteen  years,  making  forty- two  years  in  all.  Applications 
for  renewal  must  be  accompanied  by  explicit  statement  of  own- 
ership in  the  case  of  the  author,  or  of  relationship  in  the  case 
of  his  heirs,  and  must  state  definitely  the  date  and  place  of 
entry  of  the  original  copyright. 

7.  The  time  within  which  any  work  copyrighted  may  be 
issued  from  the  press  is  not  limited  by  any  law  or  regulation, 
but  depends  upon  the  discretion  of  the  proprietor.  A  copy- 
right may  be  secured  for  a  projected  work  as  well  as  for  a  com- 
pleted one. 

8.  Any  copyright  is  assignable  in  law  by  any  instrument 
of  writing,  but  such  assignment  must  be  recorded  in  the  office 
of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  within  sixty  days  from  its  date. 
The  fee  for  this  record  is  fifteen  cents  lor  every  100  words,  and 
ten  cents  for  every  100  words  for  a  copy  of  the  record  of  assign- 
ment. 

9.  A  copy  of  the  record  (or  duplicate  certificate)  of  any 
copyright  entry  will  be  furnished  under  seal,  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  cent  each. 

10.  In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more  than  one  volume,, 
if  issued  or  sold  separately,  or  of  periodicals  published  in 
numbers,  or  of  engravings,  photographs,  or  other  articles  pub- 
lished with  variations,  a  copyright  is  to  be  taken  out  for  each 
volume  of  a  book,  or  number  of  a  periodical,  or  variety,  as  to 
size  or  inscription,  of  any  other  article. 

11.  To  secure  a  copyright  for  a  painting,  statue,  or  model 
or  design  intended  to  be  perfected  as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts, 
so  as  to  prevent  infringement  by  copying,  engraving,  or  vend- 
ing such  design,  a  definite  description  must  accompany  the 
application  for  copyright,  and  a  photograph  of  the  same,  at 
least  as  large  as  "cabinet  size,"  must  be  mailed  to  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress  within  ten  days  from  the  completion  of  the 
work. 

12  Every  applicant  for  a  copyright  must  state  distinctly 
the  name  and  residence  of  the  claimant,  and  whether  the  right 


PRESroiNG   OFFICERS   OF   CONGRESS.  411 

is  claimed  as  author,  designer,  or  proprietor.     No  affidavit  or 
formal  application  is  required. 

Up  to  1849  the  Secretary  of  State  had  the  care  of  issuing- 
copyrights.  It  was  then  assigned  to  the  newly  created  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  and  so  remained  until  1870,  when  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress. 


CHAPTER    L 
PRESIDING    OFFICERS    OF    CONGRESS. 

1.  These  are  the  President  of  the  Senate  and  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  latter  is  chosen  by 
ballot  of  the  Members  of  the  House.  As  this  position  gives 
him  considerable  influence  over  the  course  of  legislation  the 
party  having  a  majority  in  the  House  are  careful  to  select  one 
on  whose  sympathy  with  their  views  and  aims  they  can  rely. 
When  there  is  nearly  or  quite  a  balance  of  parties,  it  becomes 
an  important  and  difficult  matter  to  adjust;  and  has,  in  some 
instances,  required  a  long  struggle  to  elect  the  Speaker.  The 
result,  in  such  a  case,  usually  determines  which  shall  control 
the  general  legislation  of  that  Congress. 

2.  The  President  of  the  Senate,  under  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces, is  determined  by  the  Constitution,  that  instrument  devolv- 
ing the  office  on  the  Vice-President.  It  is  the  only  active  duty 
assigned  him  while  the  President  is  in  condition  to  perform 
the  duties  belonging  to  that  office.  It  seems  to  beflt  his  rela- 
tions, being  the  highest  honorary  place  in  the  government 
below  that  of  President,  subjects  him  to  no  superior,  and,  from 
the  part  the  Senate  takes  in  the  responsibilities  of  the  Presi- 
dent, makes  him  acquainted  with  the  general  conduct  of 
aflfairs;  which  may  be  an  important  advantage  to  him  should 
he  be  called  to  act  as  President.  In  the  latter  case,  and  in  case 
of  the  decease,  resignation,  or  disability  of  the  Yice-Pre8ideiit> 


412  PRESIDING   OFFICERS   OF   CONGRESS. 

the  Senate  proceeds  to  elect  its  President  in  the  same  way  as 
in  tJie  House  of  Representatives,  i.  e.:  by  ballot,  for  a  candi- 
date among  its  own  members. 

3.  Their  duties  are  to  open  every  sitting  of  their  respective 
Houses  by  calling  the  members  to  order  at  the  appointed  time, 
on  the  appearance  of  a  quorum  to  cause  the  journal  of  the 
preceding  day  to  be  read,  to  preserve  order  and  decorum  during 
the  deliberations,  to  decide  questions  of  order  that  may  arise, 
(from  which  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  House,  at  the 
instance  of  any  two  members,)  to  formally  state,  and  call  for 
the  votes  on,  a  question  to  be  decided,  and  to  declare  the  result 
of  the  same  after  the  vote  has  been  taken. 

This  is  the  regular  routine  duty  of  a  presiding  officer.  They, 
as  the  recognized  Heads  of  their  respective  Houses,  have  the 
general  oversight  of  its  interests,  and  a  general  control  of  the 
conduct  of  its  business.  They  examine  the  Journal  to  see 
that  it  is  correct,  may  order  the  galleries  and  lobby  to  be  cleared 
in  case  ot  any  disturbance  by  spectators,  and  have  general 
•control  over  the  unoccupied  rooms  in  the  capitol  belonging  to 
their  respective  Houses.  They  are  required  to  sign  all  acts, 
addresses,  and  joint  resolutions,  and  appoint  the  members  of 
all  committees  whose  appointment  is  not  specially  directed  by 
the  House  to  be  otherwise  made.  In  all  cases  of  ballot  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  must  vote;  but  he  is  not  required  to 
vote  in  other  cases  unless  there  is  a  tie,  (an  equal  number  for 
and  against,)  when  he  must  give  the  casting  vote.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  may  vote  only  in  case  of  a  tie. 

When  the  House  of  Representatives  goes  into  Committee  of 
the  Wliole,  the  Speaker  leaves  the  chair,  but  appoints  a  chair- 
man to  preside  for  the  time  being;  and  when  the  President  of 
the  United  States  is  impeached  before  the  Senate  the  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  presides. 

4.  Tlieir  duties  are  very  distinctly  defined  in  the  rules 
adopted  by  each  House  for  their  guidance,  but  many  opportu- 
nities for  exerting  great  influence  often  arise,  and  many  cases 
requiring  great  tact  and  judgment  and  an  intimate  knowledge 


PRESIDING   OFFICERS   OF   CONGRESS. 


413 


of  Parliamentary  Law.     They  receive  a  much  larger  salary 
than  ordinary  Members  of  Congress. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  all  the  Speakers  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  A  list  of  Vice-Presidents  is  given 
in  the  chapter  devoted  to  that  officer. 

Frederick  A.  Muhlenburgh,  Penn.,       1789  to  1791 


Jonathan  Truinbull,  Conn., 

1791  ' 

'  1793 

Frederick  A.  Muhlenburgh,  Penn., 

1793  ' 

'  1797 

Jonathan  Dayton,  N'.  J., 

1797  ' 

'  1798 

Theodore  Sedgwick,  Mass., 

1798  ' 

'  1801 

Nathaniel  Macon,  N.  C, 

1801  ' 

'  180T 

Joseph  B.  Yarnum,  Mass. 

1807  ' 

'  1811 

Henry  Clay,  Ky,, 

1811  ' 

'    1814r 

Langdon  Cheeves,  S.  C, 

1814  ' 

'  1815 

Henry  Clay,  Ky., 

1815  ' 

'  1820 

John  W.  Taylor,  N.  Y., 

1820  ' 

'  182] 

Philip  P.  Barbour,  Ya., 

1821  ' 

'  1823 

Henry  Clay,  Ky., 

1823  ' 

'  1825 

John  W.  Taylor,  N.  Y., 

1825  ' 

'  1827 

Andrew  Stevenson,  Ya., 

1827  ' 

'  1835 

John  Bell,  Tenn., 

1835  ' 

'  1837 

James  K.  Polk,  Tenn., 

1837  ' 

'  1839 

Robert  M.  T.  Hunter,  Ya., 

1839  ' 

'  1841 

John  White,  Ky., 

1841  ' 

'  1843 

John  W.  Jones,  Ya., 

1843  ' 

'  1845 

John  "W.  Davis,  Ind., 

1845  ' 

'  1847 

Eobert  C.  Winthrop,  Mass., 

1847  ' 

'  1849 

Howell  Cobb,  Ga., 

1849  ' 

'  1851 

Lynn  Boyd,  Ky., 

1851  ' 

'  1856 

Nathaniel  P.  Banks,  Mass., 

1856  ' 

'  1858 

James  L.  Orr,  S.  C, 

1858  ' 

'  1859 

"William  Pennington,  N.  J., 

1860  ' 

'   1861 

Galusha  A.  Grow,  Penn., 

1861  ' 

'  1863 

Schuyler  Colfax,  Ind., 

1864  ' 

'  1869 

James  G.  Blaine,  Me., 

1869  « 

1875 

Michael  C.  Kerr,  Ind., 

1876 

S.  J.  Randall,  Penn., 

1876 

CHAPTEE     LI. 
SUBOKDINATE   OFFICERS   OF   CONGRESS. 

1.  The  Secretary  of  the  Senate  and  Clerk  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  are  the  officers  next  in  rank  in  the  two  bodies 
forming  Congress,  They  are  appointed  by  vote  of  their 
respective  Houses.  They  are  not  necessarily  selected  from 
among  the  members  of  the  Senate  or  House,  as  is  the  custom 
in  case  of  the  presiding  officers,  but  may  be  chosen  by  the 
members  at  will. 

2.  Their  chief  duties  are  in  connection  with  a  record  or 
journal  of  the  proceedings  of  their  respective  Houses.  This 
as  an  official  and  correct  account  of  all  the  transactions  of  each 
body,  is  examined  by  the  presiding  officer,  and  read  before  the 
members  for  criticism  and  approval.  They  cause  this  journal 
to  be  printed  and  a  copy  be  delivered  to  each  member  at  the 
commencement  of  every  session  of  Congress,  as  also  to  the 
Executive  and  to  each  branch  of  the  Legislature  of  every  State. 
So  also  they  arrange,  cause  to  be  printed,  and  distribute  to  the 
members  all  the  current  documents  of  each  House  that  may  be 
useful  to  them  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  as  often  as  the 
case  requires.  All  contracts  for  furnishing  anything  required 
by  Congress,  or  for  any  labor  done  for  it,  are  made  with, 
or  approved  by,  the  Clerk  of  the  House  and  Secretary  of  the 
Senate 

3.  They  act  also  as  treasurers  of  the  special,  or  contingent 
funds  of  Congress,  from  which  payments  are  made  on  their 
order,  after  the  accounts,  on  which  the  order  is  based,  are 
approved  by  the  Committee  of  Accounts;  and  give  bonds  in  a 
large  sum  for  the  faithful  use  of  these  funds,  making  a  detailed 
report  of  all  expenditures. 

THE   SERGEANT-AT-AEMS 

4.  Is  a  kind  of  police  and  executive  officer,  who  aids  or  acts 
under  the  direction  of  the  presiding  officer  in  keeping  order^ 
and  executes  the  commands  of  Congress.     All  arrests  ordered 

(414) 


CX)NGJIESS   AT   WOEK.  415 

by  Congress  are  made  by  him  or  his  deputies,  and  all  legal 
processes  served  by  him.  He  bears  a  mace  as  the  symbol  of 
his  office  when  on  dnty.  He  keeps  the  accounts  of  the  pay  and 
mileage  of  the  members  of  Congress,  prepares  checks,  and 
draws  and  pays  the  money  to  them. 

5.  The  other  officers  are  a  Doorkeeper — whose  business  it 
is  to  see  that  only  the  proper  persons  gain  admission  to  the 
sessions  of  Congress,  and  watches  over,  and  is  responsible  for, 
the  furniture  contained  in  the  rooms  of  the  capitol  placed  in 
his  charge — and  a  postmaster,  whose  business  it  is  to  superin- 
tend a  postoffice  kept  in  the  capitol  for  the  accommodation  of 
members  of  Congress,  Various  clerks,  deputies,  and  messen- 
gers are  employed  under  most  of  these  officers,  to  aid  them  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties. 


CHAPTEE    LII. 
CONGRESS  AT  WORK. 

1.  Congress  is  required  by  the  Constitution  to  assemble  on 
the  first  Monday  in  December  of  each  year.  It  may,  by  a  law 
duly  made  to  that  effect,  change  that  time,  but  no  permanent 
change  has  ever  been  made.  As  soon  after  that  time  as  a  quo- 
rum of  its  members,  which  the  Constitution  declares  shall  be 
l  majority  of  each  House,  has  assembled  each  House  proceeds 
<fO  the  election  of  officers  (which,  however,  is  done  only  every 
other  year,)  and  the  arrangement  of  its  committees,  and  it  is 
ready  for  work. 

2.  As  soon  as  the  organization  is  ascertained  to  be  complete 
ihe  other  House  of  Congress  and  the  President  are  informed  of 
the  fact,  after  wliich  propositions,  or  bills  as  they  are  called, 
of  new  laws,  or  repeals  or  revisals  of  old  ones  are  entertained. 
•Of  these  there  is  never  any  lack.  They  are  taken  up  in  regu- 
lar order,  referred  to  an  appropriate  committee  for  examination, 
A  report  is  in  due  time  made  by  the  committee,  discussed 
At  such  length  as  the  members  see  cause  for,  in  a  regular  man- 


416  CONGRESS   AT   WORK. 

ner,  and  finally  are  voted  on.  Sometimes,  if  the  members  are 
not  satisfied  with  the  information  presented  on  some  point  or 
points,  they  return  them  to  the  committee  with  instructions  to 
investigate  further,  and  make  another  report;  sometimes  they 
"lay  them  on  the  table,"  that  is,  put  them  aside  for  future 
action;  or  they  accept,  amend,  or  change  them  to  meet  their 
views,  and  then  accept  or  reject  them  altogether. 

3.  When  a  bill  has  reached  a  vote  and  been  accepted  by  the 
House  in  which  it  originated,  it  is  sent  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  is  taken  up,  referred  to  a  committee,  usually  passing 
through  substantially  the  same  course  and  form  of  considera- 
tion as  in  the  first  case,  laid  aside,  amended,  accepted  or 
rejected  according  to  circumstances,  and  returned  to  the  former 
House.  If  it  is  accepted  by  both  they  then  send  it  to  the 
President,  who  carefully  considers  it.  If  it  meets  his  appro- 
bation, he  signs  and  returns  it  to  Congress,  and  it  becomes  the 
Law  of  the  Land,  and  all  to  whom  it  refers  are  bound  to  obey 
it,  it  being  the  duty  of  the  President  to  see  that  it  is  enforced. 
It  is  called  an  "  Act  of  Congress,"  because  it  is  the  proper 
exercise  of  its  law  making  authority,  and  because  all  sucli  laws 
are  preceded  by  the  clause,  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
Congress  assembled." 

4.  If  the  President  does  not  think  it  a  suitable  law,  and  is 
unwilling  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  signing  it,  he  returns 
it  to  Congress,  with  his  reasons  for  not  doing  so.  If  Congress, 
is  not  satisfied  with  these  reasons  it  may  take  another  vote  on 
it,  and  if  the  members  in  its  favor  amount  to  two-tlirds  of 
each  House,  it  becomes  a  law  without  the  signature  of  the 
President.  This  power  of  the  President  to  decline  to  sign  a 
law  of  Congress  is  called  his  "  Yeto."  Sometimes  it  is  carried 
over  the  veto,  and  sometimes  it  fails  for  lack  of  the  requisite 
number  in  its  favor.  , 

5.  The  larger  part  of  Congressional  laws  are  passed  in  thi& 
way,  which  is  the  regular  Parliamentary  form ;  but  sometimes 
its  authority  is  expressed  by  a  Resolution  instead  of  a  bill. 


CONGEESS  AT  WOKE.  .417 

This  is  a  kind  of  informal  way  of  passing  a  law,  though  it 
usually  takes  that  form  because  of  the  peculiar  character  of 
the  subject  of  the  JResolution;  as  an  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution would  be  commenced  by  a  resolution  passed  by  both 
Houses;  but,  as  Congress  has  not  the  sole  power  over  that 
question,  it  requiring  the  concurrence  of  three  fourths  of  the 
States,  it  is  put  in  that  form.  When  some  demand  is  to  be 
made  by  Congress  on  the  President,  or  on  various  officers  of 
the  government,  and  in  a  variety  of  other  cases,  a  resolution 
has  the  force  of  law,  disobedience  to  which  would  involve  a 
penalty.  Many  resolutions  merely  express  the  views  of  Con- 
gress, and  are  of  force  and  value  only  on  account  of  the  respecta- 
bility and  dignity  of  the  body  expressing  them.  Some  resolu- 
tions require  to  be  passed  in  both  Houses  to  acquire  legal 
force,  and  are  then  called  Concurrent  Resolutions. 

A  bill  must  pass  through  the  regular  forms  of  printing, 
reference  to  a  committee,  report,  placing  in  order  on  the  records, 
and  calling  up  at  a  proper  time  for  consideration  and  decision. 
This  is  very  proper  to  avoid  hasty  action  before  all  the  bearings 
of  the  case  have  been  examined ;  but  would  consume  too  much 
time  if  required  in  every  case.  A  resolution  may  be  debated 
and  decided  at  once,  and  it  facilitates  the  progress  of  business, 
in  the  class  of  cases  to  which  it  is  applicable. 

6.  The  amount  of  business  to  be  done  by  Congress  is 
immense.  Each  branch  of  the  executive  department  makes  a 
yearly  report  to  it,  which  must  be  considered  and  suitable  laws 
passed;  many  hundreds  of  laws  are  commonly  asked  to  be 
passed,  repealed,  or  revised,  by  the  President  or  the  people; 
and  all  the  interests  of  a  great  and  growing  country  looked 
after.  Those  who  are  at  a  distance  cannot  always  judge  accu- 
rately of  the  difficulties  it  meets  with  in  endeavoring  to  give 
satisfaction  to  all,  nor  of  the  diffijrent  appearance  which  ques- 
tions may  present  when  closely  examined  and  looked  at 
on  all  sides,  and  Congress  has  a  great  deal  of  short-sighted 
criticism  to  bear. 

Congressmen  cannot  ai\vay8  tell  what  is  best  more  than  othei 
27 


418  PUBLIC   PRINTING. 

people,  nor  always  find  themselves  able  to  do  what  they  prefer, 
or  judge  to  be  best,  and  the  account  to  which  they  are  held  is 
sometimes  unjust;  yet,  on  the  whole  they  have  always  respected, 
and  sought  to  serve,  the  views  and  interests  of  the  people  as  a 
whole,  and  deserve  much  praise.  The  country  has  become 
prosperous  and  free  under  their  legislation,  and  what  the  major- 
ity of  the  people  clearly  call  for  is  always  done  for  them, 

7.  The  more  carefully  the  people  whom  they  represent 
watch  them  at  work,  and  study  the  subjects  they  are  required 
to  legislate  on,  the  less  reason  will  they  find  for  denunciation 
of  them,  and  the  more  intelligently  will  they  be  able  to  lay 
out  their  work  for  them.  They  are  the  servants  of  the  people, 
notwithstanding  they  seem  to  command  and  order,  and  are 
liable  to  be  dismissed  and  turned  out  of  place  if  they  do  not 
give  satisfaction.  They  are  men  like  ourselves,  with  interests, 
temptations,  and  weaknesses.  We  should  aid  them  in  their 
work,  and  assist  them  to  walk  uprightly  by  our  intelligence 
and  careful  regard  for  reason  and  right.  Our  representatives 
will  always,  in  character  and  conduct,  present  a  fair  statement 
of  what  we  are  ourselves.  If  we  are  just,  honest,  and  high- 
minded  they  will  not  dare  to  be  otherwise  than  faithful  and 
true,  and  if  we  are  intelligent  we  shall  never  put  ignorant  and 
vile  men  in  office.  So  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  of 
America  will  always  be  a  truly  Eepresentative  Body. 


CHAPTEK     LIII. 

PUBLIC  PKINTING, 

1.  Among  the  Institutions  of  the  government  is  that  head- 
ing this  chapter.  The  amount  of  printing  required  to  be  done 
for  Congress,  the  various  branches  of  the  government,  and  for 
the  benefit  of  the  people,  is  very  great  indeed.  All  the  pro- 
ceedings of  both  Houses  of  Congress  as  recorded  by  the  secre- 
taries are  required  to  be  printed  under  authority;  since  many 
copies  are  required  by  the  members  and  for  general  purposes. 


PUBLIC   PErNTING.  419 

All  the  laws  are  printed  in  great  numbers  for  circulation  among 
the  many  millions  interested  ;  and  when  a  bill  is  proposed  it 
requires  to  be  printed  for  the  use  of  the  several  hundred  mem- 
hers  who  need  it  for  examination  and  study,  although  it  often 
never  becomes  a  law. 

2.  The  President's  Messages,  and  all  the  reports  of  heads 
of  departments  and  bureaus  ;  the  reports  and  commissions  of 
army  and  navy  officers,  of  investigating  committees,  of  various 
superintendents,  agents,  and  government  employees,  and  many 
■othe/  things  are  printed,  sometimes  only  for  use  of  Congress  ; 
sometimes  for  extensive  circulation.  Thus  it  is  easily  seen  that 
the  government  printing  is  a  heavy  expense,  and  a  very  large 
part  is  indispensable  ;  though  many  believe  that  a  judicious 
selection  of  documents  and  a  careful  study  as  to  the  number 
of  some  of  them  printed  might  largely  reduce  the  expense, 
without  injury  to  the  public  welfare.  We  do  not  wish  to  pay 
for  the  printing  of  documents  that  are  never  read.  It  is  a 
waste  of  the  people's  money;  yet,  we  must  not  forget  that  it  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  people  should  become  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  all  the  affairs  of  the  government.  Per- 
haps Congress  is  sometimes  wiser  than  the  people,  and  that 
many  documents  are  wisely  printed,  and  unwisely  left  unread 
by  those  most  interested.  Economy  and  intelligence  are  to  be 
equally  regarded. 

3.  Until  1860,  the  government  hired  men  to  do  this  work, 
and  a  printer  was  employed  by  each  house  of  Congress.  But 
^reat  complaints  were  made  of  the  enormous  expense  to  which 
the  country  was  subjected  in  this  item  of  its  expenditures;  and 
at  the  date  named.  Congress  passed  an  act  establishing  a  gov- 
ernment printing  office,  to  be  under  the  direction  of  a  super- 
intendent of  public  printing.  The  sum  of  $150,000  was  appro- 
priated for  the  purchase  of  necessary  biiildings,  machinery,  and 
materials  for  the  purpose.  By  the  provisions  of  the  act  it  was 
made  the  superintendent's  duty  to  overlook  all  the  public 
printing  and  binding,  not  only  of  Congress,  but  of  all  the 
departments,  and  of  the  United  States  courts  ;  to  purchase  all 


420  SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

necessary  materials  and  to  employ  all  tlie  workmen  required. 
And  that  Congress  may  know  how  the  establishment  is  con- 
ducted and  at  what  expense,  the  superintendent  is  required  to 
report  to  Congress  at  the  commencement  of  every  session,  the 
work  done,  the  number  of  hands  employed,  and  the  exact  state 
and  condition  of  the  establishment.  He  is  prohibited  from 
paying  more  for  work  done  in  this  office  than  is  given  for  the 
same  services  in  private  printing  offices  in  Washington. 

4.  The  superintendent  is  also  charged  with  the  duty  of  pro- 
curing all  blank  books,  maps,  drawings,  diagrams,  views,  and 
charts,  which  may  be  ordered  by  Congress,  or  by  the  heads  of 
departments  and  bureaus.  But  the  superintendent  himself  is 
not  left  to  act  always  as  he  may  think  proper,  for  in  many  cases 
he  must  have  the  approval  of  the  joint  committee  on  printing 
of  both  Houses  of  Congress. 

5.  This  is  a  very  proper  eifort  to  curtail  expenses.  It 
remains  to  be  seen  how  successful  it  may  be.  The  constant 
watchful  oversight  of  the  Sovereign  People  can  alone  succeed 
in  keeping  all  things  in  due  order.  When  the  representatives 
of  the  people  become  careless  and  wasteful  the  admonition  of 
the  people  is  never  without  its  effect. 


CHAPTEK    LIY.- 
THE  SIGNAL  SEEVICE. 

1.  The  present  organization  of  this  institution  dates  fron* 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  and  was  originally  purely  mili. 
tary  in  its  aims  and  purposes.  It  is  still  conducted  by  the 
War  Department,  and  partly  for  its  own  purposes  ;  but  its 
value  to  agricultural  and  commercial  interests  is  constantly 
becoming  more  apparent  and  more  extensive,  and  will  probably, 
in  the  end,  so  overshadow  its  military  relations  as  to  reduce 
them  to  a  very  subordinate  place  in  importance.  The  civil 
uses  of  this  service  are  based  on  the  science  of  meteorology, 
which  is  largely  occupied  with  weather  changes,  tho  origia. 


SIGNAL  SERVICE.  421 

progress,  and  laws  of  Storms.  Its  value  to  the  people  consists 
in  its  accurate  prediction  of  changes  in  the  weather,  and  the 
warning  it  is  able  to  give,  sometimes  many  hours  or  even  days 
in  advance,  of  dangerous  storms.  Its  estimate  of  weather 
probabilities,  based  on  observations  reported  daily  from  promi- 
nent points  covering  the  whole  country,  are  published  in  all 
the  daily  papers,  usually  found  accurate,  and  are  of  great  value 
to  certain  classes  of  the  people.  When  a  storm  threatens  to 
endanger  the  safety  of  shipping  a  signal  is  displayed  in  the 
port  to  give  warning,  and  much  property  and  many  lives  are 
often  saved.  It  makes  an  accurate  and  scientific  study  of  the 
weather  and  all  the  laws  controlling  its  changes,  by  a  large  corps 
of  enlightened  and  trained  observers,  all  whose  facts,  constantly 
reported,  systematized,  and  studied  by  competent  persons,  are 
likely  to  produce,  in  time,  a  most  important  and  useful  body 
of  knowledge  on  that  subject. 

2.  The  objects  of  the  Signal  Service  require  its  officials  to 
be  connected  with  the  United  States  army,  to  have  the  use  of 
the  Electric  Telegraph,  to  be  familiar  with  Meteorology,  and 
skillful  in  the  use  of  the  scientific  instruments  employed  in  the 
study  of  atmospheric  changes.  By  means  of  the  telegraph, 
the  army,  though  scattered  over  the  whole  country,  and  especially 
the  frontiers  and  more  inaccessible  parts,  may  be  almost  instan- 
taneously, and  all  at  the  same  time,  communicated  with.  It 
would  be  possible,  by  telegraphs,  signals,  and  railroads,  to  con- 
centrate the  whole  army  from  the  numerous  points  where  its 
fragments  are  located,  from  Maine  to  Texas,  and  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  at  one  point  in  as  short  a  time  as  it  formerly 
took  a  body  of  soldiers  to  march  a  hundred  miles. 

3.  It  is  a  singularly  striking  instance  of  the  vigor  and 
effectiveness  of  control  supplied  by  science,  invention,  and 
modern  progress,  by  which  our  vast  increase  in  numbers  and 
in  extent  of  territory  are  neutralized,  the  interests,  sentiments, 
and  habits  of  the  people  unified  so  that  sectional  jealousies  and 
contests  are  made  rare  and  slight,  and  the  people  of  remote 
parts  of  the  country  made  practically  better  acquainted  with 


4:22  SIGNAL   SERVICE. 

eacli  other  than  formerly  were  the  inhabitants  of  adjoining 
States. 

4.  Subordination  and  thoroughness  of  system  are  secured 
by  its  connection  with  the  army,  which  probably  also  secures 
its  advantages  to  the  country  at  much  less  cost  than  would  be 
the  case  were  it  an  independent  institution.  The  army  is  am- 
bitious to  be  as  useful  as  possible  to  the  country.  There  is  a 
Signal  School  of  Instruction  and  Practice  at  Fort  Whipple,  in 
Ya.,  which  is  to  this  Service  what  the  Military  and  Naval 
Academies  are  to  the  Army  and  Navy.  The  most  suitable  per- 
sons are  selected  from  the  army  or  especially  enlisted,  and  care- 
fully schooled  and  tested  through  a  sufficiently  long  period  to 
render  them  fully  competent  for  the  delicate  duties  imposed  on 
them. 

5.  There  are  about  90  Signal  Stations,  a  few  being  located 
in  Canada  and  the  West  Indies.  The  whole  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer,  who  reports  to  the  Secretary 
of  War.  There  is  a  large  and  carefully  arranged  organization, 
under  constant  supervision  by  competent  persons.  Several 
Boards  of  Examination  are  employed  in  selecting  suitable 
persons  for  the  diiferent  duties  required  in  the  Service,  and  in 
testing  their  advancement  toward  a  thorough  fitness  for  each 
position  to  be  occupied. 

The  first  or  lowest  grade  is  for  the  "field"  signal  service, 
requiring  a  knowledge  of  army  signals  and  telegraphy  —  this 
being  the  original  military  value  of  the  institution — the  second 
grade  includes  those  who  are  competent  to  act  as  assistants  to 
observers  in  the  scientific  or  meteorological  part  of  the  work  ; 
and  the  third  (called  Observer  Sergeants)  includes  those  who 
have  so  complete  a  knowledge  of  the  scientific  principles 
involved  and  of  the  use  of  the  instruments  employed  as  to 
be  fitted  to  take  charge  of  Stations  of  Observation,  and  make 
the  constant  and  minute  reports  on  which  the  conclusions  of 
the  Central  Office  are  based. 

The  Stations  are  from  time  to  time  inspected,  and  the  whole 
system  kept  in  the  most  accurate  order.  Very  much  depends 
on  the  intelligence  and  unremitting  attention  of  the  Observers- 


SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.  423 

This  is,  probably,  tlie  beginning  of  a  work  of  the  greatest 
practical  value  to  commerce  and  agriculture.  It  will  continu- 
ally expand  and  grow  more  exact  and  useful,  and  from  its  rela- 
tions to  the  diffusion  of  important  and  useful  knowledge  we 
have  placed  it  with  the 

THE    SMTIHSONIAN   INSTITUTION. 

1.  Tliough  there  are  no  doubt  many  minor  failures  to  meet 
the  wishes,  and  secure  the  interests  of  the  people  and  some, 
perhaps,  that  are  really  serious — though  in  these  the  people  bear 
a  good  share  of  the  blame — the  government  has  pursued  an 
enlightened  policy  in  respect  to  the  encouragement  of  Science, 
and  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge.  What  it  can  properly 
do  in  the  interest  of  the  whole  people  has  been  done.  Tlie 
Smithsonian  Institution  is  not  wholly  a  government  establish- 
ment; but  the  official  machinery  by  which  it  was  at  first  set 
in  motion,  and  is  continued  in  operation,  belongs  to  the  gov- 
ernment.  The  funds  with  which  it  was  founded,  were  fur- 
nished by  an  individual,  and  he  a  foreigner.  The  history  runs 
thus:  A  noble-hearted  Englishman,  whose  name  was  John 
Smithson,  residing  in  the  city  of  London,  bequeathed  all  his 
property  to  the  United  States  of  America,  for  the  purpose  of 
founding  in  Washington  an  establishment  to  be  known  as  the 
"  Smithsonian  Institution,"  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  and 
diffusing  knowledge  among  men.  The  United  States  accepted 
the  bequest,  and  in  1846  passed  an  act  for  the  purpose  of  car- 
rying out  the  beneficent  design  of  Mr.  Smithson.  This  act 
created  "  an  establishment,"  as  it  is  denominated  in  the  act,  by 
the  name  before  stated.  It  might  have  been  called  a  corpora- 
tion, for  it  has  perpetual  succession,  and  many  of  the  powers 
incident  to  a  corporation. 

2.  By  this  act  the  President  and  Yice-President  of  the 
United  States,  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the 
Postmaster  General,  the  Attorney  General,  and  Chief  Justice, 
the  Commissioner  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  the  Mayor  of 
Washington—  during  the  time  they  shall  hold  their  respective 


424  EEPOKTS. 

offices,  together  with  such  other  persons  as  they  may  elect 
honorary  members — were  constituted  the  establishment  under 
the  name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

3.  It  is  located  at  Washington,  and  is  managed  by  a  board 
of  regents,  composed  of  the  Yice-President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  the  Mayor  of 
Washington,  three  members  of  the  Senate,  and  three  members 
of  the  Housre  of  Representatives;  together  with  six  other  per- 
sons. The  board  choose  their  own  officers,  and  report  their 
proceedings  to  Congress  at  each  session  thereof. 

4.  In  order  to  carry  out  Mr.  Smithson's  noble  design  of 
founding  this  institution,  rooms  have  been  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  all  objects  of  art,  natural  history,  plants,  and 
geological  and  mineral ogical  specimens  which  now  or  here- 
after may  belong  to  the  United  States,  and  such  as  may  here- 
after be  obtained.  These  are  classified  and  arranged  so  as  to 
facilitate  their  examination  and  study.  A  vast  collection  has 
already  been  obtained  and  deposited  in  the  institution,  and  it 
is  constantly  increasing  by  donations,  by  the  researches  and 
industry  of  its  professors,  and  by  exchanges  made  with  kin- 
dred institutions  at  home  and  abroad.  These  are  open  to  the 
examination  of  the  public,  and  offer  an  opportunity  to  students 
and  others  to  extend  their  scientific  knowledge.  This,  together 
with  the  reports  of  its  professors,  of  experiments  and  new 
discoveries,  make  it  indeed  an  institution  "for  the  increase 
and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men." 


CHAPTER    LY. 
REPORTS. 

1.  Congress  being  the  law-making  power  of  the  govern- 
ment, it  is  evident  that,  to  know  precisely  what  laws  it  is 
important  to  enact,  to  change,  or  to  repeal,  they  should  be  kept 
well  informed  of  all  that  is  done  by  government  officials,  and 
the  precise  condition  of  every  branch  of  the  public  service. 


REPORTS  425 

The  President's  Messages  are  of  the  nature  of  reports  made 
by  the  Chief  Executive  to  the  legislative  body  for  its  informa- 
tion and  guidance.  So  it  is  enacted  that  the  Secretaries  of 
State,  Treasury,  War,  Navy,  Interior,  and  Postmaster  General, 
together  with  the  commissioners  of  the  different  bareaus,  and 
boards  attached  to  these  departments,  shall  annually  report  to 
Congress.  Heads  of  departments  report  directly  to  Congress. 
So  do  many  of  the  commissioners  who  are  at  the  head  ot 
bureaus.  Boards  report  to  the  heads  of  departments  to  which 
they  are  attached. 

2.  In  this  way  Congress  is  kept  ad\ased  of  whatever  is  done 
in  every  department,  bureau,  or  board,  to  which  any  of  the 
public  business  is  entrusted.  These  reports  not  only  furnish 
the  law-making  power  with  such  information  as  it  needs,  but 
serve  as  a  check  to  any  official  misconduct.  The  annual 
reports  of  the  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury,  "War,  and  Navy, 
together  with  that  of  the  Postmaster  General,  are  State  papers 
which  rank  in  importance  next  to  the  annual  message  of  the 
President.  To  them  the  people  look  for  a  detailed  account  of 
the  state  and  condition  of  those  great  departments  over  which 
these  Secretaries  preside,  and  which  so  materially  affect  the 
pecuniary  and  other  great  interests  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  foregoing  remarks  upon  reports,  throw  light  upon 
the  movements  of  the  machinery  by  which  the  government  is 
operated,  and  show  how  officials  are  held  responsible  to  the 
superior  power. 

In  this  connection  we  may  notice  another  kind  of  reports, 
which  come  from  another  source.  After  each  Congress  has 
convened  and  organized,  the  President  of  the  Senate  and  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  appoint  what  are  denominated  the  stand- 
ing committees  of  each  of  these  bodies. 

When  bills  are  presented  to  be  passed  into  laws,  or  petitions 
are  sent  in,  they  are  always  referred  to  the  appropriate  com- 
mittee, which  examines  them  and  reports  to  the  body  (of  the 
Senate  or  House)  their  conclusions  upon  the  merits  or  demer- 
its, propriety  or  impropriety,  of  granting  the  petition,  or  of 
passing  the  bill  under  consideration. 


426  IMPEACHMENT. 

These  reports  generally  govern  the  action  of  Congress  when 
they  come  to  vote  upon  the  passage  of  the  law.  But  that  is  not 
always  the  case;  the  body  of  either  House  may  think  differ- 
ently from  its  committeej  and  act  contrary  to  its  recommen- 
dations. 


CHAPTEK    LYI. 
IMPEACHMENT, 

1.  In  the  second  article,  section  four,  of  the  Constitution, 
these  words  are  found:  "The  President,  Yice-President,  and 
all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from 
office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of  treason,  bribery, 
or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors." 

2.  Impeachment  is  a  procedure  against  office  holders  only, 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  them  from  office.  It  inflicts  no 
other  punishment;  but  the  guilty  party  may  afterwards  be 
prosecuted  for  his  crime  in  a  court  of  law,  and  punished  in 
such  manner  as  the  law  directs. 

3.  The  House  of  Representatives  alone  can  present  charges 
looking  to  the  trial  of  an  officer  of  the  government  by  impeach- 
ment. Its  action,  in  such  a  case,  is  similar  to  that  of  a  Grand 
Jury.  It  charges  that  the  official  has  violated  the  law  and 
should  be  tried,  in  order,  if  guilty,  to  be  removed  from  office. 
It  appoints  a  committee  to  conduct  the  prosecution  before  the 
Senate,  to  which  these  charges  are  presented. 

4.  The  Senate  alone  has  the  power  to  try  the  accused  party. 
When  trying  a  case  of  impeachment  it  acts  as  a  court,  and 
from  its  decision  there  is  no  appeal.  The  President  cannot 
pardon  a  criminal  who  has  been  impeached.  When  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  presides,  but  in  no  other  case.  Ko  person  can 
be  convicted  in  a  trial  of  impeachment,  unless  two-thirds  of 
the  Senate  concur  in  finding  the  accused  guilty  of  the  alleged 
offense. 


THE  JUDICIAL   DEPARTMENT. 


This  is  the  third  Branch  of  the  government,  as  determined 
by  the  Constitution,  and  is  of  supreme  importance  and  dignity. 
Its  sphere  is  to  interpret  the  Constitution,  to  decide  contro- 
versies, to  try  offenders  and  to  pronounce  sentence  on  them, 
to  enforce  rights,  and  to  keep  the  whole  organism  of  the 
government  in  proper  place  and  proportion.  It  is  attached  to 
the  governmental  machinery  as  a  Regulator.  Without  it  the 
other  Departments  must  be  the  judges  of  the  extent  of  their 
own  powers;  the  Constitution  would  be  practically  inoperative 
to  prevent  inharmonious  or  mischievious  legislation ;  and  the 
executive  would  possess  the  authority  to  try  as  well  as  punish 
offenses. 

The  officers  of  this  Department  of  the  government  are 
expected  to  be  men  of  much  weight  and  dignity  of  character, 
of  wide  legal  culture,  and  are  selected  for,  and  continued  in, 
office  under  such  circumstances  as  to  guarantee,  to  a  fair 
extent,  the  requisite  distinction  and  impartiality. 

All  this  we  shall  see  as  we  proceed  to  analyze  its  different 
branches.  These  consist  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
the  Circuit  Courts,  the  District  Courts,  and  the  Court  of 
Claims.  The  local  courts  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
the  Territorial  Courts,  though  similar  to  the  State  Judiciaries, 
are  connected,  by  their  relations  to  the  General  Government, 
with  this  Department. 

The  importance  of  this  branch  of  the  government  has  become 
more  evident  as  time  has  passed,  and  the  conflict  of  parties 
has  put  the  whole  to  test.  The  acrimonious  party  spirit  of 
our  early  post  revolutionary  history,  which  continued  into 
Monroe's  administration,  was,  in  great  part,  the  result  of  a 
want  of  due  confidence  in,  and  respect  for,  the  judiciary. 
Experience  showed  that  our  people  were  law  abiding,  and  that 
the  Legislative  and  Executive  powers,  equally  with  the  people, 

(427) 


428  THE  STJPEEME    COURT. 

were  willing  to  submit  to  the  official  interpretation  of  the 
Constitution,  and  all  ready  to  join  hands  to  maintain  its 
authority. 


CHAPTEK    LYII. 
THE  SUFKEME  COUKT. 

1.  This  is  the  highest  tribunal  in  the  United  States.  If  the 
whole  government  be  figuratively  regarded  as  an  arch  this  is 
the  "  Key  Stone  of  the  Arch"  without  which  the  whole  struc- 
ture would  crumble  and  fall.  In  all  cases  of  dispute  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  Constitution  and  the  range  of  powers  it  con- 
fers or  implies, it  has  sovereign  power  to  decide;  and  from  that 
decision  there  is  no  appeal.  Its  declaration,  as  to  the  mean- 
ing and  application  of  the  Constitution  and  the  body  of  stat- 
utes enacted  under  it,  becomes  the  law  of  the  land.  It  is  the 
great  bulwark  against  tyranical  use  of  power,  and  conflicting 
enactments,  whether  by  [N^ational  or  State  Legislatures. 

2.  This  court  has  one  Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate 
Justices,  all  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  They  are  appointed  for  life, 
or  during  good  behavior;  they  may  be  impeached  for  bribery 
or  other  high  crimes,  and  then  removed  from  oflice.  They 
may  also  resign;  but  if  they  conduct  tliemselves  properly  and 
choose  to  retain  their  offices,  there  is  no  power  by  which  they 
can  be  removed,  except  the  power  of  death.  The  Constitution 
itself  makes  this  provision,  in  order  that  the  judges  may  be 
removed  as  far  as  possible  from  the  influence  of  party  politics. 
It  is  therefore  expected  that  their  decisions  will  not  be  biased 
by  party  or  political  considerations;  and  it  may  not  be  amiss 
to  say  that  the  provisions  for  keeping  the  judges  of  the  LFnited 
States  Courts  in  office  for  life,  meets  with  almost  universal 
approbation;  and  has  caused  many  to  hope  that  the  States 
would  alter  their  Constitutions  and  adopt  the  same  plan; 
believing  it  to  be  the  surest  way  of  preserving  a  pure  and 


.     THE    SUPREME   COURT.  429 

Independent  Judiciary,  on  which  depend  the  rights  and  liber- 
ties of  every  citizen  of  the  commonwealth. 

3.  This  court  holds  but  one  term  in  a  year,  which  com- 
mences on  the  first  Monday  of  December,  and  sits  until  it  has 
disposed  of  the  business  before  it.  Its  sessions  are  always  held 
at  Washington,  the  capital  of  the  nation ;  there  it  has  access 
to  the  Congressional  and  Law  Libraries,  and  to  all  the  depart- 
ments and  records  of  the  government  when  necessary. 

There  is  a  class  of  causes  which  may  be  commenced  in  this 
court.  In  these  cases  it  has  original  jurisdiction.  They  are 
such  as  affect  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party.  In  other  cases  it 
has  only  appellate  jurisdiction.  The  greater  part  of  its  busi- 
ness is  to  hear  and  determine  appeals  from  inferior  courts, 
mainly  from  the  United  States  Circuit  Courts;  and  in  some 
instances  from  the  highest  State  courts. 

4.  It  has  not  only  original,  but  exclusive  jurisdiction  in 
causes  where  a  State  is  a  party,  and  when  proceedings  or  suits 
against  ambassadors,  or  other  public  ministers  or  their  servants, 
are  instituted.  Its  power  to  try  appeals  from  lower  courts, 
called  appellate  jurisdiction,  gives  it  the  position  of  the  high- 
est court  in  the  nation. 

It  has  power  also  to  restrain  or  to  prohibit  proceedings  in 

^the  United  States  District  Courts,  when  acting  as  courts  of 

Admiralty;  or  in  cases  of  maritime  jurisdiction.     Tlie  judges 

of  this  court   hold  the   Circuit   Courts,  and  allot  themselves 

among  the  judicial  circuits. 

The  practice  and  rules  of  procedure  in  this  court  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Courts  of  Chancery  and  King's  Bench, 
in  England.  Issues  of  fact  are  tried  by  jury,  the  same  as  in 
other  courts. 

OFFICERS   OF   THE   COURT 

5.  The  officers  of  this  tribunal  are  the  Judges,  the  AttOk  • 
uey  General,  a  clerk,  a  crier,  and  a  reports  r.  The  three  last 
named  axQ  apT)ointed  by  the  court.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  Mar* 


430  THE    SUPREME    COUKT. 

shal  of  the  District  of  Columbia  to  attend  this  court,  and  to 
serve  process  issuing  from  it. 

An  Attorney  or  Counsellor-at-Law,  to  be  admitted  to  prac- 
tice in  this  court,  must  have  been  a  practitioner  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  where  he  lives. 

6.  The  following  are  the  names  of  all  the  Chief  Justices 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  from  its  establish- 
ment fo  the  present  time;  with  the  dates  of  their  appoint- 
ments, and  the  States  from  which  they  were  appointed: 

John  Jay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  26,  1789. 
John  Eutledge,  S.  C,  July  1,  1795. 
William  Cushing,  Mass.,  Jan.  27,  1796. 
Oliver  Ellsworth,  Ct.,  March  4,  1796. 
John  Jay,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  19,  1800. 
John  Marshall,  Ya.,  Jan.  27,  1801. 
Eoger  B.  Taney,  Md.,  Dec.  28,  1835. 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  O,  Dec.  1864. 
Morrison  K.  Waite,  O.,  Jan.  21,  1874. 

7.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Associate  Justices 
with  the  dates  of  their  appointment  and  the  States  from  which 
they  were  appointed: 

John  Eutledge,  S.  C,  1789. 

William  Cushing,  Mass.,  1789. 

Kohert  H.  Harrison,  Md.,  1789. 

James  Wilson,  Pa.,  1789. 

John  Blair,  Ya.,  1789. 

James  Iredell,  N.  C,  1790. 

Thomas  Johnson,  Md.,  1791. 

William  Paterson,  N".  J.,  1793. 

Samuel  Chase,  Md.,  1796. 

Bushrod  Washington,  Ya.,  1798. 

Alfred  Moore,  N.  C,  1799. 

William  Johnson,  S.  C,  1804. 

Brockholst  Livingston,  K  Y.,  1807. 

Thomas  Todd,  Ya.,  1807.  ' 

Gabriel  Duvall,  Md.,  1811. 


THE  STJPEEME   COTTBT 

Joseph  Story,  Mass.,  1811. 
Smith  Thompson,  N".  Y.,  1823. 
Eobert  Trimble,  Ky.,  1823. 
John  McLean,  O.,  1829. 
Henry  Baldwin,  Pa.,  1830. 
James  M.  Wayne,  Ga.,  1835. 
Philip  P.  Barbour,  Va.,  1836. 
John  McKinley,  Ala.,  1837. 
John  Catron,  Tenn.,  1837. 
Peter  Y.  Daniel,  Ya.,  1841. 
Samuel  [N'elson,  :N".  Y.,  1845. 
Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H.,  1845. 
Robert  C.  Grier,  Pa.,  1846. 
Benjamin  R.  Curtis,  Mass.,  1851. 
James  A.  Campbell,  Ala.,  1853. 
]S"athan  Clifford,  Me.,  1858. 
Noah  H.  Swayne,  O.,  1862. 
Samuel  P.  Miller,  Iowa,  1862. 
Stephen  J.  Field,  Cal. 
David  Davis,  111.,  1862. 
William  Strong,  Pa.,  1870. 
Joseph  P.  Bradley,  N.  J.,  1870. 
Ward  Hunt,  N.  Y.,  1873. 
John  M.  Harlan,  Ky. 


431 


CHAPTER    LYIII. 

CIRCUIT   COURTS. 

The  next  in  dignity,  power,  and  jurisdiction  are  the  United 
States  Circuit  Courts.  While  the  Supreme  Court  is  always 
held  in  Washington,  these  are  held  in  every  State  at  such  times 
and  places  as  special  law  of  Congress  directs.  These  are  often 
changed  so  as  to  accommodate  both  the  people  in  the  States 
and  the  judges  of  the  Court.  As  now  arranged,  the  whole 
Union  is  divided  into  nine  circuits,  each  circuit  comprising 
several  States,  according  to  the  size  and  population  of  the 


432  CIRCUIT   OOUETS. 

States.     The  places  are  arranged  with  reference  to  convenience 
of  access  bj  all  the  people  in  the  circuit. 

This  Court  is  similar  in  design  and  authority  to  the  Supreme 
Court;  indeed  it  is  but  a  branch  of  it;  the  same  officers  pre- 
siding, and  the  same  class  of  questions  being  adjudicated  by 
it,  viz.:  those  involving  Constitutional  Law;  and  this  authority, 
so  important  to  uniformity  of  interpretation  of  constitutional 
provisions,  and  to  the  enjoyment  of  rights  guaranteed  by  that 
instrument  to  citizens  of  all  the  States,  is  made  pervading^ 
is  carried  within  the  reach  of  all. 

2.  The  Circuit  Courts  are  held  by  the  Judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  who  allot  the  circuits  among  themselves,  and 
then  travel  each  through  his  own  circuit,  until  he  has  visited 
and  held  a  session  in  every  State  which  lies  within  it.  A  Judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  is  the  presiding  and  supreme  magistrate 
in  eveiy  Circuit  Court,  but  the  Judge  of  the  District  Court  of 
the  district  in  which  the  Circuit  is  held,  sits  with  the  Judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  as  Associate  Justice. 

JURISDICTION. 

3.  These  Courts  have  both  original  and  appellate  lurisdic- 
tion.  Causes  may  be  appealed  from  the  District  Courts  to  the 
Circuit.  They  also  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  State 
courts,  where  the  matter  in  dispute  exceeds  the  sum  of  $500, 
and  the  United  States  are  plaintiffs;  or  where  an  alien  is  a 
party,  or  where  the  suit  is  between  citizens  of  different  States. 
They  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  of  crimes  against 
the  United  States,  except  where  the  law  especially  confers  the 
power  on  other  courts.  It  extends  to  all  cases  under  the  reve- 
nue laws  of  the  United  States. 

.  4.  There  is  also  a  certain  class  of  cases  (too  tedious  to  be 
described  here  in  detail,)  which  may  be  removed  from  State 
and  from  District  Courts,  into  these  courts,  and  be  tried  and 
determined  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been  commenced 
here. 

The  officers  of  Circuit  Courts  are,  first,  the  Judges ;  second, 
<ihe  District  Attorney  of  the  district  in  which  the  court  is 


CIRCUIT    COURTS.  433 

held;  third,  the  Marshal  of  the  district;  and  fourth,  a  Clerk, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  court. 

5.  It  may  be  interesting,  and  perhaps  useful  to  know  how 
the  different  circuits  are  formed,  and  what  States  lie  in  each. 
They  have  been  from  time  to  time  increased  in  number,  as  the 
number  of  the  States  increased.  In  some  cases  States  have 
been  at  first  placed  in  one  circuit,  and  afterwards  detached 
and  placed  in  another. 

6.  By  tlie  Acts  of  1862  and  1863,  the  circuits  were  arranged 
as  follows : 

First  Circuit — Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  Maine  and  'New 
Hampshire  (by. Act  of  1820.) 

Second  Circuit — Yerraont,  Connecticut,  New  York  (Act  of 
1837). 

Third  Circuit — New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 

Fourth  Circuit — Maryland,  Yirginia,  Delaware  and  North 
Carolina. 

Fifth  Circuit — South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi 
and  Florida. 

Sixth  Circuit — Louisiana,  Texas,  A^rkansas,  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee. 

Seventh  Circuit — Ohio  and  Indiana. 

Eighth  Circuit — Michigan  and  Illinois. 

Ninth  Circuit — Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Iowa  and  Min- 
nesota. 

Tenth  Circuit — California  and  Oregon. 

But  in  1866  this  arrangement  of  the  circuits  was  again 
changed;  and  this  was  done,  we  suppose,  to  make  the  circuits 
approximate  nearer  to  the  number  of  Associate  Justices,  as 
reduced  from  nine  to  six  by  the  same  act;  for,  it  was  then 
enacted  that  hereafter  there  should  be  no  more  Associate  Jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court  appointed,  until  they  were  reduced 
(by  death  or  resignation),  to  six. 

7.  The  circuits  by  this  last  act  were  reduced  to  nine,  and 
were  arranged  as  follows: 

First  and  Second  Circuits  to  remain  as  before. 
28 


434  DisTEicrr  coukts- 

The  Third  was  made  up  of  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware. 

The  Fourth,  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Yirginia,  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

The  Fifth,  of  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Loui- 
siana and  Texas. 

The  Sixth,  of  Ohio,  Michigan,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

The  Seventh,  of  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Wisconsin. 

The  Eighth,   of    Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Arkansas. 

The  Ninth,  of  California,  Oregon  and  Nevada. 
Two  new  States  have  been  admitted  since  1866,  and  others 
may  soon  be  added;  so  that  the  old  number  of  Circuits  and 
Judges  may  be  restored  and  perhaps  Increased. 


CHAPTEE    LIX. 
DISTKICT  COUETS. 

1.  We  come  now  to  the  lowest  grade  of  United  States 
courts,  excepting  the  local  courts  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
and  the  Territorial  Courts.  A  United  States  District  Court  is 
held  by  a  District  Judge  in  every  district.  Every  State  con- 
stitutes at  least  one  district,  several  of  the  larger  States  are 
divided  into  two,  and  some  into  three.  There  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time  fifty-eight  Judicial  Districts,  and  consequently  the 
same  number  of  District  Judges,  District  Attorneys,  District 
Clerks  and  Marshals.  The  Judges,  Attorneys  and  Marshals 
are  all  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate;  the  Clerks  by 
the  respective  courts. 

TERMS. 

2.  By  the  law  of  1789  every  District  Judge  was  required  to 
hold  four  sessions  a  year,  at  such  times  and  in  such  places  as 
Congress  directed.  This  is  done  to  this  day  in  a  great  major- 
ity of  the  States;  but  by  later  laws,  in  some  of  the  district* 
only  two  or  three  sessions  a  year  are  required. 


DISTRICT    COURTS.  435 

JUKISDIOTION. 

3.  Tliese  courts  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  admiralty 
and  maritime  causes.  Tliesc  relate  to  maritime  contracts,  and 
to  crimes  against  the  laws  ol"  the  United  States,  committed  on 
the  sea  and  on  navigable  lakes  and  rivers.  It  embraces  in  this 
country  all  contracts  respecting  vessels  and  navigation;  such 
as  chartering,  repairing,  and  fitting  them  out,  seamen's  m  ages, 
&c.  They  have  in  some  cases  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the 
Circuit  Courts,  as  in  cases  of  piracy,  and  exclusive  cognizance  of 
cases  where  seizures  are  made  for  a  violation  of  the  revenue  laws, 
or  laws  relating  to  imports  and  navigation ;  and  causes  against 
consuls  and  vice  consuls  where  the  amount  claimed  does  not 
exceed  f  100.  In  short,  they  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  Circuit  Courts,  of  all  crimes  against  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  the  punishment  of  which  is.  not  capital.  The  trial  of 
issues  of  fact  in  all  causes  except  civil  causes  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction,  must  be  by  jury. 

4.  Appeals  are  taken  from  these  courts  to  the  Circuit 
Courts.  The  judges  are  appointed  like  those  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  for  life,  or  during  good  behavior,  and  receive  various 
amounts  as  salary,  some  more  and  some  less,  according  to  the 
amount  of  services  to  be  perfoimed  in  their  respective  districts. 

5.  When  vessels  are  captured  in  time  of  war,  either  by  the 
public  armed  vessels  or  by  private  armed  ships,  the  facts  and 
circumstances  of  the  capture  must  be  brought  before  a  United 
States  Circuit  or  District  Court  for  adjudication;  when  the 
vessel  and  cargo  are  either  condeUiUed  as  a  prize,  or  restored 
to  their  owners.  When  either  of  these  courts  adjudicate  such 
cases,  it  is  called  a  Prize  Court. 

We  give  the  number  of  Judicial  Districts  in  each  State  as 
they  now  exist,  and  the  total  number  in  all  the  States. 
They  are  as  follows: 

Alabama,  3.  Mississippi,  2. 

Arkansas,  2.  Missouri,  2. 

California,  1.  Nevada,  1. 

Colorado,  1.  New  Hampshire,  1. 

Connecticut,  1. 


436  ADMIKALTT   AND  MARITIME   JURISDICTION. 

Delaware,  1.  Kew  Jersey,  1 

Florida,  2.  New  York,  3. 

Georgia  2.  North  Carolina,  3. 

Illinois,  2.  Nebraska,  1. 

Indiana,  1.  Ohio,  2. 

Iowa,  1.  Oregon,  1. 

Kansas,  1.  Pennsylvania,  2. 

Kentucky,  I*  Rhode  Island,  1. 

Louisiana,  1,  South  Carolina,  1* 

Maine,  1.  Tennessee,  3. 

Maryland,  1.  Texas,  2. 

Massachusetts,  1.  Vermont,  1. 

Michigan,  2.  Virginia,  3. 

Minnesota,  1.  West  Virginia,  1. 

District  of  Columbia,  1.  Wisconsin,  2. 
Total,  58. 


CHAPTER    LX. 
ADMIRALTY  AND  MARITIME  JURISDICTION. 

In  ancient  times — and  long  before  this  government  existed — 
civilized  and  commercial  nations  had  codes  or  laws  which  related 
especially  to  transactions  upon  the  sea.  Those  respecting  ships 
of  war  and  warlike  operations  at  sea  were  called  the  laws  of 
Admiralty  ;  those  respecting  vessels  engaged  in  commercial 
affairs  were  called  Maritime  laws  ;  and  the  courts  empowered 
with  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  try  causes,  or  to  take  any  judicial 
proceedings  in  .those  cases,  were  styled  Courts  of  Admiralty 
and  Maritime  Jurisdiction.  These  laws,  in  many  respects, 
differed  so  materially  from  the  laws  relating  to  affairs  on  land, 
that  the  authority  and  power  to  take  proceedings  in  and  adju- 
dicate upon  them  was  conferred  upon  a  particular  class  of 
courts.  Hence  we  see  the  origin  of  the  names  •">  such  tri- 
bunals. 

In  this  country  the  United  States  District  Courts  have  been 


ADMIEALTY   AOT)   MAEITIME   JUEISDIOTION.  437 

designated  by  the  laws  as  the  courts  which  shall  have  original 
and  exclusive  authority  to  adjudicate  this  class  of  causes  ;  yet 
an  appeal  from  the  District  to  the  Circuit  Courts  may  be 
taken. 

KIND   OF   CASES. 

The  word  Maritime  designates  that  which  relates  to  the  sea. 
Yet,  in  the  United  States,  cases  which  come  within  Admiralty 
and  Maritime  jurisdiction  are  not  restricted  to  the  sea,  or  to 
transactions  relating  to  business  or  crimes  done  on  it,  but  are 
made  to  embrace  those  which  occur  on  navigable  lakes  and 
rivers,  and  include  seizures  made  for  the  violation  of  the  laws 
of  impost,  navigation,  or  trade,  suits  for  the  recovery  of  sea- 
men's wages,  contracts  for  building,  repairing  or  fitting  out 
vessels,  and,  briefly,  all  contracts  where  the  subject-matter 
relates  to  the  navigation  of  the  sea.  The  District  Courts  have 
Admiralty  and  Maritime  jurisdiction  in  all  these  cases,  without 
regard  to  the  amount  claimed,  and  in  criminal  as  well  as  in 
civil  suits. 

The  foregoing  remarks  show  the  workings  of  our  judicial 
system,  as  it  applies  to  business  done,  and  crimes  committed 
upon  the  high  seas. 


CHAPTEK    LXI. 

COURT  OF  CLAIMS. 

1.  This  court  was  established  by  act  of  Congress  in  1855. 
The  law  reads  thus  :  "  A  court  shall  be  established  to  be  called 
the  Court  of  Claims,  to  consist  of  three  judges,  to  be  appointed 
by  the  President  and  Senate,  and  to  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior;  and  the  said  court  shall  hear  and  determine  all 
claims  founded  upon  any  law  of  Congress,  or  upon  any  regula- 
tion of  an  Executive  department,  or  upon  any  contract  express 
or  implied,  with  the  government  of  the  United  States;  which 
may  be  suggested  to  it  by  a  petition  filed  therein;  and  also  all 
claims  which  may  be  referred  to  said  court  by  either  house  of 
Congress." 


^38  OOUET   OF   CLAIMS. 

2.  On  tlie  third  of  March,  1863,  the  jurisdiction  of  this 
court  was  enlarged,  and  two  additional  judges  appointed 
(making  five),  from  the  whole  number  of  which  the  President 
was  authorized  to  appoint  one  a  Chief  Justice  for  said  court, 

3.  The  mode  of  commencing  proceeding  before  this  tribu- 
nal is  by  petition  ;  in  which  the  claimant  must  fully  set  forth 
his  claim,  how  it  arose,  its  amount,  and  the  parties  interested 
therein.  After  the  case  has  been  heard  and  determined,  the 
court  reports  to  Congress  what  its  decision  is,  and  if  favorable- 
to  the  claimant,  a  bill  is  passed  for  his  relief. 

4.  It  holds  one  session  a  year,  in  Washington,  commencing- 
on  the  first  Monday  in  October,  and  continuing  as  long  as  the- 
business  before  it  requires.  It  not  only  tries  claims  against  the 
government,  but  by  its  enlarged  jurisdiction,  conferred  in  1863^ 
it  also  tries  counter  claims  and  set-oflfs  which  the  United  States- 
may  have  against  the  claimant.  Appeals  are  taken  from  the 
Court  of  Claims  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States^ 
when  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds  $3,000. 

5.  Before  the  establishment  of  this  court,  the  only  remedy 
persons  having  claims  upon  the  government  had,  was  by  peti- 
tioning to  Congress  for  relief;  which  experience  proved  to  be 
a  long,  tedious,  and  expensive  mode  of  obtaining  their  dues. 
Th3  petition  now  goes  to  this  court,  where  it  is  heard  and  adju- 
dicated in  the  same  form,  and  by  the  same  rules  of  procedure 
which  are  observed  in  other  courts;  for  Congress  has  conferred 
upon  it  all  the  powers  commonly  possessed  by  other  courts  of 
law.     It  also  has  a  seal. 

6.  It  has  greatly  facilitated  the  settlement  of  claims  against 
the  government,  and  has  relieved  Congress  of  a  great  amount 
■of  labor,  which  was  urgently  pressed  upon  it  at  every  session. 

7.  In  addition  to  the  five  judges,  it  has  a  Solicitor,  an 
Assistant  Solicitor,  and  a  Deputy  Solicitor,  all  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate;  and  are  oflicers  of  the 
court,  wliose  duty  it  is  faithfully  to  defend  the  United  State* 
in  aU  matters  and  claims  befor^  this  court^ 


DISTRICT   ATTORNEYS.  439 

A  bailiff,  a  clerk,  a  crier  and  messenger,  all  of  whom  are 
appointed  bj  the  court,  make  up  the  remaining  officials. 

The  claimants  stand  in  the  relation  of  plaintiffs,  and  the 
government  in  that  of  defendant. 


CHAPTEK    LXII. 
DISTEICT  ATTORNEYS. 

These  officers  are  next  in  rank  to  the  Judges  of  the  Circuit 
and  District  Courts  with  which  their  duties  are  connected. 
Their  relation  to  the  government,  in  the  class  of  cases  that 
come  before  tjiose  courts,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Attorney 
General  in  the  Supreme  Court.  Thej  are  its  official  legal  coun- 
selors in  all  cases  involving  the  interests  of  the  General  Gov- 
ernment before  the  Circuit  and  District  Courts  in  their  several 
districts.  They  are  appointed  in  the  same  manner  ;  that  is, 
nominated  by  the  President,  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  It 
is  their  duty  "  to  prosecute  in  such  district  all  delinquents  for 
crimes  and  offences  cognizable  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  and  all  civil  actions  in  which  the  United  States  shall  be 
concerned."  They  are  his  clients,  and  he  must  enforce  their 
rights,  and  defend  them,  in  the  same  manner  that  any  attorney 
protects  and  defends  his  client  in  any  of  the  State  courts.  In 
case  of  necessity,  he  may  appoint  a  substitute  to  act  in  his 
place.  All  fees  over  and  above  what  he  is  allowed  as  compen- 
sation for  his  services,  he  must  report  and  pay  into  the  United 
States  Treasury. 

3.  He  must  defend  collectors  of  the  customs  and  other 
revenue  officers  in  his  district,  when  suits  are  brought  against 
them  in  their  official  capacity,  and  must  report  to  the  Solicitor 
of  the  Treasury  the  number  of  suits  determined  and  pending 
in  his  district  And  when  prize  cases  have  been  determined, 
or  are  pending  in  the  District  Court  of  his  district,  he  must 
report  the  state  and  condition  of  each  case  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy. 


440  UNITED   STATES    MARSHALS. 

District  Attorneys  are  appointed  for  four  years,  but  may  be 
removed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  President.  Their  compensation 
depends  on  the  amount  of  business  to  be  done  in  their  respec- 
tive districts.  When  important  ports  of  entry,  such  as  New 
York  or  Boston,  lie  in  their  districts,  their  duties  are  very 
numerous,  and  they  receive  a  corresponding  compensation. 


CHAPTEE    LXIII. 
UNITED   STATES  MAKSHALS. 

1.  United  States  Marshals  are  the  ministerial  officers  of  the 
United  States  courts.  Their  duties  and  responsibilities  are 
very  similar,  and  nearly  identical  with  the  duties  and  respon- 
sibilities of  sheriffs  in  the  courts  of  the  several  States.  They 
are  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate,  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  They  appoint  their  own  deputies,  and  their  compensa- 
tion consists  of  fees  instead  of  a  salary;  and  depends  entirely 
upon  the  amount  of  business  they  have  to  transact.  Tliere  is 
a  Marshal  in  every  Judicial  District  in  the  United  States,  and 
there  are  fifty-nine  of  these  districts  in  all.  Every  State  forms 
at  least  one  district,  while  the  larger  States  are  divided  into 
two  or  three. 

2.  A  District  Court  is  held  in  every  district;  and  it  is  the 
Marshal's  duty  to  attend  the  sittings  of  these  courts,  and  also 
those  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Courts,  when  they  happen 
to  sit  in  his  district.  The  Marshal  for  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia must  also  attend  the  sittings  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
execute  its  precepts.  We  have  said  that  they  are  the  ministe- 
rial  officers  of  the  United  States  courts;  for  it  is  their  duty  to 
serve  all  writs  and  precepts  emanating  from  them,  whether  of 
a  civil  or  criminal  character;  and  to  execute  the  judgments 
and  decrees  of  these  tribunals;  and  for  this  purpose  they  are 
authorized  by  law,  (if  necessary,)  to  command  such  assistance 
as  they  may  need  in  the  execution  of  their  duties.  Before 
they  enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  they  must  be  bound 


GRAND   JTJBY.  ^  441 

to  the  United  States  for  the  faithful  performance  of  them,  and 
must  solemnly  swear  to  do  them,  without  malice  or  partiality; 
and  that  they  will  take  only  lawful  fees.  They  are  also  held 
answerable  for  the  delivery  to  their  successors  of  all  prisoners 
who  may  be  in  their  custody  at  the  time  of  their  removal,  or 
at  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  office. 

3.  They  also  have  the  custody  of  all  vessels  and  goods 
seized  by  any  officer  of  the  revenue.  It  is  their  dtity  also  to 
summon,  and  to  pay  jurors  and  witnesses  in  behalf  of  any 
prisoner  to  be  tried  for  a  capital  offense,  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  In  the  remarks  made  under  the  head  "  Cen- 
sus," we  stated  that  it  was  made  the  duty  of  the  Marshals  to 
superintend  and  direct  the  enumeration  of  tfie  people;  and  to 
collect  such  statistical  facts  as  the  law  requires.  This  they  do 
through  deputies,  whom  they  appoint  for  that  special  purpose. 

The  United  States  Marshal  is  also  required,  on  tlie  first  day 
of  January  and  July  of  each  year,  to  make  a  return  of  all  the 
fees  and  emoluments  of  his  office  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Inte- 
rior; and  if  they  amount  to  more  tlian  $6,000  per  year,  he 
must  pay  the  surplus  into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTEE    LXiy. 

GKAND  'jury. 

1.  By  turning  to  the  fifth  article  of  the  amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  you  will  find  these  words :  "  "No  person  shall  be 
held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless 
on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Grand  Jury;  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger."  This  con- 
stitutional provision  makes  a  Grand  Jury  a  very  important 
agent  or  instrumentality  in  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and  also 
a  safeguard  of  the  liberties  and  rights  of  the  people.  It 
secures  every  person  from  the  expense  and  disgrace  of  a  trial 
for  infamous  crimes,  unless  a  Grand  Jury  of  his  countrymen 


442 


GRAND   JURY. 


shall  lind  upon  inquiry  and  investigation,  that  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  person  so  charged  has  conimitted 
the  alleged  offense. 

2.  This  provision  not  only  protects  those  who  are  charged 
with  these  crimes  ao^ainst  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  but 
those  also  who  may  be  charged  with  such  offenses  against  the 
laws  of  any  State;  for  no  State  can  arrest  and  try  any  person 
for  a  capital  or  infamous  crime  without  these  preliminary  pro- 

*ceedings  of  a  Grand  Jury;  and  should  it  do  so,  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  would  set  its  laws  aside,  as  contrary  ta 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Here  we  see  that  the 
government  is  just  as  careful  to  protect  its  citizens  from  injus- 
tice by  hasty  judicial  proceedings  as  it  is  to  punish  them  after 
a  fair  and  impartial  trial. 

3.  A  Grand  Jury,  when  called  to  take  cognizance  of  viola- 
tions of  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  to  find  indictments 
against  those  who  are  charged  with  them,  is  summoned  by  a 
judge  of  a  United  States  court  in  the  circuit  or  district  where 
the  alleged  crime  has  been  perpetrated;  and  it  must  take  notice 
of  all  crimes  against  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  which  may 
be  brought  to  its  knowledge,  within  the  circuit  or  district  in 
which  it  sits.  Hence,  if  ordered  by  a  Circuit  Judge,  its  powers 
extend  over  all  those  States  which  lie  in  that  circuit.  But 
when  ordered  by  a  District  Judge,  its  powers  extend  only  to 
that  district  in  which  it  sits,  and  a  district  never  embraces, 
more  than  one  State,  and  in  many  cases  a  State  is  divided  into 
two  or  three  districts. 

4.  This  shows  us  how  much  more  extensive  is  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  Grand  Jury,  when  acting  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  than  when  acting  under  State  laws.  In  the 
former  it  extends  generally  all  over  a  State,  and  sometimes 
over  several  States.  But  in  the  latter  it  is  confined  to  the 
county  in  which  it  sits. 

GRAND   AND   PETIT   JURIES. 

A  Grand  Jury  never  acts  but  in  criminal  cases.  A  Petit 
Jury  acts  in  both  criminal  and  civil  cases.     The  finding  or 


GRAND   JTJKT.  448 

concluBion  arrived  at  by  a  Grand  Jury  is  called  a  presentment, 
or  an  indictment.  The  finding  of  a  Petit  Jury  is  called  its 
verdict. 

5.  Second,  a  Grand  Jury  sits  alone  (not  in  the  presence  of 
the  court),  and  deliberates  upon  such  matters  of  a  criminal 
character  as  it  possesses  knowledge  of,  or  which  may  be 
brought  to  its  notice  by  the  court  or  by  other  persons;  and 
when  it  finds  that  great  evils  exist,  and  wrongs  have  been 
perpetrated,  it  presents  them  to  the  court,  and  calls  the  atten- 
tion of  the  law  officers  to  them;  which  is  equivalent  to  a 
recommendation  that  judicial  proceedings  should  be  com- 
menced to  abate  the  evil,  or  to  punish  the  wrong-doer.  This 
is  called  a  presentment  of  the  Grand  Jury. 

And  when  they  find,  upon  such  evidence  as  they  have,  that 
a  great  crime  has  been  perpetrated,  or  that  they  have  good 
reason  so  to  believe,  and  that  it  has  been  perpetrated  by  some 
person  specified,  they  report  their  finding  or  conclusion  to  the 
Court.  This  is  called  an  indictment  by  the  Grand  Jury;  after 
which  the  person  so  charged  is  arrested,  if  at  large,  and  can 
be  found,  and  is  either  imprisoned  or  held  to  bail  tor  his 
appearance  at  court  to  stand  trial. 

6.  A  Grand  Jury  never  tries  a  case.  It  only  says  to  the 
court  by  its  presentment  or  indictment,  that  the  case  pre- 
sented, or  the  person  indicted,  ought  to  be  brought  before  the 
court,  and  tried  for  the  alleged  wrong  or  crime. 

A  Petit  Jury  sits  with  the  court,  hears  the  pleadings  and 
arguments  of  counsel  on  both  sides,  listens  to  the  evidence 
of  witnesses;  and  then  hears  the  charge  of  the  judge,  as  to 
the  law  applicable  to  the  case;  after  which  they  withdraw  and 
deliberate  alone  upon  the  case,  and  if  they  agree  in  a  criminal 
<5ase,  their  verdict  is  "Guilty,"  or  "Not  Guilty;"  if  in  a 
iivil  suit,  they  say  how  much  one  party  is  indebted  (if  any), 
to  the  other, 

7.  The  object  aimed  at  in  that  article  of  the  Constitution 
which  stands  at  the  head  of  this  chapter,  is  to  protect  persons 
from  false  charges  of  crime,  and  hasty  adjudication  of  such 


444  LOCAL   GOVERNMENTS. 

charges;  for  it  substantially  amounts  to  a  declaration  that  no 
person  shall  be  punished  for  a  capital  or  infamous  crin»-e,  unless 
one  jury,  before  trial,  shall,  upon  information  and  belief,  charge 
him  with  the  offense;  and  another,  after  trial,  shall  find  him 
guilty  of  the  alleged  crime. 

The  above  remarks  are  as  applicable  to  Grand  and  Petit 
Juries,  acting  under  State,  as  those  which  act  under  the  United 
States  laws. 


CHAPTEE    LXY. 
LOCAL  GOVERNMENTS. 

1.  The  Supreme  power  in  the  United  States  is  lodged  in 
the  general  government,  with  its  three  branches  :  Legislative, 
Executive,  and  Judicial.  The  authority  of  this  government, 
however,  is  restricted  to  the  powers  expressly  conferred  on  it 
by  the  Constitution  ;  all  other  power  Deing  reserved  to  the 
States,  or  the  people.  The  States  also  are  sovereign  in  their 
own  limits,  over  all  questions  not  expressly  assigned  to  the 
General  Government.  Instead  of  conflict  of  authority  there 
is  true  harmony.  The  people  elect  the  members  of  both  the 
classes  of  legislators  and  executives,  and  both  are  equally 
employed  in  attending  to  the  interests  of  the  people  confided 
to  their  care;  the  first  to  General,  the  second  to  Local  interests. 
All  the  members  and  officers  of  each  are  the  servants  of  the 
Sovereign  People. 

2.  As  soon  as  the  general  government  was  organized  under 
the  Constitution,  there  arose  two  parties.  One  wished  to  ren- 
der the  General  Government  prominent  in  order  to  secure  con- 
centration of  strength  and  vigor  of  action  ;  the  other  desired 
to  exalt  the  State  governments  in  the  fear  that  the  general 
government  might  prove  ambitious  of  too  much  power,  and 
disregard  the  welfare  of  the  people.  As  in  almost  all  party 
platforms,  both  these  seemed  to  take  too  narrow  a  view.  "Wash- 
ington was  held  to  sympathize  more  with  the  first,  Jefferson 


LOCAL   GOVERNMENTS.  445 

was  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  second.  Together  they 
secured  a  very  fair  mingling  of  both  these  principles  in  the 
administration  and  general  policy  of  the  country.  A  strict 
adherence  to  the  meaning  and  spirit  of  the  Constitution  would 
not  seem  to  give  special  favor  to  either,  or  allow  a  conflict  of 
interests. 

3.  The  Supreme  Court,  or  the  Judiciary,  is  the  regulating, 
or  reconciling  element,  which  the  Constitution  set  over  the 
whole  to  see  that  no  undue  or  improper  action  should  defeat 
its  purposes,  and  that  no  collisions  of  authority  should  occur. 
Its  decision  is  final,  it  being  the  last  resort  in  cases  of  appeal ; 
and,  as  the  only  final  and  authoritative  interpreter  of  Consti- 
tutional Law,  it  may  revise  the  action  of  all  other  branches  of 
both  general  and  local  government,  and  put  them  in  harmony. 

4.  It  is  plain  that  the  authors  of  the  Constitution  intended 
to  fiise  the  separate  elements,  or  States,  into  one  whole,  where 
general  matters  were  concerned;  and  to  leave  those  elements 
perfectl}^  free  and  absolute  control  of  all  questions  involving 
only  their  separate  and  local  concerns.  The  People,  and  their 
welfare,  are  the  aim  and  end  of  both  organizations.  The  pos- 
session of  power  for  ambitious  ends  by  general.  State,  or  muni- 
cipal organizations,  or  by  individuals,  was  apparently  as  foreign 
to  the  thought  of  the  whole  Constitutional  convention  of  1787 
as  it  seems  always  to  have  been  to  the  mind  of  Washington. 
That  great  man  was  the  leader  of  clear-sighted  and  pure-minded 
statesmen,  and  whatever  weaknesses  and  faults  have  existed  at 
any  time  (and  there  have  always  been  an  abundance -of  them, 
as  there  were  in  the  times  of  Washington)  among  political 
leaders,  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  Fathers  had  worthy  sons 
who  knew  how  to  work  correctly  the  problems  left  them  by 
their  predecessors.  A  single  question  proved  quite  unmanage- 
able to  the  sons,  as  it  had  before  to  the  fathers,  and  had  to  be 
settled  by  an  appeal  to  arms;  but  it  demonstrated  the  strength 
of  the  people  and  the  ability  of  our  institutions  to  withstand 
the  severest  shocks, 

5.  The  original  States  adopted  the  Constitution  after  delib- 


446  LOCAL   GOVERNMENTS. 

erate  study,  and  all  the  States  since  admitted  virtually  do  the 
same.  Their  general  structure  in  their  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  arrangements  is  substantially  tlie  same  as  that  of 
the  General  Government.  The  State  Legislatures  consist  of 
two  Houses,  chosen  in  different  ways,  and  for  different  terms  ; 
the  relations  between  them  being  similar  to  those  of  Congress. 
Every  State  has  a  governor,  answering  to  the  President  of  tlie 
United  States,  who  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  State  govern- 
ment. The  courts  in  all  are  organized  on  the  same  principle 
«,s  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  general  government.  Although 
there  are  small  variations  from  the  model,  in  various  States, 
they  do  not  affect  the  general  resemblance  ;  and,  due  allow- 
ance being  made  for  the  different  subjects  to  be  treated,  the 
analysis  of  the  general,  or  of  any  of  State  governments,  will 
give  a  sufficiently  correct  view  of  all. 

6.  A  State  cannot  make  treaties  with  a  foreign  power,  nor 
"declare  war  against  it.  It  cannot  raise  a  revenue  by  duties  on 
imports,  nor  control  the  postal  service,  or  matters  involving 
the  interests  of  other  States.  It  has  therefore  no  Department 
for  Foreign  relations,  -its  Secretary  of  State  dealing  only  with 

'■State  affairs.  It  has  no  Department  of  War,  or  Navy,  and  no 
Postmaster  General.  The  Governor's  signature  is  necessary 
to  the  validity  of  laws  passed  by  the  two  branches  of  the  legis- 
lature, and  in  most  of  the  States  he  has  a  veto  power  similar 
to  that  of  the  President.  He  has  an  executive  council  answer- 
ing to  the  Cabinet.  The  courts  are  more  numerous  than  those 
of  the  general  government,  to  meet  the  wants  of  all  classes  of 
the  people;  ranging  from  a  Supreme  or  Constitutional  court, 
whose  office  it  is  to  interpret  and  apply  the  constitution  of  the 
State ;  through  all  grades,  of  Common  Pleas,  Circuit,  District, 
Police,  and  Recorder's  courts  down  to  neighborhood  courts 
held  by  Justices  of  the  Peace,  or  Aldermen.  There  are  various 
others  in  different  States  for  special  purposes. 

7.  States  are  subdivided  for  purposes  of  local  government 
into  counties  and  towns  ;  and  these  into  smaller  portions  for 
educational  and  other  purposes. 


INDIVIDUAL   STATES.  447 

Thus  the  whole  is  like  an  extensive  system  of  machinery, 
vrheel  being  fitted  to  wheel.  From  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
the  people  of  each  local  division  have  entire  control  over  the 
subjects  in  which  they  only  are  interested  ;  and  there  is  very 
little  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power.  Execu- 
tive officers  may  be  changed  by  election,  or  impeachment,  if 
they  do  not  give  satisfaction,  or  prove  unfaithful;  and  as  many 
securities  as  it  is  possible  to  devise  are  provided  against  abuses, 
or,  if  a  majority  in  any  State  (or  the  United  States)  believe 
that  an  improvement  can  be  made,  there  are  constitutional  and 
legal  methods  for  securing  it. 

Thus  our  country  is  insured  against  serious  discontents  for 
which  no  remedy  is  at  hand  ;  and  from  the  revolutions  and 
internal  disturbances  that  interrupt  the  progress,  and  destroy 
the  resources  of  so  many  other  countries.  It  is  a  government 
of^  for,  and  hy  the  people.  The  value  of  any  institution  or 
office  in  the  United  States,  from  the  school  district  and  director 
to  State  legislature.  Congress,  governor,  or  President,  is  deter- 
mined by  the  relation  it  bears  to  the  Public  Welfare ;  and  when 
it  ceases  to  be  useful  there  are,  as  there  ought  to  be,  legal  means 
f  V  laying  it  aside. 


CHAPTEE    LXYI. 
INDIYIDUAL  STATES. 

The  original  thirteen  States  are  here  arranged  in  the  order 
of  size — the  one  having  the  largest  area  being  placed  first. 
They  are  ranked  according  to  their  present  area,  the  claims  of 
some  of  them  at  first  extending  to  territory  since  erected  into 
States;  and  one,  Yirginia,  has  been  divided.  Her  former  area 
would  have  ranked  her  as  first. 

The  States  that  follow  are  placed  in  the  order  of  their  admis- 
sion into  the  Union. 


448  GEORGIA. 


GEORGIA. 

This  State  was  the  last  settled  of  the  original  thirteen.  It 
was  founded  in  the  benevolent  anxiety  of  Gen.  James  Ogle- 
thorpe and  others  to  relieve  the  distresses  of  the  poor  in 
England.  Those  imprisoned  for  debt  were  sent  ont  in  large 
numbers.  "With  this  object  was  connected  the  desire  to  prevent 
the  extension  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  Florida,  and  the 
English  government  favored  the  undertaking.  Tliis  class  of 
settlers  proving  indolent  and  improvident,  a  better  was  attracted 
by  laying  off  many  towns,  in  the  best  locations,  and  offering 
fifty  acres  free  to  every  actual  settler.  Many  Scotch  and  Ger- 
man emigrants  improved  this  opportunity,  to  the  great  advan- 
tage of  the  colony. 

Gen.  Oglethorpe  imitated  the  wise  conduct  of  Penn,  in  his 
treaties  with  the  Indians. 

He  commenced  his  settlement  at  Savannah,  in  1733,  cheer- 
fully assisted  by  the  South  Carolinians,  who  were  pleased  to 
see  a  barrier  placed  between  them  and  the  Spaniards.  Ogle- 
thorpe had  several  conflicts  with  them,  and  succeeded  in 
protecting  his  colony.  The  introduction  of  slaves  was  at  first 
forbidden  ;  but,  as  the  colony  seemed  to  fall  behind  the  neigh- 
boring provinces  for  want  of  laborers,  the  restriction  was 
removed.  In  1752  the  company  gave  up  their  charter,  and 
Georgia  became  a  royal  province.  It  took  part  with  the  other 
colonies  in  resistance  to  the  aggressions  of  the  English  minis- 
try, at  the  Revolutionary  period,  and  its  condition  during  the 
war  was  similar  to  that  of  North  and  South  Carolina.  Being 
new,  and  on  the  frontier,  it  was  not  conspicuous. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  uneven,  the  central  and 


GEOsaiA.  449 

lower  sections  productive  under  a  wise  and  careful  culture,  but 
easily  exhausted  under  bad  management.  She  Jias  long  navi- 
gable rivers,  and  her  manufacturing  and  commercial  capabilities 
are  excellent.  The  system  of  slave-labor  and  the  misfortunes 
of  the  Civil  War  have  embarrassed  her  progress,  but  the  energy 
of  her  neople  is  fast  raising  her  to  her  proper  rank  as  a  flourish- 
ing State. 

Georgia  has  an  area  of  52,009  square  miles,  equal  to 
33,285,760  acres.     She  was  named  after  George  II. 

The  population  in  1870  was  1,184,109,  which  entitles  her  to 
nine  Representatives  in  Congress. 

The  State  lies  in  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  has  two  judicial 
districts ;  also  four  ports  of  entry  —  Savannah,  Brunswick,  St. 
Mary's,  and  Hardwicke;  and  two  ports  of  delivery  —  Augusta 
and  Sunbury. 

The  capital  is  Atlanta.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
first  Wednesday  in  October.  The  Legislature  meets  bien- 
nially on  the  first  Wednesday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is  :  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of  Georgia 
in  Genera^  Assembly  met ;  and  it  is  hereby  enacted  by  the 
Authority  of  the  same." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

William  Few,  from 

James  Gunn,  " 

James  Jackson,  " 

George  Walton,  " 

Josiah  Tatnall,  " 

A.  Baldwin,  « 

J.  Milledge,  « 

George  Jones,  " 

W.  H.  Crawford,  « 

Charles  Tait,  « 

29 


1789 

to 

1793 

1789 

a 

1801. 

1793 

u 

1795. 

1801 

a 

1806. 

1795 

ii 

1796. 

1796 

u 

1799. 

1799 

a 

1805. 

1805 

i( 

1807. 

1806 

u 

1809. 

1807 

11 

1807. 

1807 

(C 

1813. 

1809 

a 

1813. 

1813 

a 

1819. 

450 


NORTH 

CAEOLLNA. 

W.  B.  Bullock, 

from 

1813 

to 

1813. 

William  W.  Bibb, 

u 

1813 

(( 

1816. 

G.  M.  Troup, 

u 

1816 
',  1829 

1818. 
1833. 

John  Forsyth, 

ti 

(  1818 
1  1829 

1819. 
1837. 

F.  Walker, 

u 

18  IS 

a 

1821. 

John  Elliot, 

K 

1819 

a 

1825. 

l>licnc!a8  Wa7.t. 

u 

1821 

a 

1824. 

T.  W.  Cobb, 

u 

1824 

u 

1828. 

0.  H.  Prince, 

U 

1828 

u 

1829. 

John  P.  King, 

U 

1833 

u 

1837. 

"W".  Lumpkin, 

a 

1837 

i( 

1841. 

J.  M.  Berrien, 

u 

i  1825 
11841 

1829. 
1852. 

A.  Cuthbert, 

a 

1837 

a 

1843. 

W.  T.  Colquitt, 

a 

1843 

a 

1848. 

H.  V.  Johnson, 

u 

1848 

<( 

1849. 

"W.  C.  Dawson, 

u 

1849 

a 

1855. 

Robert  Toombs, 

a 

1853 

a 

1861. 

R  M.  Charleton, 

« 

1852 

a 

1853. 

Alfred  Iverson, 

u 

1855 

u 

1861. 

Joshua  Hill, 

u 

1871 

(( 

1873. 

H.  Y.  M.  Miller, 

a 

1871 

a 

1871. 

Thomas  M.  Norwood, 

u 

1871 

u 

1877. 

John  B.  Gordon, 

a 

1873 

a 

1885. 

B.  H.  HiU, 

u 

1877 

u 

1883. 

NORTH     CAROLINA. 

A  Florentine  navigator,  sent  out  by  Francis  I.,  Kin^  oi 
France,  first  published  an  account  of  this  region.     TTc  \  isited 


NOKTH   CAEOLINA.  451 

It  in  1524.  Ribault,  a  French  protestant,  sent  out  witli  a 
colony  by  Admiral  Coligni,  in  1564,  named  the  southern  coast 
Carolina,  from  Charles  IX.  (in  Latin  Carolus),  King  of  France. 
Hie  colony  was  not  permanent.  In  1585  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
uiade  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  establish  a  colony  on  Roanoke 
Ir^and.  Some  fifty  years  later  the  colonists  of  Yirginia  made 
a  -etdement  in  the  limits  of  this  State,  called  Albemarle. 
Tnis  territory  was  patented  to  a  company  of  noblemen.  The 
first  ^ony,  founded  before  this  patent  was  issued,  and  enjoy- 
ing CLlire  liberty,  became  an  asylum  from  the  religious  intol- 
erance* \lmost  universal  at  that  time.  In  1666  they  numbered 
800. 

Man;jr  French  Huguenots,  attracted  by  this  freedom  and  the 
mild  climaU  and  extreme  fertility  of  the  soil,  settled  here  and 
added  grea  ^y  to  the  industrious  and  virtuous  elements  of  the 
population.  The  revolutionary  struggle  was  singularly  bitter 
and  bloody  in  this  State  and  South  Carohna,  from  the  number 
and  sanguinary  character  of  the  royalists  and  tories,  and  from 
the  partisan  or  guerrilla  mode  of  warfare  adopted. 

Tlie  majority  were,  however,  determined  and  valiant  patriots, 
and  rendered  it  impossible  for  the  British  to  establish  a  firm 
•control  over  this  part  of  the  country. 

■  The  eastern  surface  is  low,  the  western  mountainous,  and 
much  of  the  midland  is  covered  with  pine  forests  wliich  pro- 
•duce  large  quantities  of  turpentine.  The  soil  is  favorable  to 
agriculture.  Yams,  rice,  and  cotton,  in  addition  to  the  cereals, 
are  raised  with  success.  The  fisheries  in  Albemarle  Sound  are 
an  important  source  of  wealth.  A  large  number  of  minerals 
are  found  in  the  State.  Like  most  of  the  Southern  States,  its 
resources  have  been  but  partially  developed. 

This  is  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  and  has  an 
area  of  50,704  square  miles,  equal  to  32,450,560  acres,  with  a 
population  of  1,071,361  (one-third  colored),  and  entitled  to 
eight  members  of  Congress.  North  Carolina,  by  act  of  1866, 
was  located  in  the  fourth  judicial  circuit,  which  is  composed 
of  Maryland,  Virginia,  "West  Yirginia,  North  Carolina,  and 


452  NORTH   CAROLINA. 

Soutli  Carolina ;  and  is  divided  into  three  judicial  districts, 
called  the  districts  of  Albemarle,  Pamlico,  and  Cape  Fear. 
The  collection  districts,  and  the  ports  of  entry  and  delivery  in 
this  State  have  been  so  often  modified  and  discontinued  that 
there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  number.  There  are,  as 
near  as  we  can  determine,  ten  districts,  ten  ports  of  entry,  and 
nine  ports  of  delivery. 

Raleigh  is  the  capital.  There  the  Legislature  meets  bien- 
nially ou  the  second  Wednesday  in  January.  The  State  elec- 
tion is  lield  on  the  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows  :  "  Be  it  "enacted 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  and 
it  is  hereby  enacted  by  the  authority  of  the  same." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 


Samuel  Johnson, 

from 

1789 

to 

1793. 

Benjamin  Hawkins, 

(( 

1789 

(( 

1795. 

Alexander  Martin, 

(( 

1793 

a 

1799. 

Timothy  Bloodworth, 

u 

1795 

a 

1801. 

Jesse  Franklin, 

u 

(  1799 
1  1807 

1805. 
1813. 

David  Stone, 
James  Turner, 

j  1801 

(1813 
1805 

1807. 
1814. 
1816. 

Nathaniel  Macon, 

u 

1815 

a 

1828. 

James  Iredell, 

it 

1828 

u 

1831. 

Montford  Stokes, 

(( 

1816 

u 

1823. 

John  Branch, 

u 

1823 

a 

1829. 

Bedford  Brown, 

u 

1829 

a 

1840. 

Willie  P.  Mangum, 

(  1840 
I  1831 

a 

1853. 
1836. 

Robert  Strange, 

u 

1836 

a 

1840. 

William  A.  Graham, 

(( 

1840 

u 

1843. 

William  H.  Haywood, 

(( 

1843 

a 

1846. 

George  E.  Badger, 

« 

1846 

a 

1855. 

Asa  Biggs, 

(( 

1854 

ii 

1858. 

David  S.  Reed, 

u 

1855 

n 

1859. 

Thomas  L.  Clingman, 

« 

1858 

n 

1861. 

NEW  YORK.  463 

Thomas  Bragg,             from  1859  to  1861. 

Joseph  C.  Abbott,           "  1868  "  1871. 

John  Pool,                        «  1868  "  1873. 

Zebulon  B.  Vance,           «  1879  "  1885. 

Matthew  W.  Ransom,     «  1872  ''  1883. 

Augustus  S.  Merriman,  "  1872  "  1883. 


NEW    YORK. 

Th«>  ^  Empire  State "  is  verj  fortunately  situated  for  the 
promotion  of  all  the  interests  that  form  tlie  basis  of  prosperity 
of  a  JS^ation.  It  contains  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the 
country,  which  is  connected,  by  its  great  navigable  river,  the 
Hudson,  and  the  Erie  canal,  with  the  fertile  interior  and  the 
commerce  of  the  chain  of  great  lakes  in  the  west ;  while  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Champlain  furnish  the  means  of  profitable  trade 
with  Canada  on  the  north.  As  its  natural  commercial  facili- 
ties are  unrivaled,  so  also,  every  auxiliary  that  can  be  furnished 
by  art  is  employed  to  develop  its  resources  and  to  attract  trade 
and  manufactures. 

Its  river  was  discovered  by  the  celebrated  navigator.  Captain 
Henry  Hudson,  in  1609,  and  he  gave  it  his  name.  He  was 
■employed,  at  this  time  by  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  and  settled 
the  territory  in  the  following  year.  They  established  posts  on 
Manhattan  Island,  where  New  York  now  stands,  and  at  Albany 
— calling  the  country  in  general,  New  Netherlands.  They  held 
it  until  1644;  laying  claim,  also,  to  Connecticut  and  New  Jer- 
sey. Their  rule  was  despotic,  and  when  the  Duke  of  York, 
afterward  James  II.,  King  of  England,  sent  a  squadron  to 
enforce  English  claims  to  it,  the  inhabitants  declined  to  resist, 
<ind  it  became  an  English  colony  without  a  struggle.    The  dty 


4:54  OTW   TOKK. 

and  colony  received  the  name  of  New  York  and  continued 
henceforth  in  English  hands.  Its  position  favored  a  steadj 
growth  in  population  and  wealth ;  and  it  took  an  active  part  in 
the  Revolution.  Its  central  position  made  it  the  pivot  of  the 
war,  the  leading  struggles  taking  place  in  or  near  it.  l!^ew 
York  city  was  held  by  the  British  during  most  of  the  war,  but. 
the  skillful  strategy  and  watchfulness  of  Washington,  and  the 
valor  of  his  officers  and  troops  preserved  the  river  in  American 
hands  throughout.  It  ratified  the  Constitution  July  26th, 
1788,  and  soon  outstripped  every  State  in  all  things,  except 
education,  no  State  being  able  to  compare  with  Massachusetts- 
in  that  respect. 

New  York  is  the  largest  and  richest  city  in  the  Union.  The 
State  abounds  in  salt  and  mineral  springs,  and  its  central  and 
western  parts  are  unexcelled  for  agriculture ;  while  the  eastern, 
more  mountainous,  but  nearer  to  markets,  and  more  abundant 
in  water  power,  is  equally  favorable  to  grazing  and  manu- 
factures. 

Its  area  is  47,000  square  miles,  equal  to  30,080,000  acres. 
The  population  in  1870  was  larger  than  that  of  any  other  State^ 
being  officially  stated  at  4,382,759,  It  has  thirty-three  Mem- 
bers of  Congress. 

It  forms  part  of  the  second  judicial  circuit,  and  has  three 
judicial  districts;  eleven  ports  of  entry,  and  fourteen  ports  of 
delivery,  with  the  privilege  of  eight  or  nine  others  if  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  deems  them  necessary. 

The  Capital  is  Albany.  The  State  elections  are  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  and  the  Legisla- 
lature  meets  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  January  in  each  year.  Tlie 
style  of  the  enacting  clause  is :  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the  people 
of  the  State  of  New  York  represented  in  Senate  and  Assemblj?." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS, 

Philip  Schuyler,  from  1789    to    1791. 

RufusKing,  "         \™'    "     1^^«- 

^'  (  1813     «     1825. 

Aaron  Burr,  «  1791     "    1797. 


NEW   YOBK. 

John  Lawrence, 

from 

1796 

to 

1800. 

John  S.  Hobart, 

(( 

1798 

(( 

1798. 

"William  North, 

(( 

1798 

(( 

1798. 

James  Watson, 

(( 

1798 

Resigned. 

Govemeur  Morris, 

(( 

1800 

<( 

1803. 

John  Armstrong, 

ii 

j  1800 
(  1803 

1802. 
1804. 

DeWitt  Clinton, 

(( 

1802 

(( 

1803. 

fhoodoro  jBailey, 

(( 

1803 

u 

1804. 

Samuel  L.  Mitchell. 

■:« 

1804 

u 

1809. 

John  Smith, 

-S 

1804 

a 

1813. 

Obadiah  Germap, 

.c 

1809 

a 

1815. 

Nathan  Sanford, 

X 

(  1815 
'   1825 

il 

1821. 

a 

1831. 

Martin  Yan  Buren, 

n 

1821 

a 

1829. 

Charles  Dudley, 

u 

1829 

a 

1833. 

"William  L.  Marcy, 

il 

1831 

a 

1833. 

Nath'l  P.  Tallmadge, 

(( 

1833 

a 

IQ'U. 

Silas  Wright, 

(( 

1833 

(( 

1844. 

Daniel  S.  Dickinson, 

(( 

1844 

u 

1851. 

Henry  A.  Foster, 

(( 

1844 

u 

1845. 

John  A.  Dix, 

(( 

1845 

(I 

1849. 

William  H.  Seward, 

(( 

1849 

u 

1861. 

Hamilton  Fish, 

(( 

1851 

u 

1857. 

Preston  King, 

(( 

1857 

11 

1863. 

Ira  Harris, 

(( 

1861 

u 

1867. 

Edwin  D.  Morgan, 

u 

1863 

(( 

1869 

Eoscoe  Conkling, 

u 

1867 

u 

1885 

Eauben  E.  Fenton, 

u 

1869 

u 

1875. 

Francis  Kernan, 

11 

1875 

C( 

1881. 

466 


456  PENNSYLVANIA. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

"  The  Keystone  State  "  has  been  eminently  fortunate  in  three 
Tarious  ways.  Its  founder,  William  Penn,  happily  united 
benevolence  and  high  political  wisdom,  with  a  thrifty  and  pru- 
dent economy,  and  possessed  sufficient  influence  and  tact  to 
infuse  his  colony  with  his  own  qualities  to  a  large  degree,  and 
the  advantages  acquired  in  the  beginning,  have  shed  their 
favoring  influence  on  all  its  future,  to  the  present  time. 

Penn,  as  proprietor  of  his  province,  had  almost  kingly 
power;  yet,  as  a  law-giver,  he  acknowledged  the  liberties  of 
the  people,  and  accustomed  them  to  many  of  the  forms  of  self- 
government  afterward  incorporated  into  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  His  just  and  conciliatory  conduct  toward  the 
Indians,  and  the  exemption  of  Pennsylvania  from  barbarous 
Indian  wars,  in  consequence,  proves  the  utility  of  the  practice 
of  unvarying  justice  and  kindness  toward  them;  and  stands  in 
strong  and  significant  contrast  with  the  opposite  course,  so 
often  pursued,  and  with  results  so  distressing. 

A  colony  was  established  by  Penn  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  State,  in  the  year  1682.  The  government  was  conducted 
by  a  governor,  a  council  of  three,  and  a  House  of  Delegates, 
chosen  by  the  people.  The  largest  religious  liberty  was  allowed, 
and  punishment  of  crime  was  mitigated  from  the  severity,  cus- 
tomary in  those  times,  to  something  like  the  mildness  now 
practiced  among  us. 

The  colony  enjoyed  seventy  years  of  enlightened  government, 
and  prospered  greatly.  A  large  immigration  of  hardy  and 
thrifty  Germans  and  Swedes  spread  over  the  State  and  suppliwi, 


PENNSYLVANIA.  457 

in  Revolutionary  times,  the  "  fighting  material "  which  the 
religious  principles  of  the  Quakers  forbade  them  to  furnish. 

The  second  eminent  advantage  of  the  State,  was  in  its  cen- 
tral position,  the  facilities  furnished  to  commerce  and  trade  by 
the  Delaware  river  on  its  eastern  boundary,  and  the  Ohio,  on 
the  west,  connecting  it  with  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  third  superiority,  later  in  development  in  some  of  its 
features,  relates  to  its  wealth  of  resources.  Lying  midway 
between  north  and  south,  its  climate  is  temperate  and  mild. 
Its  soil  on  the  eastern  border  and  along  the  valleys  of  its 
numerous  rivers  is  of  great  fertiity;  while  its  inexhaustible 
coal  deposits  are  far  more  valuable  in  promoting  the  steady 
growth  of  her  citizens  in  wealth  than  mines  of  gold.  Iron, 
copper,  zinc,  marble  and  slate  are,  apparently,  inexhaustible. 
Her  railroads  and  canals  furnish  a  suitable  means  for  the  devel- 
opment of  these  resources,  and  the  transportation  for  all  her 
valuable  commodities  to  profitable  markets,  and  prove  her  later 
citizens  to  have  inherited  the  economic  wisdom  and  thrift  of 
the  founder  of  their  State. 

Pennsylvania  valiantly  bore  the  share  in  the  struggles  and 
sacrifices  of  the  Revolution  to  which  her  position,  her  wealth 
and  numbers,  called  her.  Philadelphia — "  The  City  of  Broth- 
erly Love  "  (the  name  means  this,)  was  the  first  capital  of  the 
Republic.  It  was  there  that  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  originated  and  signed. 

Its  area  is  46,000  square  miles,  equal  to  29,440,000  acres. 
The  population  in  1870  was  3,521,951,  entitling  her  to  twenty- 
seven  Representatives  in  Congress. 

It  is  in  the  third  judicial  circuit;  and  forms  two  judicial 
districts.  There  are  two  ports  of  entry,  and  two  collection 
districts.  Harrisburg  is  the  capital;  the  Legislature  assem- 
bling on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  the  State  election 
being  held  the  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is:  "Be  it  enacted  by  the 
Senate  and  House  of  ReDresentatives  of  the  Commonwealth  of 


458  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Pennsylvania  in   General   Assembly  met;    and   it  is  hereby 
enacted  by  the  authority  of  the  same." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 

WilHamMaclay,  from  1789    to    1791 


Eobert  Morris, 

(( 

1789 

(( 

1795 

Albert  Gallatin, 

u 

1793 

(( 

1794 

James  Koss, 

(( 

1794 

u 

1803 

William  Bingham, 

(( 

1795 

u 

1801. 

Peter  Muhlenburgh, 
George  Logan, 
Samuel  Maclay, 
Michael  Leib, 

(( 
(( 
li 
11 

1801 

1801 
1803 

1808 

(( 
ii 
ii 
ii 

1801. 

1807. 
1808. 
1814. 

Andrew  Gregg, 
Abner  Lacock, 

(( 
(I 

1807 
1813 

ii 
ii 

1813. 
1819. 

Jonathan  Eoberts, 

u 

1814 

ii 

1821. 

Walter  Lawrie, 

11 

1819 

ii 

1825. 

William  Findlay, 
William  Marks, 

1821 

1825 

ii 
a 

1827. 
1831. 

Isaac  D.  Barnard, 

r 

1827 

a 

1831. 

George  M.  Dallas, 

(i 

1831 

(I 

1833. 

William  Wilkins, 

li 

1831 

ii 

1834. 

Samuel  McKean, 

u 

1833 

ii 

1839. 

James  Buchanan, 

« 

1834 

a 

1845. 

iQaniel  Sturgeon, 

a 

1839 
(1845 

a 
a 

1851. 
1849. 

Simon  Cameron, 

u 

]l857 

a 

1861. 

'l867 

a 

1877. 

James  Cooper, 

u 

1849 

a 

1855. 

Charles  R.  Buckalew, 

(i 

1863 

a 

1869. 

Richard  Broadhead, 

u 

1851 

a 

1857. 

William  Bigler, 

n 

1855 

a 

1861. 

Edgar  Cowan, 

u 

1861 

a 

1867. 

David  Wilmot, 

ii 

1861 

a 

1863. 

John  Scott, 
Wm.  A.  Wallace, 

1869 
1875 

u 

ti 

1875. 
1881, 

J.  D.  Cameron, 

a 

1877 

ii 

1885. 

VIRGINIA.  459 


VIRGINIA. 

"The  Old  Dominion,"  as  this  State  has  been  called,  in 
familiar  style,  has  certain  high  claims  to  such  a  distinctive 
appellation.  It  was  the  colony  in  which  the  first  permanent 
settlement  was  made,  and  for  fourteen  years  before  the  perils 
of  the  wilderness  -were  encountered  by  the  Puritan  Fathers  of 
New  England,  it  confronted  famine  and  Indian  hostility.  Its 
people  were  quite  different  in  character  from  those  of  most  of 
the  other  colonies.  While  many  were  from  the  lowest  classes, 
a  goodly  number  of  the  gentry  and  nobility  of  England  were 
transplanted  to  this  colony.  Some  were  men  of  wealth,  char- 
acter and  influence;  and  the  hereditary  value  of  that  element 
became  conspicuous  when  revolutionary  times  came,  and  the 
colonial  government,  which  had  been  from  the  first,  kept 
closely  dependent  on  the  royal  will,  being  set  aside,  permitted 
to  this  class  a  free  field  of  action.  None  were  more  eloquent, 
more  zealous,  more  valiant  or  wise,  during  the  "  time  that  tried 
men's  souls."  The  talents,  patriotism,  and  wisdom  of  "Wash- 
ington, Jeft'erson,  Madison,  Monroe,  and  many  others  almost 
equally  useful,  attest  the  quality  of  the  Virginian  stock  of 
patriots,  and  shed  honor  on  their  native  State. 

It  was  settled  in  1607,  at  Jamestown.  The  infant  colony 
was  long  exposed  to  danger  of  destruction  by  Indian  hostility; 
but,  favored  by  circumstances,  grew  up  to  strength,  and  became 
a  protection  to  others.  An  almost  constant  struggle  was  main- 
tained with  the  royal  governors,  who  were  disposed  to  encroach 
on  their  liberties.  Notwithstanding  the  number  of  decayed 
and  worthless  gentlemen,  and  the  dregs  of  the  English  popu- 
lace, who  entered  as  components   into  her  population,  as  a 


460  viEGmiA. 

whole,  they  proved  worthy  of  the  republic  they  so  largely 
helped  to  rear.  Their  best  blood  was  spilled  in  its  cause,  and 
their  material  support  was  never  withheld  in  time  of  need. 

This  State  is  much  varied  in  surface.  In  the  southeast  it  is 
low  and  level;  in  the  west  and  northwest  mountainous,  with 
numerous  large  streams  and  fertile  vallies,  and  a  charming 
climate.  Its  mineral  M'ealth  of  coal,  iron  and  salt  is  very 
great;  its  water  power  for  manufacturing  purposes  unsur- 
passed; and  its  commercial  position  everything  to  be  desired. 
None  of  these  advantages  have  been  more  than  partially 
improved;  and  the  future  of  the  State  is  destined  to  be  exceed- 
ingly brilliant.  Old  and  flourishing  colleges  testify  to  the 
interest  taken  in  education;  and  railroads  and  other  means  of 
internal  development  have  already  prepared  the  way  for  its 
greatness.  She  exports  tobacco,  flour,  oysters,  and  cotton,  and 
her  agricultural  wealth  is  constantly  improving. 

Virginia  is  also  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  and  had 
an  area  previous  to  the  division  in  1862,  of  61,352  square 
miles,  equal  to  39,265,280  acres;  but  after  West  Yirginia  was 
set  oif  as  a  separate  State,  there  were  but  38,C52  Sij^uare  mile? 
left  of  this  once  great  State,  equal  to  24,545,260  acres. 

The  population  in  1860  amounted  to  1,596,318,  which  enti- 
tled the  State  to  twelve  Members  of  Congress;.  By  the  division 
the  number  of  Eepresentatives  was  cut  down  to  nine;  the 
new  State  receiving  three  out  of  the  twelve.  Population  in 
1870, 1,225,163, 

Virginia  lies  in  the  fourth  judicial  circuit,  which  by  the  act 
of  1866,  was  composed  of  this  State,  Maryland,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina.  There  were 
two  judicial  districts  in  this  State,  anterior  to  the  division;  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western.     There  is  now  but  one. 

There  were  also  twelve  collection  districts  in  this  State,  and 
twelve  ports  of  entry,  all  of  which  remain  the  same  as  they 
were  before  West  Virginia  was  cut  off",  for  they  were  all  located 
<»t^  the  Atlantic  coast,  or  on  the  bays  and  rivers  running  into 
^he  Atlantic  Ocean;  there  are  also  ten  ports  of  delivery. 

Richmond  is  the  capital.     The  State  election  is  held  on  the 


VIRGINIA.  4.QI 

Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.    The  Legislature 
meets  on  the  first  Monday  in  December. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  of  Virginia  is:    "Beit 
enacted  by  the  General  Assembly." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATOBS. 


William  Grayson, 

from 

1789 

to 

1790. 

Richard  H.  Lee, 

ii 

1789 

a 

1792. 

John  Walker, 

a 

1790 

ii 

1790. 

James  Monroe, 

a 

1790 

a 

1794. 

I  1792 

ii 

1794. 

John  Taylor, 

u 

]l803 

ii 

1805. 

(1822 

ii 

1824. 

Stephen  T.  Mason, 

(( 

1794 

ii 

1803. 

John  Tazewell, 

(( 

1794 

ii 

1799. 

Wilson  C.  Nichols, 

u 

1799 

ii 

1804. 

Abraham  B.  Yenable, 

u 

1803 

ii 

1804. 

William  B.  Giles, 

ii 

1804 

ii 

1815. 

Andrew  Moore, 

ii 

1804 

ii 

1809. 

Kichard  Brent, 

a 

1809 

ii 

1815. 

James  Barbour, 

li 

1815 

ii 

1825. 

Armi  stead  T.  Mason, 

ii 

1816 

ii 

1817. 

John  W.  Eppes, 

ii 

1817 

ii 

1819. 

James  Pleasant, 

a 

1819 

ii 

1822. 

John  Randolph, 

ii 

1825 

ii 

1827. 

Littleton  W.  Tazewell, 

(( 

1824 

ii 

1832. 

John  Tyler, 

(( 

1827 

ii 

1836. 

(  1832 
1  1836 

ii 

1834. 

William  C.  Rives, 

li 

ii 

1845. 

Benjamin  W.  Leigh, 

u 

1834 

ii 

1836. 

Richard  E,  Parker, 

ii 

1836 

ii 

1837. 

William  H.  Roane, 

n 

1837 

ii 

1841. 

William  S.  Archer, 

ii 

1841 

ii 

1847. 

Isaac  S.  Pennybacker, 

a 

1845 

ii 

1847. 

James  M.  Mason, 

a 

1847 

ii 

1861. 

R.  M.  T.  Hunter, 

ii 

1847 

ii 

186L 

John  W.  Johnston, 

ii 

1870 

ii 

1883. 

John  F.  Lewis, 

a 

1870 

ii 

1875. 

Robert  E.  Withers, 

u 

1875 

ii 

1881. 

462  SOUTH   CAROLINA. 


SOUTH     CAROLINA. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  in  this  State  was  made  in 
1670,  at  Port  Royal,  where  the  French  Huguenots  had  failed 
three-quarters  of  a  century  before.  The  noble  company  who 
had  received  a  charter  for  the  settlement  and  government  of 
the  Carolinas  employed  the  celebrated  philosopher,  John 
Locke,  to  draw  up  a  philosophical  plan  of  goverment,  which 
they  attempted  to  carry  into  eifect  to  the  great  annoyance  of 
the  colonists.  It  proved  impracticable,  and  was  finally  aban- 
doned. 

The  French  introduced  the  culture  of  the  vine  with  success, 
a,nd  rice  was  brought  at  an  early  day  from  Madagascar,  the 
cultivation  of  which  became  extensive. 

Many  vexations  were  endured  by  the  colonists  by  the  inju- 
dicious management  of  the  proprietary  government,  and  at 
length  they,  by  petition,  obtained  a  revocation  of  the  charter, 
receiving,  in  1720,  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown.  They 
endured  for  many  years  all  the  horrors  of  warfare  with  the 
Tuscarora  Indians,  whom  they  finally  defeated  and  expelled 
Rutledge,  Sumpter,  and  Marion  were  distinguished  leaders  of 
the  patriots  during  the  occupation  of  the  State  by  the  British 
forces ;  employing  with  success  a  partisan  warfare,  and  defy- 
ing the  efforts  of  a  superior  British  force  to  hold  the  State  in 
subjection. 

The  climate  has  been  likened  to  that  of  Italy,  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  north  and  of  the  tropics  are  equally  cultivated. 
The  State  abounds  in  agricultural  and  manufacturing  resources, 
and  has  a  fine  commercial  position. 

South  Carolina  is  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  and 


SOUTH   OABOLINA.  463 

has  an  area  of  29,385  square  miles,  making  18,806,400  acres, 
with  a  population,  in  1870,  of  705,606,  (over  half  colored,) 
which  gives  her  five  Members  of  Congress. 

By  an  act  of  1866,  South  Carolina  was  located  in  the  fourth 
judicial  circuit;  it  is  divided  into  two  judicial  districts,  called 
the  Eastern  and  Western. 

There  are  three  collection  districts  in  this  State,  and  four 
ports  of  entry,  to-wit:  Georgetown,  Charleston,  Beaufort  and 
Port  Boyal ;  but  no  ports  of  delivery. 

The  capital  is  Columbia.  The  State  election  is  held  bien- 
nially, on  the  first  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in 
November.  The  Legislature  meets  annually,  on  the  fourth 
Tuesday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows:  "Be  it  enacted 
by  the  Honorable  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
now  met  and  sitting  in  General  Assembly,  and  by  authority 
•of  the  same." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 


Pierce  Butler, 

from 

j  1789 
/  1802 

to 

1796. 
1804. 

Ralph  Izard, 

u 

1789 

u 

1795. 

Jacob  Read, 

u 

1795 

ii 

1801. 

John  Hunter, 

it 

1796 

a 

1798. 

Charles  Pinckney, 

i( 

1798 

a 

1801. 

Thomas  Sumpter, 

i( 

1801 

u 

1810. 

John  E.  Calhoun. 

(( 

1801 

a 

1802. 

John  Gaillard, 

« 

1804 

(( 

1826. 

John  Taylor, 

u 

1810 

u 

1816. 

William  Smith, 

ti 

(  1816 
(  1826 

u 

1823. 
1831. 

William  Harper, 

ti 

1826 

a 

1826. 

Robert  J.  Hane, 

i( 

1823 

a 

1832. 

Stephen  D.  Miller, 

a 

1831 

u 

1833. 

John  C.  Calhoun, 

i( 

(  1832 
(  1845 

1842. 
1850. 

William  C.  Preston, 

11 

1833 

to 

1842. 

Daniel  E.  Husrer, 

u 

1842 

a 

1845. 

464 


MAKTLAiro. 

George  McDuffie, 

from 

1842 

to 

1846 

Andrew  P.  Butler, 

u 

1846 

ii 

1857 

Franklin  H.  Elmore, 

u 

1850 

u 

1850 

Robert  W.  Barnwell, 

(( 

1850 

u 

185u. 

E.  Barnwell  Rliett, 

il 

1850 

il 

]biy- 

William  Desaussnre, 

a 

1852 

ii 

1853. 

Josiah  Evans, 

a 

1853 

n 

1858 

James  H.  Hammond, 

u 

1857 

ii 

1860 

James  Chestnut, 

u 

1859. 

ii 

1860. 

Arthur  R  Hayne, 

(( 

1858. 

ii 

1859 

Thomas  J.  Robertson, 

u 

1868 

ii 

1877 

Frederick  A.  Sawyer, 

C( 

1868 

u 

1873 

John  J.  Patterson, 

<( 

1873 

il 

1879 

Manning  C.  Butler, 
"Wade  Hampton, 

u 
(( 

1877 
1879 

(1 

1883 
1885. 

[   /^ 

-GBtAr-;^ 

^_     I 

1 

^^St^jHVi 

f^\ 

^llllPL£ 

mw/n 

i 

MARYLAND. 

This  territory  at  first  was  included  in  the  patent  to  the  Vir^ 
ginia  colony;  but  was,  in  1632,  re-patented  to  Lord  Baltimore, 
an  English  nobleman,  who  had  embraced  the  catholic  faith, 
and  sought,  in  the  American  wilderness,  an  asylum  where  he 
and  his  co-religionists  might  enjoy  the  freedom  from  persecu- 
tion denied  them  in  England.  It  was  called  Maryland  from 
the  queen  of  Charles  I.,  King  of  England.  A  part  of  this 
patent  was  covered  by  that  subsequently  made  to  William 
Penn,  and  produced  much  trouble  between  the  descendants  of 
these  men,  and  their  respective  colonies.  A  settlement  was 
commenced,  mainly  by  catholic  gentlemen,  in  1634,  and  called 
St.  Mary's,  on  a  branch  of  the  Potomac. 

The  wise  liberality  that  distinguished  the  settlement  of  Penn- 
sylvania marked  all  the  earlier  history  of  Maryland.  They 
cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  natives  and  with  their 
neighbors.    Lord  Baltimore  was  liberal  in  his  expenditures  for 


mabYland.  4^5 

the  growing  colony,  and  gave  them  a  liberal  government. 
When  the  civil  war  commenced  in  England,  resulting  in  the 
death  of  Charles  I.  and  the  rise  of  Cromwell  to  power,  the 
lirst  troubles  of  the  colonists  of  Maryland  began,  and  continued 
until  1716,  when  the  heirs  of  the  original  proprietor  resumed 
their  rights  and  maintained  them  until  the  Revolution. 

This  State  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen,  and  gave  a  hearty 
support  to  the  patriot  side  during  the  war  for  freedom. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is,  in  great  part,  low  and  sandy; 
the  climate  agreeable  and  the  soil  favorable  to  agricultural 
pursuits.  Her  commercial  position  is  excellent,  being  situated 
on  either  side  of  Chesapeake  bay  and  bounded  by  the  Potomac 
river  on  the  west.  The  District  of  Columbia,  containing  the 
National  Capital,  was  located  on  the  last  named  river  within 
her  limits. 

Maryland  has  an  area  of  11,124  square  miles  —  equal  to 
7,119,360  acres.  The  population  in  1870  was  780,894  which 
gives  her  six  Representatives  in  Congress.  By  an  act  of  Con- 
gress, passed  in  1866,  this  State  was  put  in  the  fourth  judicial 
circuit,  which  is  composed  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Vir- 
ginia, North  and  South  Carolina.  Maryland  constitutes  one 
judicial  district;  has  ten  ports  of  entry,  viz.:  Baltimore,  Ches- 
ter, Oxford,  Vienna,  Snow-Hill,  Annapolis,  Nottingham,  St. 
Mary's,  Georgetown,  and  Havre  de  Grace  ;  and  twelve  ports 
of  delivery, 

Annapolis  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The  Legislature 
meets  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows :  "  Be  it  enacted 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  Maryland." 

UNITED   STATES    SENATORS. 

Charles  Carroll,      ) 


(of  CarroUton)  ) 
John  Henry, 
Richard  Potts, 
John  E.  Howard, 

30 


from 


1789 

to  1793. 

1789 

«  1797. 

1793 

"  1796. 

1796 

"  1803. 

4-66  MARYLAND. 

Jaines  Lloyd,  from 

"William  Hindman,  " 

Eobert  Wright,  « 

Samuel  Smith,  " 

Philip  Reed,  « 

R.  H.  Goldsborough,  " 

Robert  G.  Harper,  " 

Alexander  C.  Hanson,  " 

William  Pinckney,  " 

Edward  Lloyd,  " 

Ezekiel  F.  Chambers,  " 

Joseph  Kent,  " 

John  S.  Spence,  " 

William  D.  Merrick,  " 

John  Leeds  Ker,  " 

James  A.  Pearce,  " 

Reverdy  Johnson,  " 

David  Stuart,  « 

Thomas  G.  Pratt,  « 

Anthony  Kennedy,  " 

Thomas  H.  Hieks,  " 

John  A.  J.  Cresswell,  " 

George  Yickers,  " 

William  T.  Hamilton,  « 

George  R.  Dennis,  " 

Wm.  Pinckney  Whyte,  " 

James  B.  Groome,  " 


1797 

to 

1800. 

1800 

u 

1801. 

1801 

(( 

1806. 

1803 

n 

1815. 

".  1822 

ii 

1833. 

1806 

i( 

1813. 

(  1813 

ii 

1819. 

(  1835 

ii 

1836. 

1816 

li 

1816. 

1816 

a 

1819. 

1819 

a 

1822. 

1819 

ii 

1826. 

1826 

a 

1835. 

1833 

a 

1838. 

1836 

ii 

1841. 

1838 

a 

1845. 

1841 

a 

1843. 

1843 

a 

1862. 

(  1845 
{  1863 

a 

1849. 

ii 

1868. 

1849 

a 

1850. 

1850 

ii 

1857. 

1857 

li 

1863. 

1862 

a 

1866. 

1865 

ii 

1867. 

1868 

ii 

1873. 

1869 

It 

1875. 

1873 

ti 

1879. 

j  1875 

ii 

1881. 

/  1868 

a 

1869. 

1879 

u 

1885 

NKSV    IlAMrSIIlEE  467 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

This  State  is  often  called  "  The  Old  Granite  State,"  as  well 
from  its  mountainous  character  as  the  resolute  spirit  of  its 
inhabitants.  It  is  small,  having  an  area  of  only  9,280  square 
miles,  which  make  5,939,200  acres.  Its  population  in  1870  was 
318,300,  entitling  it  to  three  Representatives  in  Congress. 

The  lirst  settlement  was  founded  at  Dover,  in  1624,  by  the 
English.  It  suffered  nmch  from  Indian  wars,  and  its  growth 
was  slow.  It  was  made  a  separate  province  in  1680,  having 
previously  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts.  It 
was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  and  took  an  active  and 
Wgorous  part  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Its  soil  is  light  and  unfavorable  to  agriculture,  but  furnishes 
good  pasturage  and  produces  fine  cattle.  It  contains  the  White 
Mountains,  the  highest  in  New  England.  Its  streams  are 
utilized  for  manufacturing  purposes.  Quarries  of  marble  and 
granite  abound.  Minerals,  and  precious  stones  of  several  vari- 
€ties  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  Tlie  hardy  and 
•enterprising  sons  to  whom  it  has  given  birth  are  to  be  found 
in  every  State  in  the  Union. 

It  lies  in  the  first  judicial  circuit ;  constitutes  one  judicial 
district ;  and  is  embraced  in  one  collection  district,  and  there- 
fore has  but  one  port  of  entry.  There  are  three  ports  of 
delivery. 

The  capital  is  Concord.  The  Legislature  assembles  on  the 
first  Wednesday  in  June,  the  State  election  being  held  the 
second  Tuesday  in  March. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  runs  thus  :  "Be it  enacted 
by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  in  General  Assem- 
bly convened." 


468 


NEW    HAMP8HIEE. 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

Paine  Wingate,            from 

1789 

to 

1793. 

John  Langdon, 

u 

1789 

u 

1801. 

Samuel  Livermore, 

<( 

1793 

(( 

1801. 

Simeon  Olcott, 
James  Sheafe, 

1801 
1801 

u 
ii 

1805. 
1802. 

William  Plummer, 

u 

1802 

ii 

1807. 

Nicholas  Oilman, 

(C 

1805 

ii 

1814. 

JSTahum  Parker, 

u 

1807 

ii 

1810 

Charles  Cutts, 

(( 

1810 

ii 

18ia 

Jeremiah  Mason, 

ii 

1813 

ii 

1817. 

Thomas  W.  Thompson, 

ii 

1814 

ii 

1817, 

David  L.  Morrill, 

u 

1817 

ii 

1823, 

Clement  Storer, 

(( 

1817 

ii 

1819. 

John  F.  Parrott, 

a 

1819 

ii 

1825. 

Samuel  Bell, 

a 

1823 

ii 

1835. 

Levi  Woodbury, 

(( 

(  1825 
\  1841 

ii 
ii 

1831. 
1845. 

Isaac  Hill, 

« 

1831 

ii 

1836. 

Henry  Hubbard, 
John  Page, 

1835 
1836 

ii 

ii 

1841. 
1837. 

Franklin  Pierce, 

u 

1837 

ii 

1842. 

Leonard  Wilcox, 

11 

1842 

ii 

1843. 

Charles  G.  Atherson, 

li 

j  1843 
(  1853 

ii 
ii 

1849. 
1853. 

Benning  W.  Jenness, 
Joseph  Cilley, 

John  P.  Hale, 

11 
(I 

u 

1845 

1846 

(  1847 

11855 

ii 
ii 
ii 

ii 

1846. 

1847. 
1853. 
1865. 

Moses  Norris, 

ii 

1849 

ii 

1855. 

Jared  W.  Williams, 

ii 

1853 

ii 

1855. 

John  S.  Wells, 
James  Bell, 
Daniel  Clark, 
George  C.  Fogg, 
James  W.  Paterson, 
Aaron  H.  Cragin, 
Bainbridge  Wadleigh, 
E.  H.  Eollins. 

u 
li 
u 

u 
u 
u 
(( 
« 

1855 

1855 
1857 
1866 
1867 
1865 
1873 
1877 

ii 
ii 
ii 
ii 

ii 
ii 
ii 

ii 

1855. 
1857. 
1866. 
1867. 
1873. 
1877. 
1879. 
1883 

17EW  JESSEY.  409 


NEW    JERSEY. 

This  State  was  first  settled  at  Bergen  by  the  Swedes  sent 
over  bj  the  christian  hero-king,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  the 
year  1638.  They,  however,  soon  fell  under  the  control  of  the 
Dutch,  who  claimed  the  territory.  The  next  settlement  was 
made  at  Elizabethtown,  from  Long  Island,  in  1664.  ITew 
Jersey  came  into  the  hands  of  the  English  along  with  New 
Netherlands,  but  soon  became  an  independent  province;  Philip 
Carteret  becoming  its  first  governor,  in  1665.  It  was  for  some 
time  under  the  control  of  the  celebrated  Quaker,  William  Fenn, 
received  a  liberal  form  of  government,  and,  not  suffering  from 
the  Indians  enjoyed  prosperity  for  many  years.  Afterwards 
it  passed  through  various  vicissitudes  in  its  government,  was 
for  a  time  joined  to  New  York,  but  recovered  its  independent 
existence  in  1738 ;  and  was  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States, 
taking  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  Eevolution.  Its  territory, 
lying  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  was  the  field  on 
which  the  hostile  armies  fought  and  manouvered,  for  some 
years.  It  ratified  the  Constitution  unanimously,  December 
18th,  1787.  It  has  been  rewarded  for  its  patriotism  and  devo- 
tion to  liberty  by  unbroken  prosperity.  Its  manufactures  are 
in  a  flourishing  state.  Its  vicinity  to  the  great  commercial 
centres  of  the  Atlantic  coast;  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  and 
the  adaptation  of  its  soil  to  the  growth  of  fruit  and  vegetables 
have  made  it  the  Garden  State  of  the  Union.  Its  agricultural 
wealth  is  much  increased  by  its  abundant  beds  of  marl  and 
peat.  The  extreme  north  is  hilly  and  the  extreme  south  low 
and  sandy.     Education  receives  much  attention. 

It  has  an  area  of  8,320  square  miles,  or  5,324,800  acres. 


470  NEW   JERSEY. 

The  population,  by  the  census  of  1870,  was  906,096,  which 
gives  her  seven  Eepresentatives  in  Congress. 

This  State  lies  in  the  third  judicial  circuit,  and  forms  one 
judicial  district.  There  are  six  ports  of  entry,  and  as  many 
collection  districts;  and  also  eight  ports  of  delivery. 

Its  capital  is  Trenton.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  aftei  the  first  Monday  in  November,  and  the  Legisla- 
ture assembles  the  second  Tuesday  in  January. 

The  form  of  the  enacting  clause  is  as  follows:  "Be  it 
enacted  by  the  Senate  and  General  Assembly  of  the  St^te  r<i 
I^ew  Jersey." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

Jonathan  Elmer,  from 

William  Patterson,  " 

Philemon  Dickerson,  " 

John  Rutherford,  " 
Fred'k  Frelinghuysen,     " 

Richard  Stockton,  " 

Franklin  Davenport,  " 

James  Schureman,  " 

Jonathan  Dayton,  " 

Aaron  Ogden,  " 

John  Condit,  " 

Aaron  Kitchell,  " 

John  Lambert,  ^' 

Mahlon  Dickerson,  " 

James  J.  Wilson,  " 

Samuel  L.  Southard, 

Joseph  Mcllvaine,  " 

Thos.  Frelinghuysen,  " 

Ephraim  Bateman,  " 

Garret  D.  Wall,  « 

Jacob  Miller,  " 

William  L.  Dayton,  « 

John  B.  Thompson,  " 


1789 

to 

1791. 

1789 

u 

1790. 

1790 

ii 

1793. 

1791 

li 

1798. 

1793 

a 

1796. 

1796 

u 

1799. 

1798 

a 

1799. 

1799 

u 

1801. 

1799 

u 

1805. 

1801 

11 

1803. 

1803 

li 

181L 

1805 

a 

1809. 

1809 

li 

1815. 

1817 

u 

1833. 

1815 

li 

182L 

1821 

11 

1823. 

1833 

ii 

1841. 

1823 

ii 

1826. 

1829 

11 

1835. 

1826 

li 

1829. 

1835 

11 

1841. 

1841 

li 

1853. 

1842 

n 

1851. 

1853 

« 

1863. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  4^% 

William  Pennington,  from 

William  Wright,  " 

Kobert  F.  Stockton,  " 

John  C.  TenEyck,  « 

Eicliard  S.  Field,  « 

James  W.  Wall,  « 

John  P.  Stockton,  « 

F.  T.  Frelinghiiysen,  " 

Alexander  G.  Cattell,  " 

John  P.  Stockton,  « 

F.  T.  Frelinghuysen,  " 

Theo.  F.  Randolph,  « 

J.  R.  McPherson,  « 


1858 

to 

1858. 

1853 

u 

1859. 

1863 

u 

1866. 

1851 

u 

1853. 

1859 

u 

1865. 

1862 

u 

1863. 

1863 

ii 

1863. 

1865 

<( 

1866. 

1867 

u 

1869. 

1866 

ii 

1871. 

1869 

ii 

1875. 

1871 

ii 

1877. 

197K 

ii 

1881. 

1S77 

u 

1888. 

M  ASSACH  USETTS. 

The  "  Bay  State,"  so  named  from  the  deep  encroachments 
of  the  sea  on  her  eastern  border,  was  settled  in  1620,  at  Ply- 
mouth, by  English  Puritans;  a  class  of  sternly  pious  men,  who 
abandoned  England  to  find  freedom  of  worship  in  the  savage 
wilds  of  America.  They  were  men  of  great  resolution  and 
intelligence,  and  succeeded  in  imbuing  the  new  colony  with  a 
fair  degree  of  their  own  virtue.  They  suffered  much,  at  first, 
from  deprivation  of  the  comforts  they  had  left  in  England,  and 
from  the  hostility  of  the  Indians.  They  were  too  much  in 
earnest  to  be  tolerant,  and  persecutions  of  pretended  witches, 
of  Quakers  and  Baptists,  have  given  them  an  unenviable 
notoriety. 

This  State  was  a  leading  one  among  the  original  thirteen, 
and  the  first  to  take  up  arms  and  to  be  invaded  by  the  British 
forces  at  the  commencement  of  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 
Her  influence  on  the  national  character  has  been  great. 


472  MASSACHUSETTS. 

This  State  is  the  first  in  the  Union  for  cotton  and  woolen  man- 
ufactures, its  cotton  mills  alone  employing  about  twentj-five 
thousand  hands.  In  extent  of  all  its  manufactures  it  is  third 
in  the  Union.  The  soil  is  sterile  in  great  part,  but  the  energy 
of  the  people  finds  abundant  other  sources  of  wealth.  Com- 
merce and  fisheries  receive  much  attention,  and  produce  much 
wealth. 

Education  is  carefully  attended  to,  and  its  public  school  sys- 
tem a  model  for  other  States.  She  has  an  area  of  7,800 
square  miles.  Her  population  in  1870  was  1,457,351,  and 
entitles  her  to  eleven  Members  of  Congress.  It  is  in  the  first 
judicial  circuit,  and  forms  one  judicial  district.  There  are 
fourteen  ports  of  entry,  and  twenty-five  ports  of  delivery  in 
this  State. 

Boston  is  the  Capital,  the  metropolis  of  Kew  England,  and 
an  important  center  of  intellectual  and  business  energy.  The 
Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  and  the 
State  elections  are  held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday 
in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  is:  "Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  in  General  Court  assembled,  and  by 
the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows: " 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 


Tristram  Dal  ton, 

from 

1789 

to 

1791. 

Caleb  Strong, 

a 

1789 

u 

1796. 

George  Cabot, 

u 

1791 

a 

1796. 

Tlieo.  Sedgewick, 

(( 

1796 

u 

1799. 

Benj.  Goodhue, 

a 

1796 

(( 

1800. 

Samuel  Dexter, 

u 

1799 

(( 

1800. 

Dwight  Foster, 

« 

1800 

a 

1803 

Jonathan  Mason, 

u 

1800 

11 

1803. 

John  Q.  Adams, 

a 

1803 

i( 

1808. 

Timothy  Pickering, 

a 

1803 

u 

1811. 

James  Lloyd, 

li 

(  1808 
(1822 

1813. 
1826. 

Joseph  B.  Yarnum, 

» 

1811 

(( 

1817. 

Christopher  Gore, 

it 

1813 

a 

1816. 

OONNEOTIOUT.  473 

Eli  p.  Ashmun,  from  1816  to  1818. 

Harrison  Gray  Otis,        "  1817  "  1822. 

Prentiss  Mellen,              "  1818  "  1820. 

Elijah  H.  Mills,               «  1820  "  1827. 

Nathaniel  Silsbee,           «  1826  "  1835. 

Daniel  Webster,              «  J  1^27  "  1841. 

(  1845  "  1850. 

Riifus  Choate,                  «  1841  "  1845. 

John  Davis,                      «  J  1835  "  1841. 

1  1845  "  1853. 

Isaac  0.  Bates,                 "  1841  "  1845. 

Robert  C.  Winthrop,       "  1850  "  1851. 

Robert  Rantoul,              «  1851  "  1851. 

Edward  Everett,              "  1853  ''  1854. 

Julius  Rockwell,              "  1854  "  1855. 

Henry  Wilson,                 «  1855  "  1873. 

Charles  Sumner,               "  1851  "  1874. 

George  S.  Boutwell,        "  1873  "  1877. 

William  Washburn,        «  1874  "  1875. 

Henry  L.  Dawes,  "  1875  «  1881. 

George  F.  Hoar,             «  1877  «  1888. 


CONNECTICUT. 

This  State  takes  its  name  from  its  principal  river,  which, 
entering  from  the  north,  runs  through  the  State  nearly  in  the 
center.  It  was  settled  in  1633  from  Massachusetts,  the  fer- 
tility of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  attracting  them  to  brave 
the  perils  of  conflict  with  the  Indians,  and  with  the  Dutch, 
settled  where  IS^ew  York  now  stands,  Avho  laid  claim  to  it. 
The  Dutch  withdrew,  the  Indians  were  subdued  in  many  bloody 


474  CONNECTICUT. 

battles,  and  a  Puritan  State — exceeding,  if  possible,  tlie  relig- 
ions strictness  of  the  Massachusetts  colon v,  and  not  behind  lier 
in  energy,  in  virtue,  in  attention  to  education,  and  love  of  lib- 
erty— soon  grew  up  to  wealth  and  prosperity. 

A  decisive  battle  in  1636,  on  the  Mystic  river,  annihilated 
the  Pequod  Indians. 

Connecticut,  in  1700,  followed  the  example  set  by  Massachu 
setts  in  1638,  by  founding  Tale  college,  which,  to  this  day, 
very  fairly  rivals  Harvard  in  the  former  State.  Both  have 
contributed  largely  to  the  intelligence  and  culture  of  the  Ameri- 
can people.  It  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Revolution ;  ratified 
the  constitution  June  9th,  1788 ;  and  has  displayed  the  zeal 
in  promoting  the  pnblic  good  that  has  been  so  prominent  in 
the  cultivation  of  her  educational  and  material  interests. 

The  surface  of  the  State  is  uneven  and  rocky.  Manufactures 
and  commerce  are  the  leading  interests,  although  agriculture  is 
not  neglected.  It  is  rich  in  minerals.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  iron, 
copper  and  bismuth  are  found,  while  marble,  of  fine  quality, 
and  granite  abound. 

Its  area  is  small,  embracing  only  4,674  square  miles,  or 
2,991,360  acres.  It  has  four  representatives  in  Congress.  The 
population  in  1870  was  537,454.  It  is  part  of  the  second  judi- 
cial  circuit,  and  constitutes  one  judicial  district.  She  has  five 
ports  of  entry,  and  five  collection  districts,  with  twenty-two 
ports  of  delivery. 

It  has  had  two  capitals  ever  since  the  first  two  colonies, 
established  at  Hartford  and  'New  Haven,  were  united;  and 
holds  her  State  election  on  the  first  Monday  in  April.  Tlie 
Legislature  meets  the  first  Wednesday  in  May. 

The  enacting  clause  runs  thus:  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Sen- 
ate and  House  of  Representatives  in  General  Assembly  -con- 
vened." 

UNTTED    STATES   SENATORS. 

Oliver  Ellsworth,  from         1789    to    1796. 

William  S.  Johnson,        "  1789     "     1791. 

Roger  Sherman,  «  1791     "     1793. 


DELAWAEE 

S.  M.  Mitchell, 

from 

1793 

to 

1795. 

Jonathan  Trumbull, 

(( 

1795 

u 

1796. 

Uriah  Tracej, 

(( 

1796 

a 

1807. 

J.  Hillhouse, 

<( 

1796 

(( 

1810. 

C.  Goodrich, 

(( 

1807 

(( 

1813. 

S.  W.  Dana, 

u 

1810 

u 

1821. 

David  Doggett, 

n. 

1813 

u 

1819. 

James  Lanman, 

(( 

1819 

a 

1825. 

E.  Board  man. 

(( 

1821 

a 

1823. 

H.  W.  Edwards, 

u 

1823 

a 

1827. 

Calvin  Willey, 

(C 

1825 

a 

1831. 

Samuel  A.  Foot, 

a 

1827 

a 

1833. 

G.  Tomlinson, 

a 

1831 

a 

1837. 

Kathan  Smith, 

(( 

1833 

a 

1835. 

John  M.  Niles, 

u 

(  1835 
1  1843 

1839. 
1849. 

Perry  Smith, 

« 

1837 

a 

.  1843. 

Thaddeus  Betts, 

(( 

1839 

a 

1840. 

J.  W.  Huntington, 

(( 

1840 

u 

1847. 

R  S.  Baldwin, 

(( 

1847 

u 

1851. 

Truman  Smith, 

(( 

1849 

u 

1854. 

Isaac  Toucey, 

(( 

1852 

it 

1857. 

Francis  Gillette, 

(( 

1854 

u 

1855. 

L.  S.  Foster, 

(( 

•J  855 

a 

1867. 

James  Dixon, 

(( 

1857 

a 

1869. 

Orris  S.  Ferry, 

it 

1867 

u 

1876. 

W.  A.  Buckingham, 

1 

1869 

(( 

1875. 

Wm.  W.  Eaton, 

<( 

1875 

a 

1881. 

W.  H.  Barnum, 

a 

1876 

a 

1879. 

Orville  H.  Piatt, 

« 

1879 

a 

1885 

^^M 

^ 

^^^ 

^^ 

-^M 

jtfiMiiiWii^lJ 

y^'ffet^ 

1 

^^^^^^k^^^r            ^^c  N^gj ■«■  1  --     -■:Ji^  ■ '  . 

475 


DELAWARE. 

The  first  settlement  of  Delaware  was  made  by  the  Swedes, 


476 


UELAWAEE. 


in  pursuance  of  the  policy  of  the  valiant  Grustavus  Adolplms, 
king  of  Sweden.  European  wars,  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
and  in  which  he  lost  his  life  in  1633,  deferred  the  project,  but 
it  was  carried  into  effect  in  1638,  near  the  present  city  of  Wil- 
mington. They  extended  their  settlements  from  the  entrance 
of  Delaware  bay  far  up  the  river,  until  the  Dutch,  from  New 
^Netherlands,  who  claimed  the  country,  attacked  and  reduced 
them  to  submission,  uniting  New  Sweden,  as  it  had  been  called, 
to  their  own  colony,  in  the  year  1655.  It  fell,  with  that  col- 
ony, into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  1664.  It  was  included 
in  the  grant  made  to  "William  Penn,  in  1692.  It  was  long 
attached  to  Pennsylvania,  but  in  1703  received  permission  to 
form  a  separate  government,  on  the  wise  and  liberal  plan  pur- 
sued by  Penn.  This  form  of  government  continued  through 
the  Revolutionary  war. 

The  surface  of  the  State  is  level,  or  gently  undulating,  the 
climate  is  agreeable,  except  that,  in  winter,  the  sea  breeze  is 
somewhat  harsh;  the  soil  is  sandy  but  fertile.  Grain  and 
fruit  are  raised,  peaches  being  produced  in  great  profusion. 
Her  commercial  and  manufacturing  business  is  limited,  and 
she  is  destitute  of  mineral  wealth. 

It  is  next  to  Rhode  Island  in  size,  containing  the  small  area 
of  2,120  square  miles,  or  1,356,800  acres.     Population  125,015. 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 


George  Read, 

from 

1789    to    1793. 

R.  Bassett, 

u 

1789     ' 

'     1793. 

John  Yining, 

(I 

1793     ' 

'    1798. 

Kensey  Johns, 

ti 

1794    ' 

'    1795. 

Henry  Latimer, 

{( 

1795    ' 

'     1801. 

Joshua  Clayton, 

a 

1798     ' 

'     1799. 

W.  H.  Wells, 

a 

j  1799     ' 
(1813     ' 

'     1804. 

7 

'     1817. 

Samuel  White. 

ti 

1801     ' 

'     1810. 

J.  A.  Bayard, 

a 

1804     ' 

'     1813. 

O.  Horsey, 

it 

1810     ' 

'     1821. 

N.  Yan  Dyke, 

u 

1817    ' 

'     1826. 

BHODS 

TRT.AND. 

C.  A.  Eodney, 

from 

1822    to    1823. 

T.  Clayton, 

« 

(  1824 
t  1837 

"  1827. 
"     1847. 

D.  Eodney, 

(( 

1826 

"     1827. 

H.  Kidgely, 

u 

1827 

'     1829. 

L.  McLane, 

u 

1827 

'     1829. 

J.  M.  Clayton, 

ii 

j  1829 
(  1845 

'  1837. 
'     1849. 

A.  Nandain, 

it 

1830 

'     1836. 

R.  H.  Bayard, 

u 

1836     ' 

'     1845. 

P.  Spruance, 

(( 

1847 

'     1853. 

John  Wales, 

(( 

1849 

'     1851. 

J.  A.  Bayard, 

(( 

1851 

'     1864. 

M.  W.  Bates, 

(( 

1857 

'     1859. 

J.  P.  Comeygs, 

M 

1856 

'     1857. 

"W".  Saulsbury, 

l( 

1859 

'     1871. 

G.  R.  Eiddle, 

H 

1864     < 

'     1867. 

J.  A.  Bayard, 

U 

1867 

'     1869. 

Thomas  F.  Bayard, 

(( 

1869 

'     1881. 

Eli  Saulsbury, 

(( 

1871 

'     1883. 

477 


RHODE     ISLAND. 

This  is  the  smallest  of  the  States,  having  an  area  of  but 
1,306  SvjUare  miles,  or  835,840  acres. 

It  was  settled  in  1636  by  Roger  "Williams,  and  became  an 
avowed  place  of  refuge  for  persecuted  christians  of  all  names, 
but  especially  for  Baptists,  among  whom  Mr.  Williams  was  a 
leader.  It  was  chartered  as  a  separate  colony  in  1644,  and  the 
excellent  constitution  framed  under  it  lasted  until  1818.     It 


478  RHODE    ISLAND. 

was  one  of  tlie  original  thirteen  States  and  took  an  earnest 
share  in  the  struggles  of  the  revolution,  though  it  was  not 
represented  in  the  convention  that  framed  the  Constitution, 
and  did  not  ratify  it  until  1790. 

Its  citizens  are  mainly  engaged  in  the  manufacturing  and 
commercial  pursuits  for  which  their  excellent  harbors  and 
streams  furnish  eminent  facilities.  It  has  always  been  pros- 
perous, its  people  being  distinguished  for  industry  and  activity. 
Its  population  was,  in  1870,  217,353. 

Rhode  Island  forms  part  of  the  first  judicial  circuit;  consti- 
tutes one  judicial  district;  and  has  three  ports  of  entry,  and 
seven  of  delivery.  It  has  two  capitals,  having  been  originally 
formed  of  two  separate  colonies.  These  are  Providence  and 
Newport.  The  election  for  State  officers  is  held  on  the  first 
Wednesday  in  April.  The  Legislature  is  held  twice  in  the 
year,  in  May  and  January.  The  style  of  her  enacting  claus© 
is:  "It  is  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly,  as  follows." 

UNriED    STATES    SENATORS. 


Theodore  Foster, 

from 

1790 

to 

1803. 

Joseph  Stanton, 

(( 

1790 

u 

1793. 

William  Bradford, 

a 

1793 

a 

1797. 

Raj'  Green, 

i( 

1797 

a 

1801. 

Charles  Ellery, 

u 

1801 

u 

1805. 

Samuel  L.  Potter, 

u 

1803 

u 

1804. 

Benjamin  Howland, 

CI 

1804 

a 

1809. 

James  Fenner, 

<( 

1805 

a 

1807. 

Elisha  Matthewson, 

cc 

1807 

a 

1811. 

Francis  Malbone, 

i( 

1809 

it 

1809. 

C.  G.  Champlin, 

it 

1809 

u 

1811. 

Jeremiah  B.  Howell, 

IC 

1811 

U' 

1817. 

William  Hunter, 

11 

1811 

u 

1821. 

James  Burrill, 

a 

1817 

u 

1821. 

James  D'Wolf, 

ic 

1821 

(( 

1825. 

Nehemiah  R.  Knight, 

t( 

1821 

u 

1841. 

Asher  Eobbins, 

u 

1825 

a 

1839. 

Nathan  F.  Dixon, 

u 

1839 

a 

1842. 

VERMONT. 


479 


James  F.  Simmons,       from 

William  Sprague,  " 

Jolm  B,  Francis,  " 

Albert  C.  Green,  « 

Jolm  H.  Clarke,  " 

Charles  T,  James,  " 

Philip  Allen,  " 

Samuel  G.  Arnold,  " 

Henry  B.  Anthony,  " 

William  Sprague,  " 
Ambrose  E.  Bumside,    " 


1841 
1857 
1842 
1844 
1845 
1847 
1851 
1853 
1862 

1859 


to  1847. 

"  1862. 

«  1844. 

"  1845. 

"  1851. 

"  1853. 

"  1857. 

"  1859. 

"  1863. 

•'  1S83. 


1863  "  1875. 
1875  «  1881. 


VERMONT. 

This  State  receiv^ed  its  name  from  the  French  name  of  its 
,«nge  of  mountains,  ("  verd  mont "  meaning  "  Green  Moun- 
tain.") It  was  settled  in  1731,  and  was  at  first  considered 
part  of  New  Hampshire,  and  afterwards  claimed  by  New 
York.  These  claims  were  vigorously  resisted,  but  it  had 
no  organized  government  until  1777.  It  did  good  service  in 
the  Revolution;  but  was  not  admitted  into  the  Union  until 
1791,  making  the  fourteenth  State.  Col.  Ethan  Allen  at  the 
head  of  270  "Green  Mountain  Boys"  took  possession  of  Forts 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  in  the  name  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  in  1775,  and  thus  assured  the  northern  water  com- 
munication with  Canada  to  the  Americans. 

The  climate  of  Yermont  though  cold,  is  pleasant  and  even, 
the  soil  fertile  in  the  valleys,  and  the  streams  supply  excellent 
water  power,  which,  however,  is  little  used.    Maple  sugar  is 


480  VBEMONT. 

produced  in  abundance,  while  its  faciKties  for  raising  stock 
are  equal  to  those  of  New  Hampshire.  Granite,  marble  of 
fine  quality,  and  slate  quarries  abound.  Its  provision  for  edu- 
cation is  very  liberal.     Its  population  in  1870  was  330,551. 

It  has  three  representatives  in  Congress ;  forms  part  of  the 
second  judicial  circuit,  and  constitutes  one  judicial  district. 
One  port  of  entry  and  two  of  delivery  are  authorized  to  be 
named  by  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

Montpelier  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  September,  and  the  Legislature  meets  on  the 
first  Wednesday  in  October. 

The  enacting  clause  begins :  "  It  is  hereby  enacted  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Yermont." 

UNITED    STATES  SENATORS. 


Moses  Robinson, 

from 

1791 

to 

1796. 

Stephen  R.  Bradley, 

(( 

(  1791 
1  1801 

(I 

1795. 
1813. 

Elijah  Paine, 

a 

1795 

ii 

1801. 

Isaac  Tichenor, 

« 

(  1796 
1  1815 

(I 

1.797. 
1821. 

Nathaniel  Chipman, 

it 

1797 

(I 

1803 

Israel  Smith, 

u 

1803 

u 

1807. 

Jonathan  Robinson, 

11 

1807 

<( 

1815. 

Dudley  Chase, 

(I 

i  1813 
\  1825 

1817. 
1831. 

James  Fisk, 

u 

1817 

u 

1818. 

William  A.  Palmer, 

li 

1818 

(( 

1825. 

Horatio  Seymour, 

u 

1821 

(( 

1833. 

Samuel  Prentiss, 

u 

1831 

a 

1842. 

Benjamin  Swift, 

It 

1833 

u 

1839. 

Samuel  S.  Phelps, 

n       >- 

1839 

a 

1851. 

Samuel  C.  Crafts, 

« 

1842 

(( 

1843. 

William  Upham, 

(i 

1843 

u 

1853. 

Solomon  Foote, 

(( 

1851 

u 

1866. 

Samuel  S.  Phelps, 

(( 

1853 

« 

1854. 

KENTUCKT  4.3^ 

Lawrence  Brainard,      from  1854  to  1855. 

Jacob  Collamer,               "  1855  "  1865. 

Luke  P.  Poland,              "  1865  "  186T. 

George  F.  Edmunds,       «  1866  "  1881. 

Justin  S.  Morrill,            «  1867  "  1885 


KENTUCKY. 

Kentucky  was  formed  from  the  territory  of  Virginia,  and 
in  point  of  seniority  is  the  fifteenth  State  of  the  American 
Union,  having  been  admitted  on  the  first  of  June,  1792. 

The  sobriquet  of  "dark  and  bloody  ground"  applied  to 
Kentucky  is  very  suggestive  ot  the  sanguinary  conflicts  of  her 
pioneer  population  with  the  aboriginal  lords  of  the  soil.  The 
celebrated  Daniel  Boone  was  among  the  first  white  men  to 
explore  the  wilderness  of  Kentucky.  The  first  white  settle- 
ment was  commenced  at  Boonesborough,  about  the  year  1769. 
The  area  of  the  State  is  37,680  square  miles,  equal  to  24,115,- 
200  acres. 

The  climate  is  mild,  and  adapted  to  the  production  of  cereals, 
grapes,  and  fruits.     The  soil  is  very  fertile.     The  surface  pre- 
sents a  varied  aspect  in  its  several  portions.     The  southeastern 
part  of  the  State  is  mountainous,  the  central  and  northern  por- 
tions are  undulating,  sometimes  hilly.     Tlie  river  bottoms  are 
very  productive.     The  State  is  well  timbered.     Apple,  pear, 
peach,  plum  and  various  other  fruit  trees  are  cultivated  with 
great  success.      The  staple   products   are   corn,   tobacco   anc! 
hemp.    Horses,  mules  and  cattle  are  raised.   Kentucky  abound 
in  bituminous  coal,  lead,  iron  pyrites,  marble,  freestone,  gyp 
sum,  and  clifi"  limestone. 
31 


482 


KENTUCKY. 


The  population  in  1870  was  1,321,011,  She  is  entitled  to 
ten  representatives  in  Congress,  is  in  the  sixth  judicial  circuit 
and  forms  one  judicial  district,  has  one  port  of  entry,  Louis- 
ville, and  two  ports  of  delivery,  viz. :  Paducah  and  Columbus. 
Frankfort  is  the  capital. 

The  State  elections  are  held  on  the  first  Monday  in  August. 
The  Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  and 
is  composed  of  two  houses  —  the  Senate  consisting  of  38  mem- 
bers elected  for  four  years;  and  a  House  of  Representatives 
elected  for  two  years.  The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is: 
"Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Common- 
^weaith  of  Kentucky." 

UNFEED   STATES   SENATORS. 


John  Brown, 

from 

1792 

to 

1805. 

"John  Edwards, 

a 

1792 

a 

1795. 

JHumphrey  Marshall, 
John  Breckenridge, 
Buckner  Thurston, 

1795 
1801 

1805 

1801. 
1805. 
1810. 

John  Adair, 

u 

1805 

a 

1806. 

^806 

u 

1807. 

Henry  Clay, 

a 

1810 
1831 

a 

181L 
1842. 

U849 

u 

1852. 

John  Pope, 

« 

1S07 

a 

1813. 

George  M.  Bibb, 

"      1 

1811 
1829 

(( 
(( 

1814. 
1835. 

Jessie  Bledsoe, 

a 

1813 

a 

1815. 

George  Walker, 
William  T.  Barry, 

11 

1814 
1814 

1814. 
1816. 

Isham  Talbot, 

"      1 

1815 

1820 

1819. 
1825. 

Martin  D.  Hardin, 

(( 

1816 

a 

1817. 

rl8l7 

a 

1819. 

John  J.  Crittenden, 

« 

1835 

1842 

11 

1841. 

1848 

tl855 

u 

1861 

TENNESSEE.  433 

HiciiJird  M.  Johnson,    from  181t>    to    1829. 

"William  Logan, 

John  Eowan, 

James  T.  Moorehead, 

Jos'h  E.  LlMderwood, 

Thomas  Metealf, 

Archibald  Dixon, 

David  Meriwether, 

J.  B.  Thompson, 

Lazarus  W.  Powell, 

J.  C.  Breckenridge, 

Garrett  Davis, 

Willis  B.  Machin, 

James  Guthrie, 

Thomas  C.  McCreery, 

John  W.  Stevenson, 
James  B.  Beck, 
J.  S.  Williams, 


a 

1819 

a 

1820. 

a 

1825 

a 

1831. 

(( 

1841 

a 

1847. 

li 

1847 

a 

1853. 

u 

1848 

« 

1849. 

a 

1852 

(C 

1855. 

(( 

1852 

(( 

1852. 

u 

1853 

i( 

1859. 

ct 

1859 

u 

1865. 

C{ 

1861 

(( 

1861. 

(t 

1861 

(( 

1872. 

(( 

1872 

Cl 

1873. 

tt 

1865 

n 

1868. 

a 

(  1808 
1  1873 

<( 

1871. 

ii 

1879. 

(C 

1871 

(C 

1877. 

a 

1877 

li 

1883. 

« 

1879 

u 

1885 

TENNESSEE. 

Tennessee  belonged  to  the  territory  of  North  Carolina  while 
a  colony,  and  was  settled  by  emigrants  from  it  in  1757.  They 
built  Fort  Loudon  in  East  Tennessee,  but  were  destroyed,  or 
driven  away,  by  the  Indians,  in  1760.  Settlement  was  soon 
resumed,  but  continually  harrassed  by  Indian  attacks.  In  1774 
Ool.  Lewis  and  Capt.  Shelby  attacked  and  defeated  them.  They 
remained  quiet  until  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
when  the  Cherokecs  were  stirred  up  by  British  emissaries. 
From  1776  to  1779  three  several  expeditions  were  made  against 
them,  the  Indians  being  decisively  defeated  each  time.  The 
Cherokees  and  Shawnees  were  warlike  tribes,  and  continued. 


484  TENNESSEE. 

for  some  years,  to  make  occasional  attacks  on  the  settlements, 
which  did  not,  however,  prevent  their  steady  growth. 

In  1789  North  Carolina  renounced  her  claim  to  the  terri- 
tory, and  in  1790  it  became  a  separate  province,  being  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  Sovereign  State  in  1796,  making  the  six- 
teenth, or  the  third  admitted  after  the  Revolutionary  war  — 
Vermont,  in  1791,  being  the  first ;  and  Kentucky,  in  1792,  the 
second. 

This  State  has  an  area  of  45,600  square  miles,  or  29,184,000- 
acres.     It  had  a  population  in  1870  ol  1,258,520. 

Tennessee  is  very  agreeably  diversified  with  mountain,  hill 
and  dale,  containing  within  its  limits  fertility  of  soil,  beauty 
of  scenery,  and  a  delight! ally  temperate  climate.  The  State  is- 
generally  healthy.  The  soil  in  the  main  is  good,  and  while 
among  the  mountains  it  is  not  arable,  it  is  favorable  for  grazing^ 
and  stock  is  largely  exported. 

Indian  corn,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  the  great  staples. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  the  south-east  portion  of  the  State. 
Among  the  other  minerals  found  here  are  iron  in  abundance, 
some  lead,  silver,  zinc,  marble  of  very  fine  quality,  and  various 
others.  The  State  is  entitled  to  ten  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress ;  is  in  the  sixth  judicial  circuit ;  has  three  judicial  dis- 
tricts ;  and  has  two  ports  of  delivery  —  Memphis  and  Knox- 
ville. 

Nashville  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the- 
first  Tuesday  in  November,  and  the  Legislature  meets  on  the- 
first  Wednesday  in  January,  once  in  two  years.  The  Legisla- 
ture consists  of  a  Senate  of  twenty-five  members,  and  a  House 
of  Representatives  of  seventy-five  members. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  of  this  State  is  :  "  Be  it 
enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Tennessee."" 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 

William  Blount,  from  1796    to    1797. 

wir        n    1  «  i  l'^96     "     1797. 

William  Cocke,  |  ^^^^     ^^     ^^^^ 

A    1         T    1  u  i  1797    >'     1798. 

Andrew  Jackson,  -^^  ^^^^     .^     ^^^^^ 


OHIO. 


485 


Joseph  Anderson, 
Daniel  Smith, 
Jenkin  Whiteside, 
Oeorge  W.  Campbell, 
Jesse  Wharton, 
John  Williams, 
John  H.  Eaton, 
Hugh  L.  White, 
Felix  Grundy, 

Ephraim  H.  Foster, 

A.  O.  P.  ]N"icholson, 
Alexander  Anderson, 
■Spencer  Jarnagin, 
Hopkins  L.  Turnej, 
John  Bell, 
James  C.  Jones, 
Andrew  Johnson, 
David  T.  Patterson, 
J.  S.  Fowler, 
William  G.  Brownlow, 
Beniy  Cooper, 
Andrew  Johnson, 
D.  M.  Kev. 
James  E.  Bailej, 
Isham  G.  Harris, 


from 


1797 

to 

1815. 

1797 

(( 

1809. 

1809 

a 

1811. 

1811 

a 

1818. 

1814 

a 

1815. 

1815 

a 

1823. 

1818 

i( 

1829. 

1825 

u 

1840. 

1829 

u 

1840. 

(  1838 

.( 

1839. 

(  1843 

u 

1845. 

1840 

a 

1843. 

1840 

a 

1841. 

1841 

u 

1847. 

1845 

a 

1851. 

1847 

a 

1853. 

1851 

a 

1857. 

1857 

u 

1863. 

1865 

a 

1869. 

1865 

a 

1871. 

1869 

u 

1875. 

1871 

(( 

1877. 

1875 

(( 

1876. 

^f^rr^ 

'• 

1877. 

1876 

u 

1881. 

IS  77 

>i 

1883. 

OHIO. 
The  first  permanent  settlement  in  this  important  St-ate  was 
made  on  the  7th  day  of  April,  1788.  Though  this  fine  territory 
lay  nearest  to  the  most  populous  and  enterpi-ising  of  the  origi- 
nal  States,  the  intrigues  of  the  French  before  the  Revolution, 
the  hostility  to  which  they  excited  the  Indians,  and  the  diffi- 
culties arising  from  the  various  claims  of  different  States  to 


486  OHIO. 

the  lands,  wliicli  rendered  titles  insecure,  prevented  any  per- 
manent settlement  until  about  the  time  when  the  present 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  originated.  All  these 
difficulties  were  now  removed,  and  emigration,  long  restrained^ 
rushed  like  a  flood  down  the  Ohio.  20,000  persons,  during- 
this  year  (1788),  passed  down  the  river  in  pursuit  of  new 
homes.  Cincinnati  and  many  other  places  were  settled  about 
this  time.  From  1790  to  1795  there  was  much  suifering  from 
the  hostility  of  the  Indians  ;  but  this  period  having  passed, 
the  settlements  multiplied  and  grew  apace. 

The  settlers  were,  in  large  part,  from  ^ew  England  ;  accus- 
tomed to  wring  a  thrifty  living  from  a  rocky  soil ;  and  their 
industry  soon  brought  great  results  from  this  more  generous 
field.  The  population  increased  rapidly.  In  14  years  it 
amounted  to  72,000  ;  and  was  adniitted  into  the  Union  with 
that  number  Nov.  29th,  1802. 

The  climate  is  healthy  and  mild,  the  soil  generally  very 
fertile,  and  her  inhabitants  have  made  the  most  of  it.  Coal, 
iron,  and  marble  are  very  abundant.  Manufactures  have  not 
been  much  developed  in  this  State,  but  they  are  steadily  grow- 
ing. The  lake  on  the  north,  and  the  river  on  the  south,  with 
more  than  5,000  miles  of  railway  and  canals,  furnish  all  th© 
elements  of  a  great  and  steady  growth. 

It  was,  on  its  admission,  the  seventeenth  State  in  the  Union. 

It  has  an  area  of  39,964  square  miles,  equal  to  25,576,960 
acres.  The  population  in  1870  was  2,665,260.  entitling  her  to 
twenty  Members  of  Congress. 

It  is  in  the  sixth  judicial  circuit,  and  forms  two  judicial 
districts,  the  Northern  and  Southern. 

This  State  has  three  ports  of  entry — Cleveland,  Toledo,  and 
Portland;  and  four  ports  of  delivery,  to  be  located  where  the 
President  directs. 

The  capital  of  this  State  is  Columbus.  The  State  election 
is  now  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  of  October.  The  Legisla- 
ture meets  on  the  lirst  Monday  of  January,  biennially. 

The  enacting:  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows:  "Be it  enacted 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio." 


LOULSIANA. 

UNITED   STATES   SKNATOES. 

John  Smith, 

from 

1803 

to 

1808. 

Thos.  Worthingtou, 

« 

1803 
■  1810 

ii 
ii 

1807. 
1814. 

Edward  Tiffin, 

u 

1807 

ii 

1809. 

Return  J.  Meigs, 

u 

1808 

ii 

1810. 

Stanley  Griswold, 

u 

1809 

ii 

1809. 

Alexander  Campbell, 

(( 

1809 

ii 

1813. 

Jeremiah  Morrow, 

u 

1813 

(( 

1819. 

Joseph  Kerr, 

l( 

1814 

ii 

1815. 

Benjamin  Rnggles, 

u 

1815 

ii 

1833. 

William  A.  Trimble, 

a 

1819 

ii 

1821. 

Ethan  A.  Brown, 

(I 

1822 

ii 

1825. 

Wm.  Henry  Harrison, 

a 

1825 

u 

1828. 

Jacob  Burnett, 

u 

1828 

ii 

1831. 

Thomas  Ewing, 

u 

1831 
',  1850 

a 

1837. 
1851. 

Thomas  Morris, 

li 

1833 

ii 

1839. 

William  Allen, 

it 

1837 

ii 

1849. 

Benjamin  Tappan, 

a 

1839 

a 

1845. 

Thomas  Corwin, 

ii 

1845 

u 

1850. 

Salmon  P.  Chase, 

u 

1849 

a 

1855. 

Benjamin  F.  Wade, 

a 

1851 

a 

1869. 

George  Ellis  Pugh, 

u 

1856 

a 

1861. 

John  Sherman, 

ii 

1861 

ii 

1877. 

Allen  G.  Thurman, 

u 

1869 

a 

1881. 

Stanley  Matthews, 

^i 

1877 

a 

1879. 

Geo.  n.  Pendleton, 

(( 

1879 

u 

1885 

*'^*'**«   CI     r-— 

-''■^''^~-— .^_ 

^^^ 

. 

IM™^^ 

m 

TFl^l^^ff '*^ 

vfl^HHrof 

wH 

48T 


LOUISIANA. 

The  Spaniards,  who  found  so  much  gold  in  other  parts  of  the 
American  continent,  made  repeated  explorations  of  the  region 


488  LOCJISIAUA. 

lying  near  the  months  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  hope  of  dip- 
covering  it  there.  Failing  in  this,  they  made  no  settlements. 
The  French  planned  the  establishment  of  a  vast  empire  cover- 
ing the  best  territory  now  in  the  bounds  of  the  United  States, 
and  explored  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  with  untiring 
courage  and  zeal,  both  from  the  Great  Lakes  and  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  A  few  years  after  La  Salle  had  perished 
in  his  bold  wandering,  a  French  naval  officer,  Lemoine  D'lber- 
ville,  formed  the  first  settlement  in  Louisiana  (so  named  after 
the  French  lung,  Louis  XIV.,  by  La  Salle.)  This  was  in  1699; 
but  no  great  progress  was  made  until  the  Mississippi  Company 
v:as  formed  in  France,  under  the  idea  that  Louisiana  was  rich 
in  gold  and  diamonds;  when,  in  1718,  eight  hundred  persons 
emigrated  from  France  and  settled  at  New  Orleans.  In  1732 
the  colony  contained,  in  all,  seven  thousand  five  hundred  per- 
sons, and  continued  to  prosper  until  1763,  when,  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  all  the  French  possessions  in  America  except  the  ter- 
ritory west  of  the  Great  River,  were  given  up  to  England. 
This  remnant  soon  passed  to  the  Spaniards,  and  again  to  the 
French,  from  whom  it  was  bought  by  President  Jeiferson  for 
$15,000,000,  in  1803. 

This  purchase  was  regarded,  even  by  Jefferson,  as  probably 
exceeding  the  powers  of  the  government,  under  the  Constitu- 
tion; but  it  was  essential  to  the  development,  unity,  and 
greatness  of  the  country.  The  Mississippi  Yalley  is  the  heart 
of  North  America,  and  the  use  of  the  river  as  necessary  to  the 
value  of  the  prairie  States  lying  east  of  it,  as  to  the  defense 
and  strength  of  the  country.  The  possession  of  it  could,  alone, 
make  the  United  States  a  great  power  among  nations.  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  then  First  Consul  of  the  French  Republic, 
designed,  in  ceding  it  to  the  United  States,  to  give  England, 
his  relentless  enemy,  a  powerful  rival ;  but  even  his  keen  fore- 
sight could  not  have  anticipated  the  wonderful  growth  in  which 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  was  so  necessary  an  element. 

The  surface  of  Louisiana  is  low,  and  the  southern  part  often 
overflowed  by  the  high  water  of  the  rivers.     Many  island* 


LOUISIANA.  489 

of  great  fertility  and  beauty  lie  along  the  coast;  one  of 
them  consisting  of  an  immense  bed  or  mine  of  rock  salt. 
Fruits  grow  to  great  perfection  and  orange  trees  are  specially 
fruitful,  a  single  tree  often  bearing  5,000  oranges.  Cotton  and 
«ane  sugar  are  the  principal  staples.  New  Orleans  has  an 
extensive  commerce,  and  manufactures  will  sometime  find  in  it 
a  profitable  field.  The  palmy  days  of  this,  as  of  all  the  other 
Southern  States,  is  in  the  future;  her  most  valuable  resources 
having  been  scarcely  touched.  New  Orleans  will  naturally 
become  the  third  great  commercial  city  of  the  Union,  New 
York  and  San  Francisco,  only,  being  likely  to  take  precedence 
of  her. 

Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union  April  8th,  1812, 
making  the  eighteenth  State. 

She  has  an  area  of  46,431  square  miles,  equal  to  29,715,840 
acres.  The  population  in  1870  numbered  726,915;  she  has 
six  Representatives  in  Congress. 

Louisiana  forms  a  part  of  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  con- 
stitutes one  judicial  district,  viz.:  the  district  of  Louisiana. 
This  State  has  two  collection  districts,  denominated  the  dis- 
tricts of  New  Orleans  and  of  the  Teche.  New  Orleans  and 
Franklin  are  the  ports  of  entry.  The  shores  of  the  river  Oliio, 
«,nd  all  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Mississippi,  are  attached 
to  the  district  of  New  Orleans,  though  most  of  them  do  not 
lie  in  the  State.  Several  of  tlie  cities  and  towns  on  these 
rivers  are  made  ports  of  delivery.  Collection  districts"  are  not 
■always  confined  to  one  State. 

New  Orleans  is  the  capital.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the 
first  Monday  in  January,  once  in  two  years.  The  State  election 
is  held  on  the  first  Monday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is  as  follows:  "  Be  it  enacted 
bj  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of 
Louisi^Nia,  in  General  Assembly  convened." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 

Thomas  Posey,       October  to  December,      1812. 

-r  -D  .  (  1812    to    1817. 

James  Brown,  from       |  ^^^^     ^^     ^^^4. 


490 


INDIANA. 

Allan  B.  Magruder, 

from 

1812 

to 

1813. 

Eligius  Fromentin, 

(( 

1813 

(( 

1819. 

W.  C.  C.  Claiborne, 

(( 

1817 

u 

1818. 

Henry  Johnson, 

j  1818 
1  1843 

11 
l( 

1824. 
1849. 

Dominique  Bouligny, 

(I 

1824 

11 

1829. 

Josiah  S.  Johnston, 

a 

1824 

u 

1833. 

Edward  Livingston, 

u 

1829 

u 

1831. 

Geo.  A.  Waggaman, 

a 

1831 

a 

1835. 

Alexander  Porter, 

11 

1833 

u 

1837. 

Robert  C.  Nicholas, 

u 

1835 

.< 

1841. 

Alexander  Mouton, 

t( 

1837 

u 

1842. 

Alexander  Barrow, 

(( 

1841 

u 

1847. 

Charles  M.  Conrad; 

li 

1842 

u 

1843. 

Pierre  Soal6, 

11 

f  1847 
1  1849 

(( 

1847. 

11 

1853 

Solomon  W.  Downs, 

ti 

1847 

11 

1853. 

John  Slidell, 

a 

1853 

11 

1861. 

Judah  P.  Benjamin, 

it 

1853 

u 

1861. 

John  S.  Harris, 

li 

1868 

11 

1871. 

Wm.  Pitt  Kellogg, 

(( 

1  1868 

1  1877 

il 
ii 

1873. 
1883. 

J.  R.  West, 

li 

1871 

u 

1877. 

J.  B.  Eustis, 

(( 

1877 

a 

1879. 

B.  F.  Jonas, 

(( 

1879 

li 

1885 

INDIANA. 

1.  Indiana  was  first  explored  by  the  enterprising  Frer  jh 
Jesuits,  who  highly  appreciated  the  beauty,  resources,  and 
grand  future  of  the  vast  Mississippi  valley.  "Wiser  than  their 
sovereign,  Louis  XIY.,  they  would  have  taken  firm  and  effectual 
possession  of  all  this  region,  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf, 


INDIANA.  .Qj 

but  Louis  was  too  much  occupied  with  his  palaces,  the  splen- 
dor of  his  court,  the  banishment  of  Protestants,  and  war  with 
his  neighbors  to  lend  a  due  support  to  their  plans.  They 
explored  the  region  in  1682,  formed  a  settlement  at  Yincennes 
in  1730,  and  made  friends  of  the  Indians.  The  career  of  the 
French,  in  Europe  and  America,  was  checked  by  the  extrava- 
gance of  the  Court,  and  disastrous  wars;  and  this  little  colony 
remained  for  nearly  three  generations  solitary  and  stationary 
in  the  wilderness;  fraternizing  with  the  Indians  and  enjoying 
life  as  only  the  French  can  under  such  dreary  circumstances. 

2.  After  the  Revolution  all  this  region  was  included  in  the 
Northwest  Territory.  The  grim  earnestness  of  the  Americans 
in  pushing  their  fortunes  alarmed,  without  conciliating,  the 
Indians,  and  for  a  long  time  a  deadly  struggle  alone  could  pre- 
serve the  growing  settlements  from  total  extinction.  The 
brave  and  talented  Tecumseh  and  his  twin  brother,  the  Prophet, 
made  a  desperate  effort  to  drive  back  or  exterminate  the  set- 
tlers; but  they  were  conquered,  and  the  Indians  retreated,  step 
by  step,  before  the  advancing  flood  of  emigration.  In  1809 
Indiana  was  erected  into  a  separate  Territory,  and  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  separate  State  on  the  11th  of  Dec,  1816.  It  is 
275  miles  long  by  135  in  width.  Tlie  surface  is  mainly  level 
or  gently  undulating;  the  irregularities  in  the  southern  part, 
seldom  rising  more  than  two  hundred  feet,  but  with  a  rocky 
foundation  to  the  soil,  presenting  many  advantages  to  manu- 
factures along  the  streams;  these  facilities  are  increased  by  the 
extent  and  value  of  bituminous  coal  deposits  which  underlie 
nearly  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  State. 

3.  Indiana  has  a  happier  mixture  of  prairie  and  woodland 
than  any  other  western  State.  Its  commercial  facilities  are 
great.  Peaching  Lake  Michigan  on  the  northwest,  Cliicago 
forms  a  fine  metropolis  for  the  northern  parts;  while  the  Ohio 
on  the  south  furnishes  cheap  transportation  to  Cincinnati  and 
Pittsburg  toward  the  east,  or  New  Orleans  to  the  southwest. 
Lying  between  the  fertile  and  busy  regions  west  and  the  great 
eastern  markets,  it  is  crossed  in  aU  directions  by  railroads.     It 


492  'NDIANA. 

is  in  the  centre  of  the  most  highly  favored  part  of  the  Union, 
and  its  advantages  and  resources  seem  boundless.  Its  staple 
in  agriculture  is  corn,  but  all  tlie  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits 
of  the  temperate  zone  are  raised  with  success.  The  climate  is 
mild,  but  it  lies  in  the  region  of  variableness  in  weather  char- 
acterizing all  the  western  States  in  its  latitude. 

The  resources  of  the  State  have  been  in  a  course  of  rapid 
and  uninterrupted  development  for  60  years,  but  they  are  so 
great,  and  there  are  so  many  other  inviting  fields  luring  emi- 
grants further  west,  that  a  comparatively  small  part  of  its 
wealth  has  yet  been  reached.  There  is  a  magnificent  provision 
for  education,  and  its  intelligent  and  enterprising  citizens  are 
worthy  of  the  Great  Republic. 

4.  Indiana  was  the  nineteenth  State  in  the  Union.  She  has 
an  area  of  33,809  square  miles,  equal  to  21,637,760  acres.  Hei 
population  in  1870  was  1,680,637,  which  entitles  her  to  thirteen 
Representatives  in  Congress.  Indiana  is  the  seventh  judicial 
circuit,  and  forins  one  judicial  district.  Tliere  is  no  port  of 
entry  in  this  State;  but  there  are  three  ports  of  delivery, 
to-wit:  Evansville,  New  Albany,  and  Madison*  which  are 
attached  to  the  New  Orleans  collection  district. 

The  capital  is  Indianapolis.  The  State  election  is  held  on 
the  second  Tuesday  of  October.  The  Legislature  meets  only 
once  in  two  years,  on  the  first  "Wednesday  of  Januar3^ 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is  in  these  words:  "Be  it 
enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Indiana." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 


James  Noble, 

from 

1816 

to 

1831. 

W.  Taylor, 

(( 

1816 

1825. 

"W.  Hendricks, 

(( 

1825 

1837. 

R.  Hanna, 

« 

1831 

1831. 

John  Tipton, 

a 

1831 

1839. 

0.  EP.  Smith, 

u 

1837 

1843. 

A.  S.  White, 

i( 

1839 

1845. 

E.  A.  Hannegan, 

(C 

1843 

1849. 

J.  D.  Bright, 

« 

1845 

1862. 

MISSISSIPPI.  493 

J. 'Whitcomb,  from  1849  to  1852. 

C.  W.  Cathcart,  "  1852  "  1853. 
John  Pettit,  «  1853  "  1855. 
G.N.  Fitch,  «  1857  "  1861. 
H.  A.  Lane,  «  1861  «  1867. 

D.  Turpee,  «  1863  "  1863. 
J.  A.  Wright,  «  1862  "  1863. 
T.  A.  Hendricks,  «  1863  "  1869. 
O.  P.  Morton,  «  1867  "  1877, 
Daniel  D.  Pratt,  "  1869  "  1875. 
Joseph  E.  McDonald,  "  1875  "  1881. 
Daniel  W.  Voorhees,  *■  1877  "  1885 


MISSISSIPPI. 

This  State  was  explored  by  De  Soto,  a  companion  of  Pizarro, 
in  his  cruel  conquest  of  Peru,  in  1541,  and  later  by  the  enter- 
prising French  governor  of  Canada,  La  Salle,  in  1684.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  by  the  French,  at  Natchez,  in  1716. 
It  was  one  of  a  chain  of  settlements  by  which  they  proposed  to 
connect  the  basins  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  great  lakes  with 
the  Mississippi  valley  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Natchez  Indians  gave  the  early  colonists  great  trouble, 
but  were  finally  so  completely  conquered  that  the  national 
name  became  extinct,  the  few  remnants  surviving,  becoming 
incorporated  with  other  tribes.  They  were  supposed  to  have 
anciently  emigrated  from  Mexico  or  South  America,  some  of 
their  customs  being  similar  to  those  of  the  Peruvians. 

In  1763  the  French  ceded  all  this  territory  to  England, 
except  that  of  Louisiana,  which  became  the  possession  of  Spain. 

The  Choctaw  Indians  held  possession  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  State  for  a  long  time,  and  became  considerably  civilized. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  prairie,  the  soil  being 


•il>4  MISSISSIPPI. 

extremely  rich,  while  the  south  is  sandy.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally level  or  undulating.  Commerce  and  agriculture  form  its 
principal  resources;  though  neither  have  been  highly  devel- 
0})ed.  Cotton  is  the  principal  staple.  It  is  remarkably  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  fruit,  though  it  has  been  very  little 
cultivated.  The  State  is  well  supplied  with  railroads,  which, 
with  the  Mississippi  flowing  the  whole  length  of  her  western 
boundary,  furnish  ample  transportation  for  all  the  produce  o- 
her  fertile  soil. 

The  Territory  of  Mississippi  became  a  State  in  1817;  mak- 
ing the  twentieth  State.  The  area  is  47,156  square  miles, 
equal  to  30,179,840  acres.  The  population  in  1870  numbered 
827,922;  which  entitles  her  to  six  Representatives  in  Congress. 
The  State  lies  in  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  is  divided  into 
two  judicial  districts,  viz.:  the  Northern  and  Southern  districts 
of  Mississippi.  She  has  three  ports  of  entry,  viz.:  Natchez, 
Vicksburg,  and  one  near  the  mouth  of  Pearl  river,  to  be  estab- 
lished whenever  the  President  may  direct;  also  three  ports  of 
delivery,  viz. :  Grand  Gulf,  Ship  Island  and  Columbus. 

Jackson  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  and  her  Legisla- 
ture meets  biennially  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  in  these  words :  "  Be  it 
enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
State  of  Mississippi  in  General  Assembly  convened." 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 


Walter  Leake, 

from 

1817 

to 

1820. 

Thomas  H.  Williams, 

(( 

(  1817 
1  1838 

1829. 
1839. 

David  Holmes, 

n 

1820 

u 

1825. 

Powhattan  Ellis, 

ii 

1825 

u 

1833. 

Thomas  B.  Reed, 

(( 

1826 

a 

1829. 

Robert  Adams, 

(( 

1830 

i( 

1830. 

George  Poindexter, 

i( 

1830 

a 

1835. 

John  Black, 

(( 

1832 

u 

1838. 

ILLINOIS. 

E.  J.  Walker, 

from 

1835 

to 

1845. 

James  F.  Trotter, 

(( 

1838 

u 

1838. 

John  Henderson, 

u 

1839 

(( 

1845. 

Jesse  Speight, 

(( 

1845 

<c 

1847. 

Joseph  W.  Chambers,     " 

1845 

(( 

1847. 

Jefferson  Davis, 

u 

(  1847 

1  1857 

(( 

1851. 

(C 

1861. 

Henrj  S.  Foote, 

(( 

1847 

u 

1853. 

John  W.  Eea, 

<( 

1851 

a 

1851. 

Walter  Brooks, 

(( 

1852 

u 

1852. 

Albert  G.  Brown, 

« 

1854 

a 

1861. 

Stephen  Adams, 

« 

1852 

a 

1857. 

Henry  K.  Revels, 

(( 

1869 

u 

1871. 

James  L.  Alcorn, 

(( 

1871  • 

a 

1877. 

Adelbeit  Ames, 

(C 

u 

1875. 

Henry  R.  Pease, 

u 

1877. 

Branch  K.  Bruce, 

(( 

1875 

li 

1881. 

L.  Q.  C.  Lamar, 

ii 

1877 

a 

1883. 

4M^k    .^=L 

^ 

tf"(ssjnin™y,''^ 

^^^S    ^s 

y  .' 

VT7^ 

^^fc 

^ 

495 


I  LLINO  IS. 

Illinois  was  first  visited  by  Europeans  in  the  persons  of 
French  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  year  1672,  who  explored 
eastern  Wisconsin  and  northern  Illinois  in  that  year.  The 
oldest  permanent  settlement  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
was  made  at  Kaskaskia,  in  this  State,  in  the  year  1720,  by  the 
French.  The  name  of  the  State  is  derived  from  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants.  In  the  Indian  dialect  it  was  "  Illini,"  and  signi- 
fied a  perfectly  formed  man.  The  French  settlers  changed  the 
name  to  Illinois.  Tliis  State  was  formed  from  what  was  known 
as  the  Northwestern  territory,  and  was  the  twenty-first  of  the 
American  Union.  It  was  admitted  and  became  an  independ- 
ent State  on  the  3d  dav  of  December,  1818.     It  has  an  area  of 


496  ILLINOIS. 

55,405  square  miles,  equal  to  35,459,200  acres.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1870  was  2,539,891.  Extending  through  more  than 
five  degrees  of  latitude,  Illinois  has  quite  a  variety  of  climate. 
The  surface  is  level.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  agricultural 
capabilities  of  this  State  are  not  surpassed  by  any  sister  State^ 
if  indeed  by  any  portion  of  earth's  surface,  of  equal  extent. 
Her  staple  products  are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  and 
products  of  the  dairy,  besides  large  quantities  of  fruit.  The 
State  is  rich  in  minerals.  A  large  portion  of  the  lead  pro- 
ducing region  of  the  country  is  in  this  State.  Bituminous 
coal  IS  found  in  almost  every  county  in  the  State.  Copper  is 
found  in  large  quantities  in  the  north,  and  iron  in  both  south 
and  north.  Lime,  zinc,  marble  of  excellent  quality,  freestone, 
gypsum,  and  other  minerals,  are  found  in  various  parts. 

The  State  is  entitled  to  nineteen  representatives  in  Congress, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  seventh  judicial  circuit.  It  forms  two 
judicial  districts,  viz.:  northern  and  southern.  It  has  one  port 
of  entry,  Chicago,  and  four  ports  of  delivery,  viz.:  Alton, 
Quincy,  Cairo,  and  Peoria.  The  capital  is  Springfield.  The 
State  election  is  held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November.  Tlie  legislature  meets  biennially  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  January.  The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows: 
"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  people  of  the  State  of  Illinois  represented 
in  the  General  Assembly." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 


J.  B.  Thomas, 

from 

1818  to  1829. 

N.  Edwards, 

ii 

1818    "  1824. 

John  McLean, 

u 

\  1824   "  1825. 
(  1829    "  1830. 

D.  J.  Baker, 

it 

1830  1  month. 

E.  K.  Kane, 

it 

1825  to  1835. 

J.  M.  Robinson, 

It 

1830    "  1841. 

W.  L.  D.  Ewing, 

li 

1835    "  1837. 

R.  M.  Young, 

it 

1837    "  1843. 

S.  McRoberts, 

(( 

1841    "  1843. 

J.  Semple, 

(( 

1843    "  1847. 

ALABAMA. 

Sidney  Breese, 

from 

1843 

to  1849. 

S.  A.  Douglas, 

(( 

1847 

"  1861. 

James  Shields, 

11 

1849 

"  1855. 

L.  Trumbull, 

a 

1855 

"  1873. 

0.  H.  Browning, 

u 

1861 

"  1863. 

W.  A.  Eicliardson, 

(I 

1863 

"  1865. 

Bi  chard  Yates, 

i( 

1865 

"  1871. 

John  A.  Logan, 

a 

1871 

"  1877. 

Eichard  J.  Oglesbj, 

a 

1873 

"  1879. 

David  Davis, 

u 

1877 

«  1883. 

John  A.  Logan, 

1879 

"     1885 

497 


ALABAMA. 

Thlb  State  was,  at  first,  held  by  Georgia  under  her  colonial 
charter,  but  was  given  up  to  the  general  government,  in  1802, 
for  the  sum  of  $1,250,000.  It  then  became  a  part  of  the 
Mississippi  territory,  but  was  separated  wh(?n  Mississippi 
became  a  State,  in  1817. 

It  was  settled  in  1711,  at  Mobile,  by  the  French,  it  being  a 
part  of  the  territory  explored  and  claimed  for  France  by 
La  Salle  in  1684.  The  Indian  name  of  Alabama  means  "  Here 
we  rest."  Its  soil  can  scarcely  be  excelled  for  fertility  in  the 
world.  It  has  every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  high  and 
stern  severity  of  a  mountain  region  in  the  north,  through  all 
gradations,  to  the  heat  and  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  tropics 
along  the  southern  coast.  The  center  abounds  in  coal  and 
iron,  and  various  other  minerals  are  found  in  abundance. 
Until  the  Revolution  it  was  a  hunting  ground  for  the  Indians. 
Being  then  stirred  up  by  British  emissaries,  and  threatening 
the  security  of  the  frontiers,  they  were  severely  chastised. 
After  the  return  of  peace,  when  the  growing  wealth  and  popu- 
32 


4:98  ALABAMA. 

lation  of  the  original  States  excited  them  to  enterprise,  the 
territory  invited  population  by  its  surpassing  fertility,  and  it 
graduated  to  the  importance  of  a  sovereign  State  by  admission 
into  the  Union,  Dec.  14th,  1819,  forming  the  twenty-second 
State, 

It  has  an  area  of  50,722  square  miles,  equal  to  32,462,080 
acres,  and  had  a  population  in  1870  of  996,992,  by  vrhich  she 
is  entitled  to  eight  Representatives. 

It  forms  a  part  of  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  is  divided  into 
three  judicial  districts,  the  Northern,  Middle  and  Southern. 

It  has  one  port  of  entry,  (Mobile,)  and  two  ports  of  delivery, 
viz. :  Tuscumbia  and  Selma. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  Montgomery. 

The  State  election  is  held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon. 
day  in  November.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the  third  Monday 
in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  its  laws  is  as  follows:  "  Be  it  enacted 
by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of 
Alabama,  in  General  Assembly  convened." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

William  R.  King, 

John  ^Y.  Walker, 
Wm.  Kelly, 
Henry  Chambers, 
Israel  Pickens, 
John  McKinley, 
Gabriel  Moore, 
Clement  C.  Clay, 
Arthur  P.  Bagby, 
Dixon  H.  Lewis, 

Benjamin  Fitzpatrick, 

Jeremiah  Clemens, 
Clement  C.  Clay,  Jr., 
Willard  Warner, 
George  Goldthwaite, 
George  E.  Spencer, 
John  T.  Morgan, 

George  S.  Houston, 


j  1819 

1  1848 

to 

1844 

'om 

a 

1852 

ti 

1819 

a 

1822 

u 

1822 

ii 

1825 

u 

1825 

ii 

1826 

u 

1826 

a 

1826 

ii 

1826 

a 

1831 

u 

1831 

u 

1837 

u 

1837 

u 

1841 

(( 

1841 

ii 

1848 

(( 

1844 

a 

1848 

(( 

j  1848 
1  1852 

a 

1849 

ii 

1861 

(( 

1849 

a 

1853 

<( 

1853 

n 

1861 

ii 

1868 

a 

1871 

ii 

1872 

ii 

1877 

ii 

1868 

a 

1879 

« 

1877 

(( 

1883 

(( 

1879 

" 

1885 

MAINE.  499 


MAINE. 

rhis  Sta;e  forms  the  northeastern  boundary  of  the  Republic; 
Vi»iiada  and  x*^ew  Brunswick  lying  north  and  east.  It  was  at 
i*rst  a  pro\ince,  granted  by  charter  to  Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges, 
by  the  King  of  England,  in  1638  ;  but  was  united  with  Mas- 
sachusetts by  purchase  in  1652.  It  was  settled  by  the  English, 
at  Bristol,  in  1625.  It  was  admitted  as  a  State  into  the  Union 
March  15th,  1820,  being  the  twenty-third  in  order  of  admis- 
sio'  i.  It  contains  31.766  square  miles,  or  20,330,240  acres  in 
9^  a.     In  1870  the  population  was  626,915. 

It  has  now  five  Kepresentatives  in  Congress. 

The  northern  part  of  this  State  is  almost  a  wilderness,  and 
fiirnishes  large  quantities  of  lumber,  which  are  floated  down 
her  large  rivers,  and  supplied,  in  great  abundance,  to  the 
Atlantic  seaports,  and  the  West  Indies.  Ship-building  is  an 
extenpive  branch  of  industry,  the  great  length  and  irregular 
line  of  coast  forming  numerous  harbors.  It  has  extensive 
fisheries,  and  a  large  sea-faring  population.  Its  numerous 
streams  are  highly  favorable  to  manufactures,  though  compara- 
tively little  has  as  yet  been  done  in  this  direction.  Tlie  climate 
is  severe  and  the  soil  somewhat  sterile,  so  that  it  ranks  low  as 
an  agricultural  State.  It  has  received  comparatively  few 
additions  to  its  population  by  foreign  immigration  ;  and  its 
inhabitants  are  mainly  from  the  old  English  stock,  and  the 
State  ranks  high  in  morality.  It  depletes  itself  by  furnishing, 
like  many  other  of  the  older  States,  annually,  a  large  number 
of  vigorous,  enterprising  young  men  to  settle  the  new  and 
fertile  regions  of  the  west. 

It  forms  part  of  the  first  judicial  circuit,  and  constitutes 


500  MAINE. 

one  judicial  district.  It  has  thirteen  ports  of  entry,  and  thirty- 
two  ports  jf  delivery. 

The  capital  is  Augusta,  on  the  Kennebec  river. 

The  State  elections  are  held  on  the  second  Monday  of  Sep- 
tember ;  and  the  Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Wednesday  of 
January  in  eacli  year. 

The  enacting  clause  of  its  laws  is  :  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Eepi'esentatives,  in  Legislature  assem- 
bled." 

IJNrrED   STATES   SENATORS. 

John  Holmes,  from 

John  Chandler,  " 

Albion  P.  Harris,  " 

Peleg  Sprague,  " 

Ether  Shepley,  « 

John  Ruggles,  " 

Judah  Dana,  *' 

Eeuel  "Williams,  " 

George  Evans,  " 

John  Fairfield,  « 

"Wynan  B.  S.  Moore,  " 

James  W.  Bradbury,  " 

Hannibal  Hamlin,  " 

Amos  Nourse,  " 

"William  P.  Fessenden,    " 

Lot  M.  Morrill,  « 

Nathan  A.  Farwell,         " 
J.  G.  Blaine,  " 


1820 

to 

1833. 

1820 

u 

1829. 

1827 

ii 

1829. 

1829 

u 

1835. 

1833 

u 

1836. 

1835 

u 

1841. 

1836 

u 

1837. 

1837 

u 

1843. 

1841 

(( 

1847. 

1843 

u 

1847. 

1848 

u 

1848. 

1847 

u 

1853. 

1848 

ii 

1857. 

1857 

ii 

186L 

1869 

ii 

1881. 

1857 

ii 

1857. 

1853 

u 

1864. 

1865 

ii 

1869. 

1861 

ii 

1877. 

1864 

ii 

186i>. 

1876 

n 

1883. 

mssouKi.  501 


MISSOU  RI. 

This  State  was  first  settled  bj  the  French,  at  or  near  the  pres- 
ent capital,  in  the  year  1719.  Here  a  fort  was  established, 
called  Fort  Orleans,  and  the  neighboring  lead  mines  were 
worked  the  next  year.  St.  Genevieve,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
State,  was  settled  in  1T55,  and  St.  Louis  in  1764.  In  1763  it, 
with  all  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  was  assigned  by 
treaty  to  Spain.  This  territory  was  ceded  back  to  France  in 
1801,  and  with  Louisiana  was  purchased  by  the  United  States 
in  1803.  It  remained  a  part  of  Louisiana  until  the  admission 
of  the  State  of  that  name,  when  the  remaining  portion  of  that 
purchase  was  called  Missouri.  In  1821  it  was  admitted  into 
the  Union,  forming  the  twenty-fourth  State.  This  State  has 
an  area  of  67,380  square  miles,  equal  to  43,123,200  acres. 

Her  population  in  1870  was  1,721,295,  entitling  her  to  thir- 
teen Eepresentatives  in  Congress. 

The  climate  of  Missouri  is  variable ;  in  winter  the  thermom- 
£ter  sinks  below  zero  ;  the  summers  are  excessively  hot ;  the 
air  is  dry  and  pure.  The  State  is  quite  as  healthful  as  any  in 
the  west.  The  soil  is  good  and  of  great  agricultural  capabili- 
ties. The  great  staple  is  Indian  corn.  The  other  products 
cultivated  largely  are  hemp,  wheat,  oats,  tobacco.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  considerably  raised,  and  fruit  culture  is  successful. 

This  State  is  in  the  eight  judicial  circuit ;  and  forms  two 
judicial  districts,  the  Eastern  and  Western.  It  has  no  port  of 
entry,  and  but  one  port  of  delivery,  St.  Louis. 

The  capital  is  Jefferson  City.  The  State  election  is  held  on 
•ftie  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  and  the 
Legislature  meets  biennially  "Wed.  after- 1st  Mon.  in  Jan.     The 


502  •  MICHIGAN. 

enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is:  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the  G  neraj 
A.ssembly  of  the  State  of  Missouri  as  follows." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

Thomas  H.  Benton,  from 
David  Barton,  " 

Alexander  Buckner,        " 
Lewis  F.  Linn,  " 

David  R.  Atchison,         " 

B.  Gratz  Brown,  " 

Henry  S.  Geyer,  " 

Trusten  Polk,  " 

James  S.  Green,  " 

Waldo  P.  Johnson,  « 

John  B.  Henderson,  " 

Charles  D.  Drake,  « 

Carl  Schnrz,  « 

Francis  P.  Blair,  " 

Lewis  Y.  Bogy,  '^ 

Frank  M.  Cockicll,  '' 

David  H.  Armstrong,  '' 

James  Siiields,  " 

George  G.  Vest,  " 


1821 

to 

1851. 

1821 

li 

183L 

1831 

a 

1833. 

1833 

11 

1843. 

1843 

a 

1849. 

1849 

u 

1855. 

1863 

a 

1867. 

1851 

a 

1857. 

1857 

n 

1861. 

1856 

a 

1861. 

1861 

li 

1862. 

1862 

a 

1869. 

1867 

a 

1871. 

1869 

a 

1875. 

1871 

u 

1873. 

1873 

cc 

1877. 

1875 

(( 

IRSL 

1S77 

'• 

1879. 

1879 

i( 

187J> 

1879 

u 

1885 

MICHIGAN. 

The  name  of  this  State  is  a  contraction  of  two  words  in  the 
Chippewa  language,  meaning  "  Great  Lake,"  and  was  applied, 
by  the  Indians,  to  the  two  surrounding  the  lower  peninsula. 
It  was  explored  by  Jesuit  missionaries,  who  established  nume- 
rous missions  among  various  Indian  tribes,  and  pushed  their 
way,  through  perils  and  fatigues,  west  to  the  Mississippi,  which 
they  followed  far  north  and  south ;  to  be  soon  outstripped  by 
the  adventurous  La  Salle.     Detroit  was  founded  about  1701. 


MICHIGAN.  508 

The  settlements  made  little  progress  under  French  rule ;  and 
when,  in  1763,  it  passed  under  English  control,  the  conspiracy 
of  Pontiac  nearly  destroyed  them.  It  was  not  till  1796  that 
the  United  States  government  took  possession  of  the  territory. 
Its  growth  was  much  retarded  by  the  war  of  1812,  when  it 
endured,  for  two  years,  all  the  barbarities  of  Indian  war. 

A  territorial  government  was  organized  in  1805.  In  1818 
the  lands  were  brought  into  the  market,  since  which  its  pros- 
perity has  been  uninterrupted.  It  is  remarkable  in  its  position, 
and  eminently  so  by  its  resources.  The  southern  peninsula 
is  very  productive.  The  northern  peninsula  contains  the  rich- 
est copper  mines  in  the  world,  and  unlimited  supplies  of  iron, 
while  the  quantity  of  the  finest  lumber,  and  the  facilities  for 
transporting  it  are  superior.  The  fish  taken  in  its  lakes  are 
excellent  and  abundant ;  its  people  are  enterprising  and  intel- 
ligent ;  and  its  State  authorities  have  established  one  of  the 
best  Universities  in  the  Union.  Its  future  promises  to  become 
equal  at  least  to  that  of  the  most  favored  State. 

The  Territory  of  Michigan  was  changed  into  a  State  pre- 
liminarily June  15, 1836,  and  was  fully  admitted  to  an  equality 
with  all  the  States  January  26,  1837,  making  the  twenty- 
fifth  State  (Arkansas  was  admitted  on  the  same  day).  Her 
area  is  56,243  square  miles,  equal  to  35,995,520  acres.  The 
population  in  1870  was  1,184,059,  which  entitles  her  to  nine 
Representatives  in  Congress.  By  an  act  of  1866,  Michigan 
was  located  in  the  sixth  judicial  circuit;  and  forms  two  judicial 
districts,  and  has  four  collection  districts  and  four  ports  of  entry, 
viz.:  Detroit,  Port  Huron,  Grand  Haven,  and  Michilimackinac; 
also  five  ports  of  delivery  (if  fhe  President  deem  them  neces- 
sary). 

The  capital  is  Lansing.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The  Legislature 
meets  biennially  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows  :  "  The  people 
of  the  State  of  Michigan  enact '' 


504 


ARKANSAS. 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

Lucius  Lyon, 

from 

1836 

to. 

1839. 

John  Norvall, 

(( 

1836 

(( 

1841. 

Augustus  S.  Porter, 

a 

1839 

u 

1845. 

William  Woodbridge, 

u 

1841 

a 

1847. 

Lewis  Cass, 

li 

(  1845 
I  1849 

1848. 

1857. 

Alpheus  Felch, 

a 

1847 

ii 

1853. 

Thomas  Fitzgerald, 

li 

1848 

a 

1849. 

Charles  E.  Stewart, 

a 

1853 

a 

1859. 

Zachariah  Chandler, 

a 

3  1857 
(  1879 

a 

1875, 
1881. 

Kinsley  S.  Bingham, 

<( 

1859 

u 

1861. 

Jacob  M.  Howard, 

(I 

1862 

- 

1871. 

Thomas  W.  Ferry, 

a 

1871 

ii 

^   LS8.S, 

Isaac  P.  Christian cy, 

u 

1875 

u 

18  <  9. 

ARKAN  S  AS. 

Arkansas  was  originally  a  portion  of  the  Territory  of  Louis- 
iana. It  remained  a  part  of  that  territory  until  1812,  when 
the  present  State  of  Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  remainder  of  the  territory  was  then  formed  into  the  Mis- 
souri Territory,  and  so  remained  until  1821  when  Missouri 
was  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  Arkansas  was  erected  into 
a  separate  territory,  bearing  the  present  name.  In  1836,  a 
State  constitution  was  formed  at  Little  Rock,  and  Arkansas 
became  a  State  in  the  Union.  It  constituted  the  twenty-sixth 
State.  It  has  an  area  of  52,193  square  miles,  equal  to  33,406,- 
720  acres.  Tlie  population  in  1870  was  484,471,  which  entitles 
her  to  four  Representatives  in  Congress.  The  eastern  portion 
of  the  State,  extending  back  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi, is  generally  a  vast  plain  -covered  with  marshes,  swamps, 


ARKANSAS.  505 

and  lagoons.  The  Ozark  mountains  whicli  enter  the  north- 
west part  of  the  State  divide  it  into  two  unequal  parts,  of 
which  the  northern  has  the  climate  and  productions  of  the 
Northern  States,  while  the  southern  portion,  in  climate  and 
productions,  resembles  Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  The  low- 
lands of  Arkansas  are  unhealthy,  while  the  more  elevated  por- 
tions of  the  State  will  compare  favorably  with  the  most  health- 
ful and  invigorating  portions  of  the  Northwest.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  soil  in  this  State.  While  some  portions,  like 
the  river  bottoms,  are  exceedingly  fertile,  other  parts  are  sterile 
and  barren. 

The  staple  products  are  Indian  corn,  cotton  and  live  stock. 
Arkansas  gives  indications  of  rich  mineral  resources. 

This  State  lies  in  the  eighth  judicial  circuit,  and  forms  two 
judicial  districts,  the  eastern  and  western.  It  has  no  ports  of 
entry  or  delivery. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  Little  Kock.  She  holds  her  State 
election  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The  Legislature 
meets  but  once  in  two  years,  on  the  first  Monday  in  January, 
•pie  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is:  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  State  of  Arkansas." 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 

William  S.  Fulton,  from 

Ambrose  H.  Sevier,  " 

Chester  Ashley,  " 

William  K.  Sebastian,  " 

Solon  Borland,  " 

Eobert  W.  Johnson,  " 

Charles  B.  Mitchell,  " 

Alexander  McDonald,  " 

Benjamin  F.  Rice,  " 

Powell  Clayton,  " 

Stephen  W.  Dorsey,  " 

A.  TL  Garlund,  « 

J.  D.  Walker,  « 


1836 

to 

1844. 

1836 

u 

1848. 

1844 

i( 

1847. 

1848 

ii 

186L 

1848 

a 

1853. 

1853 

a 

1861. 

1861 

u 

186L 

1868 

(( 

1871. 

1868 

a 

1873. 

1871 

a 

1877. 

1873 

a 

1879. 

1877 

u 

1883. 

1879 

u 

1885 

>06  FLORTOA. 


FLORIDA. 

This  peninsula  was  discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  com, 
panion  of  Columbus,  in  1512,  on  Easter  Sunday,  called  by  the 
Spaniards  Pascua  Florida,  which,  with  the  profusion  of  flowers 
found  at  this  early  season  in  that  tropical  region,  caused  him 
to  name  it  Florida — "  the  flowery  land."  It  was  first  colonized 
by  French  Huguenots,  for  whom  Admiral  Coligni  desired  to 
find  an  asylum  in  the  new  world,  from  the  fierce  bigotry  of  the 
times.  The  first  settlers  (1564)  became  discouraged  and 
returned;  the  second  colony,  established  in  1566,  was  destroyed 
by  the  Spaniards.  These  founded  a  settlement  in  1565  at  St. 
Augustine,  which  was  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States 
settled  by  Europeans.  It  remained  in  their  hands  until  1763, 
when,  by  the  terms  of  the  "Peace  of  Paris,"  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English.     It  was  returned  to  Spain  in  1783. 

It  was  acquired  from  Spain  by  treaty  made  with  the  United 
States  in  1819,  but  the  American  authorities  did  not  take  posses- 
sion until  July,  1821.  The  consideration  given  by  our  govern- 
ment was  about  five  million  dollars.  It  is  a  point  running  out 
from  the  Southeast  border  of  our  territory,  of  but  little  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea  level,  and  swampy,  but  covered  with  an 
exuberant  growth  of  vegetation  with  a  chain  of  lakes  from 
south  to  north  through  the  center.  The  warmth  of  the  climate, 
where  no  winter  is  ever  known,  promotes  the  growth  of  the 
rarest  and  most  beautiful  flowers;  the  clustering  vines  and 
dense  foliage  render  its  forests  almost  impenetrable,  and  its 
delicate  mosses  are  the  wonder  and  delight  of  the  naturalist; 
while  the  splendid  plumage  of  its  tropical  birds,  flitting  among 
the  lemon  and  orange  groves,  laden  at  once  with  bud,  flower 
and  fruit,  combine  to  add  the  scenery  of  the  equatorial  regions 


FIXJBIDA.  507 

to  the  homely  but  more  useful  vegetable  growth  and  beauty  of 
our  temperate  zone.  It  is  a  resort  of  invalids  during  the 
rigors  of  the  northern  winter,  its  otherwise  excessive  heat  being 
tempered  by  the  sea  breezes  from  either  side.  With  its 
marshes  drained  and  its  vegetable  growth  subdued  ai^d  guided 
by  the  industrious  agriculturist,  its  supply  of  the  fruits  and 
other  productiorxc  of  warm  climates  would  be  inexhausti- 
ble. It  is  but  partially  settled,  and  its  agricultural,  commercial, 
and  manufacturing  facilities  but  slightly  developed.  Its  wealth 
of  resources  remain  to  reward  the  enterprise  and  industry  of 
the  future.  The  railroad  connections  between  its  cities  and 
other  States  furnish  a  sufScient  basis  for  improvement. 

Florida  wp.s  admitted  into  the  Union,  March  3,  1845;  mak- 
ing the  twenty-seventh  State.  This  State  has  son.  area  of  59,268 
square  miles,  equal  to  37,931,520  acres.  The  population  in 
1870  amoAmted  to  187,748.  She  has  two  Representative  in 
Congress 

Florida  lies  in  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  forms  two  judi- 
cial districts;  and  has  seven  ports  of  entry — St^  Augustine, 
Key  West,  Apalachicola,  Pensacola,  Magnolia,  St.  John's 
River,  and  Fernandina;  and  two  ports  of  delivery — Palatka 
and  Bay  Port. 

The  capital  is  Tallahasse.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  ISTovember.  The  Legislature 
meets  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is :  "  Be  it  enacted  by  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  State  of  Fl-^nda,  in 
G^'^OTal  Assembly  convened." 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 

David  Levy  Yulee,       from      -j 

J.  D.  Wescott,  " 

Jackson  Morton,  " 

S.  R.  Mallory,  « 

A.  S.  Welch",  « 

Tliomas  W.  Osbom,  " 

Abijah  Gilbert,  " 

Simon  B.  Conover,  " 

Chas.  W.  Jones,  " 

Wilkinson  Call,  « 


1845 

to 

185L 

1855 

1861. 

1845 

1849. 

1849 

1855. 

1851 

186L 

1868 

1869. 

1868 

1873. 

1869 

1875. 

1873 

1879. 

1875 

1881. 

1879 

1885 

508  IOWA. 


IOWA. 

1.  The  name  of  this  State  in  the  Indian  tongue  is  said  to 
mean  "  TJiis  is  the  Land.''''  Few  States  have  a  surface,  soil, 
and  position  so  uniformly  excellent  for  all  their  different  sec- 
tions. A  high  rolling  prairie,  well  drained  by  streams,  of 
great  fertility,  and  almost  no  sterile  or  waste  land;  beautiful 
to  look  upon  in  its  alternations  of  rise  and  fall,  of  prairie, 
stream,  and  timber ;  bounded  on  its  extremes  by  the  two  mighty 
branches  of  the  "  Father  of  Waters,"  with  numerous  smaller 
rivers  hundreds  of  miles  in  length  within  its  limits;  its  south- 
ern region  underlaid  by  a  vast  bed  of  coal,  its  northern  rich  in 
deposits  of  lead;  a  climate  free  from  the  severity  of  Minnesota 
and  Wisconsin  winters,  and  from  the  intemperate  heats  of 
Missouri  and  Kentucky  summers,  it  is  a  land  to  be  satisfied 
with;  and  justifies  the  picturesque  name  given  it  by  its  ancient 
appreciative  owners.    , 

2.  It  was  first  visited  by  Europeans  in  1673.  Marquette 
and  Joliet,  two  French  Jesuit  missionaries,  whom  the  vast 
magnitudes  of  the  Korth  American  continent  seemed  to  stim- 
ulate like  new  wine,  roamed  alone  over  these  immense  dis- 
tances, preserved  by  their  characteristic  French  cordiality  from 
the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the  numerous  warlike  Indian 
tribes — who  everywhere  received  them  with  hospitality,  treated 
them  with  respect,  and  dismissed  them  with  assistance — 
passed,  in  that  year,  down  the  Mississippi,  and,  landing  a  little 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Moingona — which,  from  the  similarity 
of  sound,  they  corrupted  into  Des  Moines,  (Monk's  River) — 
they  fearlessly  followed  an  Indian  trail  fourteen  miles  into  the 
interior  to  an  Indian  village.     Some  tradition  or  prophecy  had 


IOWA.  509 

forewarned  the  Indians  of  venerable  white  visitors,  and  they 
were  received  at  once  as  expected  and  honored  guests.  The 
new  religion  they  announced,  and  the  authority  of  the  king  of 
France  which  they  proclaimed,  raised  no  remonstrance  or  hos- 
tile feeling,  and  they  were  sent  on  their  way  down  the  river 
with  the  ''Pipe  of  Peace."  The  grand  visions  of  the  future 
entertained  by  these  and  other  French  explorers  were  never 
realized  by  that  nation.  It  was  more  than  a  hundred  years 
later  that  the  first  settlement  was  made  by  Julian  Du  Bnque  on 
the  site  of  the  present  city  of  that  name.  He  obtained  a  grant 
of  180,000  acres  from  the  Indians,  established  a  trading  post, 
and  worked  the  lead  mines,  with  great  profit;  but  the  time  had 
not  come  for  dispossessing  the  Indians,  and  almost  fifty  years 
more  j3assed  before  any  other  settlement  was  attempted. 

3.  In  1832  the  Winnebagoes,  Sacs,  and  Foxes  united  under 
the  Winnebago  chief.  Black  Hawk,  to  invade  and  repossess  the 
lands  in  Illinois  which  they  had  ceded  to  the  government. 
Gen.  Atkinson  met  and  defeated  them  on  the  Upper  Iowa,  tak- 
ing Black  Hawk  and  his  son  prisoners.  They  were  taken  east, 
kindly  treated,  and  set  at  liberty;  and  in  the  following  year  a 
treaty  was  made  which  ultimately  extinguislied  the  Indian 
title  to  the  whole  of  Iowa,  the  Indians  removing  west  of  the 
Missouri.  In  the  same  year  a  settlement  was  made  at  Bur- 
lington. The  time  for  Iowa  had  come.  In  1834  it  was  joined 
to  the  Territory  of  Michigan,  in  1837  was  reorganized  as  part 
of  the  Wisconsin  territory,  and,  in  1838,  became  a  separate 
territory  with  the  capital  at  Burlington.  March  3d,  1845,  it 
was  conditionally,  and  Dec.  28th,  1846,  fully  admitted  into 
^ft  Union  as  a  Sovereign  State.  In  1840  it  had  a  population 
of  over  40,000,  in  1850  of  nearly  200,000.  A  steady  g:ov.t:i 
followed,  and  she  has  now,  probably,  a  million  and  a  half  of 
inhabitants.  Four  parallel  lines  of  railroad  pass  entirely  across 
the  State  from  east  to  west,  three  from  north  to  south,  and 
various  others  are  in  process  of  building  or  form  intersecting 
lines.  She  is  scarcely  yet  fully  launched  into  her  career  of 
greatness.     When  her  virgin  soil  shaU  all  be  broken  up  and  its 


510  IOWA. 

hidden  wealth  evoked  by  her  intehigent  and  skillful  agricul 
turists,  when  the  full  tide  of  commerce  on  her  two  great  rivcTw* 
shall  have  set  in  to  supplement  her  railroads,  and  mature 
organization  shall  have  made  all  her  resources  available,  she 
will  take  her  proper  place  in  the  first  rank  of  States  in  the 
Union,  and  her  citizens  will  repeat  with  satisfaction  and  pride 
the  Indian  declaration,  "  This  is  the  Land." 

Iowa  was  the  twenty-eighth  State,  on  its  admission,  in  1845. 
It  has  an  area  of  55,045  square  miles,  equal  to  35,228,800  acres. 
The  population  in  1870  was  1,194,020,  which  entitles  her  to 
nine  Representatives  in  Congress.  This  State  hes  in  the  eighth 
judicial  circuit,  and  makes  one  judicial  district.  She  has  no 
port  of  entry,  but  has  three  ports  of  delivery,  to- wit :  Burling- 
ton, Keokuk,  and  Dubuque;  all  of  which  are  attached  to  the 
collection  district  of  New  Orleans,  in  the  State  of  Louisiana. 

Des  Moines  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
second  Tuesday  of  October.  The  Legislature  meets  biennially 
on  the  second  Monday  in  January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is  in  these  words:  "Be  it 
enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Iowa." 

TmiTED    STATES    SENATORS. 

George  W.  Jones,  from 

Augustus  C.  Dodge,         " 

James  Harlan, 

James  W.  Grimes,  " 

Samuel  J.  Kirkwood,  " 

James  B.  Howell,  " 

George  G.  Wright,  " 

William  B.  Allison,  « 

S.  J.  Kirkwood,  " 


1848  to 

1859. 

1848  " 

1855. 

j  1856  " 

1865. 

(  1867  " 

1873. 

1859  « 

1869. 

1866  " 

1867. 

1870  " 

1871. 

1.871  " 

1877. 

1873  " 

1885 

1877  " 

1883. 

TEXAS.  ^\l 


TEXAS. 

Thia  State  forms  the  soiitliwestern  portion  of  the  United 
t)tate8.  The  first  settlement  in  Texas  was  made  on  Matagorda 
baj,  under  the  French  led  by  La  Salle,  in  1685.  It  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  in  the  year  1690. 

Aftei  the  independence  of  Mexico,  in  1822,  Texas  remained 
a  Mexican  province  until  the  revolution  of  1836,  when  it  gained 
its  independence.  It  continued  an  independent  republic,  mod- 
eled on  tlie  United  States,  until  1845,  when,  the  Texan  Con- 
gress having  accepted  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  it  became  the  29th  State  in  the  Union. 
It  has  an  area  of  274,356  square  miles,  equal  to  175,587,840 
-acres.  The  population  in  1870  was  818,579,  which  entitles 
Iier  to  six  members  of  Congress. 

Tliis  State  embraces  every  variety  of  surface;  mountain,  plain, 
hill,  and  desert  waste  lie  within  its  limits.  The  climate  is  free 
from  the  extremes  of  both  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones, 
producing,  in  the  north,  many  of  the  products  of  the  temper- 
ate, and  in  the  soutli  many  of  those  of  the  torrid  zone.  The 
variation  in  the  temperature  from  the  season  of  winter  to  that 
of  summer  is  quite  small,  giving  the  State  as  equable  a  climate 
as  any  in  the  world.  While  it  shares  the  genial  climate  of  the 
■"  sunny  South  "  it  is  free  from  all  the  deadly  swamp  exhala- 
tions of  the  lower  Mississippi  States.  The  soil,  on  the  whole, 
is  as  fertile  as  any  in  the  world.  It  furnishes  the  very  best 
natural  pasture  all  the  year  round.  Cotton  in  large  quantities 
— Indian  com,  wheat,  rye,  oats  and  other  small  grains — tobacco, 
indigo  and  rice,  are  the  staple  products.  The  grape,  mulberry 
and  the  vanilla,  are  indigenous  and  abundant.    Cayenne  pepper 


512  TEXAS. 

is  grown  in  vast  quantities.  Fruit  is  no  less  various  and  abun- 
dant than  its  otlier  products.  Tlie  peach,  nectarine,  fig,  plum, 
quince  and  a  great  variety  of  berries  flourish  here.  Oranges, 
lemons,  limes  and  melons,  grow  well.  Live  stock  of  all  varie- 
ties and  in  vast  numbers  fatten  on  the  plains,  and  are  shipped 
in  all  directions  to  supply  every  demand. 

Texas  abounds  in  minerals.  Rich  silver  mines  are  already 
worked  successfully  at  San  Saba.  Gold  in  small  quantities 
has  been  found  west  of  the  Colorado  river.  Coal  is  abundant. 
Iron  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  State.  There  are  also  salt 
lakes  and  salt  springs,  copper,  alum,  lime,  agates,  chalcedony, 
jasper  and  a  white  and  red  sandstone. 

Texas  lies  in  the  fifth  judicial  circuit,  and  makes  two  judi- 
cial districts,  the  eastern  and  the  western.  There  are  three 
collection  districts  in  the  State.  Tlie  respective  ports  of  entry 
for  these  districts  are  Galveston,  La  Salle,  and  Brazos  Santiago. 
To  these  are  attached  nine  ports  of  delivery. 

The  capital  is  Austin.  The  Legislature  is  composed  of  a 
Senate,  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  House  of  Representatives, 
elected  for  two  years.  The  sessions  of  the  Legislature  are 
biennial  and  are  held  in  January.  The  Governor  is  elected 
for  four  years. 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

Thomas  F.  Rusk,  from 

Samuel  Houston,  " 

Pinckney  J.  Henderson,  " 
Matthias  Ward,  « 

John  Hemphill,  " 

Lewis  T.  Wigfall,  " 

J.  W.  Flannagan,  " 

Morgan  C.  Hamilton,     " 
Samuel  B.  Maxey,  " 

Richard  Coke,  '' 


1846 

to 

1856. 

1846 

u 

1859. 

1857 

ii 

1858. 

1858 

11 

1861. 

1859 

u 

1861. 

1859 

(( 

1861. 

1869 

u 

1875. 

1869 

a 

1877. 

1875 

u 

188L 

1677 

u 

1883. 

5ia 


WISCONSIN. 

1.  This  State  was  visited  and  crossed  hy  the  early  French 
explorers  about  1665,  and  a  settlement  was  made  at  Green  Bay 
in  1669  and  soon  after  on  the  Mississippi,  at  Prairie  du  Chien. 
It  was  the  policy  of  these  enterprising  men  to  connect  the 
French  settlements  on  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  by  a  chain  of 
stations  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  with  the  month  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. This  would  have  passed  through  the  heart  of  the 
country  and  have  laid  open  its  chief  resources  at  once.  It  was 
a  bold  conception.  We  see  it  nowhere  among  the  English 
explorers  and  settlers,  who  seemed  not  to  like  to  lose  sight  of 
their  ships;  but  it  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  grand  and 
rapid  genius  of  the  French;  and,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  by 
attempting  too  much  they  lost  the  whole.  The  English,  if 
slower,  were  sure,  and  consolidated  their  possessions  on  the 
coast,  gradually  pushing  westward  as  they  were  able  to  hold 
their  ground. 

2.  The  French  explorers  have  left  traces  of  their  untiring 
activity  in  the  names  of  rivers  and  places,  and  even  Indian 
tribes,  but  the  attention  of  their  liome  government  was  soon 
withdrawn  from  them.  No  further  extention  was  given  to 
settlement  for  near  150  years,  notwithstanding  it  was  so  easy 
of  access  from  the  south  by  the  Mississippi  river,  and  from  the 
east  by  the  chain  of  great  lakes.  Yery  fortunately,  as  it  now 
seems,  all  this  vast  and  valuable  territory  in  the  heart  of  the 
continent,  equal,  perhaps  in  its  natural  wealth,  to  the  original 
resources  of  the  whole  of  Europe,  was  reserved  to  reward  the 
labors  and  consolidate  the  beneficent  power  of  a  Nation  of 
Freemen,  carefully  trained  and  adapted  to  their  high  destiny. 

33 


514  WISCONSIN. 

3.  Thb  tide  of  emigration  Howed  westward  by  way  of  the 
Ohio  river,  and  the  States  south  were  settled  and  admitted  into 
the  Union  long  before  Wisconsin  received  even  a  Territorial 
government.  This  occurred  in  1836,  and  in  1840  the  census 
gave  it  but  little  over  30,000  inhabitants.  Population  now  flowed 
steadily  to  it  and  we  find,  in  1850,  over  300,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  admitted  into  the  UnioD  in  1848,  making  the  thirtieth 
State.  Its  high  latitude  probably  had  something  to  do  with 
this  deferred  settlement,  the  milder  winters  of  the  more  south- 
ern range  of  States  attracting  the  emigrants  first.  The  climate, 
however,  has  important  advantages  over  the  States  in  question, 
being  drier,  less  changeable,  and  not  so  subject  to  extremes.  It 
is  very  healthy,  and  probably  the  oldest  man  in  the  country 
^vas  living,  hale  and  hearty,  in  this  State,  a  few  years  ago,  at 
the  patriarchal  age  of  139.  The  climate  is  milder  than  in  the 
Bame  latitude  farther  east. 

4.  The  surface  is  a  high  rolling  prairie,  open  and  mostly 
treeless,  except  near  streams  and  bodies  of  water  in  the  south, 
but  in  the  north  covered  with  timber.  Vast  forests  of 
pine  grow  on  the  northern  slope,  which  is  some  1,200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Some  parts  of  the  State  fall  600 
feet  below  that  elevation;  and  a  succession  of  ridges  having  a 
general  direction  east  and  west,  separate  the  rivers  flowing  into 
Lake  Superior,  Green  Bay,  and  Lake  Michigan,  while  many 
streams  flow  southwest  into  the  Mississippi.  The  State  is  285 
miles  long  by  255  wide.  Its  beautiful  prairies,  gratefully 
returning  a  bountiful  harvest  to  the  intelligent  farmer;  its 
numerous  charming  lakes  and  ponds;  its  remarkable  commer- 
cial advantages  by  lakes  and  rivers,  supplemented  by  canals  and 
railroads;  its  great  manufacturing  facilities,  and  valuable  min- 
eral deposits,  give  great  promise  to  its  future.  Wheat  is  the 
leading  agricultural  staple,  but  all  the  grains,  vegetable^  and 
fruits  of  the  Northern  States  well  reward  cultivation.  It  has 
an  area  of  52,924  square  miles,  equal  to  34,511,360  acres.  In 
]S70  the  population  amounted  to  1,054,670,  which  gave  her 
*jight  Members  of  Congress.     Wisconsin  lies  in  the  seventh 


CALIFORNIA.  515 

judicial  eircui'j  (which  is  composed  of  Wisconsin,  Indiana  and 
Illinois,)  and  forms  one  judicial  district.  It  has  one  collection 
district,  one  port  of  entry  (Milwaukee,)  and  five  ports  of  deliv- 
■ery,  viz.:  Southport,  Racine,  Sheboygan,  Green  Bay  and 
Depere. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  Madison.  The  Legislature  meets 
on  the  second  Wednesday  in  January.  The  State  election  is  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is  as  follows:  "The  people 
of  Wisconsin,  rej^resented  in  Senate  and  Assembly,  do  enact  as 
follows." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 


Henry  Dodge, 

from 

1848 

to 

1857. 

Isaac  P.  Walker, 

1848 

1855. 

Charles  Durkee, 

1855 

1861. 

James  R.  Doolittle, 

1857 

1869. 

Timothy  0.  Howe, 

1861 

1879. 

M.  H.  Carpenter, 

1869 

1875. 

AufTHS  Cameron, 

1S75 

'' 

1881 

M.  H.  Carjienter, 

1879 

It 

1885 

CALIFORNIA 

Is  said  to  have  been  visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  1542,  and  by 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  a  celebrated  English  navigator,  in  1578. 
The  first  mission*  was  founded  by  Spanish  Catholics  in  1769. 
It  was  sparsely  settled  by  Mexican  rancheros,  who  occupied 
themselves  cliiefly  in  raising  cattle.  In  1846  Fremont,  who 
had  been  conducting  an  exploring  party  across  the  great  plains 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  defeated^  in  conjuncion  with  Com- 
modore Stockton,  the  Mexican  forces  in  California,  and  took 
possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  United  States;  to  which  it 


516  CALIFORNIA. 

was  definitely  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Feb, 
2nd,  1848;  the  United  States  government  paying  Mexico  for 
that  territory  and  New  Mexico  $15,000,000,  besides  paying 
$3,500,000  indemnity,  due  from  Mexico  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

Scarcely  had  this  arrangement  been  made,  when  it  was  pub- 
lished that  California  was  rich  in  gold,  and  adventurers  from 
all  sections  of  the  Union,  and  various  countries  of  the  Old 
World,  rushed  in  like  a  flood.  For  some  years,  society  there, 
composed  in  large  part,  of  the  wildest  and  most  ungovernable 
elements  of  old  communities,  was  like  a  seething  volcano ;  but, 
to  the  immortal  honor  of  American  citizens,  it  was  subdued  by 
the  superior  resolution  and  summary  vigor  of  the  better  class- 
of  emigrants  from  the  States,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
on  the  7th  of  Sept.  1850,  with  a  clause  in  its  Constitution  pro- 
hibiting slavery.  The  discussion  in  Congress  on  this  point 
came  near  precipitating  the  Civil  War  that  broke  out  ten  years 
later.  The  difficulty  between  the  slavery  and  anti-slavery 
parties  was  adjusted  by  compromise  measures,  for  the  time,  but 
only  served  to  allay  the  agitation  produced  by  conflict  of  inter- 
ests and  opinions,  which  was  irreconcilable. 

California  "  The  Golden,"  proved  extraordinarily  rich  in 
precious  metals  and  other  minerals,  as  quicksilver,  platinum, 
asphaltum,  iron,  lead,  and  rare  qualities  of  marble.  Its  gold 
mines  alone  from  1858  to  1868  produced  over  $800,000,000. 

It  is  a  broken  country,  traversed  by  two  ranges  of  moun- 
tains. The  valleys  are  exceedingly  productive.  They  are 
unexcelled  for  wheat;  all  kinds  of  fruit  grow  in  the  great- 
est perfection;  and  the  grape  culture  promises  to  equal,  if 
not  to  excel,  the  products  of  the  most  famous  vineyards  of 
Europe.  Surprising  as  is  her  mineral  wealth,' her  agricultural 
possibilities  are  far  greater,  and  her  commerce  is  already 
immense,  and  bids  fair,  from  her  position  and  relations  to 
Eastern  Asia,  and  the  western  parts  of  South  America,  to  rival 
that  of  the  Atlantic  States. 

The  world  was  ripe  for  the  discovery  of  these  unparalleled 


CALIFORNIA.  517 

treasiL'es,  and  civilization  was  prepared  to  use  them  for  the 
good  of  mankind.  The  ready  passage  across  the  vast  and 
inhospitable  deserts  of  the  American  continent,  by  means  of 
railways,  has  already  changed  (and  will  probably  change  still 
more  in  the  future)  the  course  of  commerce;  and  San  Fran- 
cisco and  New  York  may  hope  to  rule,  in  large  part,  the 
■commerce  of  the  world. 

California  is  remarkable  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
"where  the  rigors  of  winter  (save  on  the  mountains),  and  the 
excessive  heats  of  summer  are  equally  unknown,  and  for  the 
variety  and  magnitude  of  its  natural  curiosities.  Of  the  last 
the  Yosemite  valley  and  the  Big  Trees  are  the  most  prominent. 
She  has  near  1,000  miles  of  railroad,  and  has  made  ample  pro- 
vision for  education. 

Calfornia  was  the  thirty-first  State.  It  has  an  area  of  188,982 
square  miles,  equal  to  120,948,480  acres.  The  population  in 
1870  was  560,247,  entitling  her  to  four  E^presentatives  in 
Oongress. 

By  act  of  1866,  this  State,  with  Oregon  and  Nevada,  con- 
iStitutes  the  ninth  judicial  circuit,  and  forms  two  judicial 
■districts.  California  has  seven  ports  of  entry,  viz. :  San  Fran- 
cisco, Monterey,  San  Diego,  Sacramento,  Sonoma,  San  Joaquin 
and  San  Pedro;  also,  one  port  of  delivery,  Santa  Barbara. 
California  was  obtained  from  Mexico  by  conquest  in  1846. 

The  capital  is  Sacramento.  She  liolds  her  State  election  on 
the  first  Tuesday  in  September.  Her  Legislature  meets  on  the 
first  Monday  in  December,  but  meets  only  once  in  two  years. 

The  enacting  clause  of  her  laws  is:  "  The  people  of  the  State 
of  California,  represented  in  Senate  and  Assembly,  do  enact  aa 
follows." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS, 

John  C.  Fremont,  from  1850  to  1851. 

William  M.  Gwin,  "  1850  "  1861. 

John  B.  Weller,  "  1851  "  1857. 

H.  P.  Haun,  "  1859  "  1860. 

David  C.  Broderick,  "  1857  "  1859. 


518 


MINNESOTA. 

Milton  S.  Latham, 

from 

1860 

to 

1863. 

John  Conness, 

a 

1863 

(( 

1869. 

Cornelius  Cole, 

(( 

1867 

a 

1873. 

J.  A.  McDougall, 

a 

1861 

u 

1867. 

Eugene  Casserly, 

a 

1869 

n 

1873. 

Aaron  A.  Sargent, 

u 

1873 

u 

1879. 

John  S.  Hagar, 

a 

1874 

1875. 

Newton  Booth, 

(( 

1875 

l( 

1881. 

James  T.  Farley, 

u 

1879 

il 

1885 

MINNESOTA. 

This  State  might  be  called  the  Mother  of  Rivers,  since  it 
contains  the  high  watershed,  or  tableland,  where  the  rivers 
sending  their  waters  to  two  oceans,  in  three  directions,  have 
their  sources.  The  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  streams  flowing  into  the  frozen  ocean  of  the 
north  are  all  found  here.  In  1680  the  unwearied  La  Salle 
visited  the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  but  this  region  wa& 
long  left  to  the  sole  occupation  of  the  Indians. 

Fort  Snelling,  near  St.  Paul,  was  built  in  1819.  No  other 
territory  was  acquired,  by  extinction  of  the  Indian  title  to  the 
soil,  until  1837;  and  in  1849  the  civilized  population  gathered 
about  the  trading  posts  and  missions  amounted  to  less  than 
5,000.  It  then  received  a  Territorial  government.  A  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  Statt  having  in  1851  been  ceded,  by 
treaty  with  the  Indians,  to  tho  government,  was  immediately 
entered  on  by  the  settlers;  and  in  1858  it  was  prepared  to 
take  rank  among  the  sovereign  States.  It  was  admitted  in 
May  of  this  year,  by  act  of  Congress. 

In  1862  the  State  passed  through  the  appalling  crisis  of  an 
Indian  massacre  of  the  outlying  settlements.  It  began  without 
warning,  in  the  midst  of  fancied  security,  and  before  adequate 


DELLS  OF  THE  ST.  CROIX  RIVER,  MINN. 


MINNESOTA.  519 

protection  could  be  forwarded,  some  500  men,  women,  and 
children  were  murdered  with  all  the  accompaniments  of 
savage  cruelty.  Some  $3,000,000  of  property  was  destroyed. 
In  a  short  time  sufficient  force  was  gathered  to  overpower  the 
savages,  and  they  were  in  large  part  removed  from  the  State. 

The  surface  is  undulating  and  high,  and  the  soil,  in  good 
part,  extremely  fertile.  Portions  are  open  and  rolling  prairie; 
the  remainder  heavily  wooded.  Tliough  the  winters  are 
long  and  cold,  the  air  is  dry  and  invigorating,  and  the  cli- 
mate healthy.  It  is  specially  favorable  to  the  growth  of  wheat. 
Commerce  is  favored  by  the  Mississippi,  navigable  to  St. 
Paul,  and  by  good  harbors  on  Lake  Superior,  as  well  as  by 
numerous  railways.  Its  provision  for  education  is  excellent, 
and  a  State  University  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls  promises  to 
form  a  suitable  crown  to  its  intellectual  advantages. 

This  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union  on  the  11th  day  of 
May,  1858,  and  made  the  thirty-second  State.  It  has  an  area 
of  83,531  square  miles,  equal  to  53,459,840  acres.  The  popu- 
lation in  1870  amounted  to  439,706.  This  State  is  entitled  to 
three  Members  of  Congress. 

It  lies  in  the  eighth  judicial  circuit,  which  is  composed  of 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Arkansas  and  Minnesota.  Minne- 
sota forms  one  judicial  district,  and  has  no  ports  of  entry  or 
delivery. 

St.  Paul  is  the  capital.  The  Legislature  meets  annually  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  January.  The  State 
election  is  held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November. 

UNITED   STATES    SENATORS. 


Henry  M.  Eice, 

from 

1857 

to 

1863. 

James  Shields, 

a 

1857 

a 

1859. 

Alex.  Ramsey, 

ii 

1863 

u 

1875. 

Daniel  Norton, 

u 

1865 

ii 

1871. 

Mort.  S.  Wilkinson, 

u 

1859 

a 

1865. 

William  Windom, 

a 

1871 

ii 

1883. 

S.  J.  v..  M<-Millan,  «  1875     "     1881. 


520 


OKEGON. 


OREGON 

"Was  discovered  by  Spanish  adventurers  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  1792  Capt.  Grey,  of  Boston,  discovered  the 
Columbia  river  and  entered  it,  securing  the  sovereignty  of  the 
country  to  the  United  States  by  right  of  first  exploration.  It 
was  more  thoroughly  explored  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  appointed 
for  that  purpose  by  the  United  States  government,  in  1804-5-6. 
The  northern  part,  (now  Washington  Territory,)  was  claimed 
by  Great  Britain,  and  the  conflicting  claims  produced  long  and 
dangerous  diplomatic  contention,  which  was  finally  peaceably 
ended  in  favor  of  the  United  States. 

In  1811  a  fur  trading  company  established  a  fort  and  settle- 
ment at  the  mouth  of  th^  Columbia,  which  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  English  in  the  latter  part  of  1813.  The  coun- 
try was  claimed  by  them  until  1846,  when  the  boundaries  were 
settled  by  treaty;  giving  Oregon  to  the  United  States.  Settle- 
ment from  the  States,  however,  commenced  in  1839,  and  con- 
tinued to  increase  until  1848,  when  a  territorial  government 
was  organized.  The  excitement  consequent  on  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  California  drew  off  many  of  its  citizens;  but  was, 
in  part,  counteracted  by  the  extraordinary  inducements  made 
to  actual  settlers.  A  State  constitution  was  adopted  by  the 
people  Nov.  9th,  1857,  but  it  was  not  admitted,  by  act  of  Con- 
gress, into  the  Union,  until  Feb.  14th,  1859,  making  the  thirty- 
third  State. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  divided  by  thr<ie  ranges  of 
mountains,  the  Cascade,  Blue  and  Hocky  mountains.  The 
Cascade  Eange  has  the  highest  peaks  found  in  the  United 
States.     Tlie  climate  is  mild  near  the  coast,  but  more  severe  in 


OREGON.  521 

higher  eastern  parts.  The  high  eastern  regions  are  volcanic, 
containing  vast  tracts  of  lava,  entirely  sterile;  the  middle  is 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  in  many  parts.  The  valuable  farming 
lands  are  in  the  western  division,  along  the  various  tributary- 
streams  of  the  Columbia.  Wheat  is  the  great  staple;  rye, 
oats,  and  vegetables,  are  grown  with  success.  Fruit  is  also 
produced  in  abundance.  Its  supply  of  coal  and  copper  is  said 
to  be  unlimited;  and  it  is  specially  celebrated  for  its  extensive 
forests  of  gigantic  trees.  Manufactures  and  commerce  are,  as 
yet,  undeveloped;  but  will  be  important  in  the  future.  Little 
has  been  done  in  the  way  of  internal  improvement.  * 

Oregon  has  experienced  the  disadvantage  of  growing  up  in 
the  shade  of  her  splendid  neighbor,  California,  but  has  a 
solidly  prosperous  future  before  her. 

It  has  an  area  of  95,274  square  miles,  equal  to  60,975,360 
acres.  The  population  amounted  in  1870  to  90,923,  which  did 
not  reach  the  number  required  to  entitle  it  to  a  Member  of 
Congress  according  to  the  fixed  ratio.  But  every  State  is 
entitled  to  one  member,  whatever  its  population  may  be.  By 
act  of  1866,  the  States  of  Oregon,  Nevada  and  California  were 
constituted  the  ninth  judicial  circuit.  Oregon  forms  one  judi- 
cial district,  and  has  one  collection  district,  and  one  port  of 
entry. 

The  capital  is  Salem,  where  her  Legislature  meets  once  in 
two  years,  on  the  second  Monday  of  September.  The  State 
election  is  held  on  the  first  Monday  in  June. 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 


Joseph  Lane, 

from 

1859 

to 

1861. 

Delazon  Smith, 

1859 

1860. 

Edward  D.  Baker, 

1861 

1861. 

Ben].  F.  Harding, 

1862. 

1865. 

James  W.  Nesmith, 

1861 

1867. 

Benjamin  Stark, 

1861 

1862. 

Geo.  H.  Williams, 

1865 

1871. 

Henry  W.  Ck)rbett, 

1867 

1873. 

James  K.  Kelly, 

1871 

1877. 

John  H.  Mitchell, 

1873 

1879. 

L.  F.  Grover, 

1877 

1883. 

J.  H.  Slater, 

(( 

1879 

1885 

522  KANSAS. 


KAxNSAS. 

1.  ITearly  every  State  in  the  American  Union  has  some 
advantage  that  is  peculiar  to  it,  or  that  it  shares  in  a  degree  so 
eminent  as  to  distinguish  it  from  all  others.  .  Kansas  is  not  aD 
exception,  and  some  of  these  are  exceedingly  attractive.  They 
enter,  to  some  extent,  into  the  painful  and  bloody  history  of 
its  first  settlement;  the  mighty  tragedy  of  the  Civil  "War 
having  enacted  its  prelude  on  her  fertile  plains.  The  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Bill,  in  1854,  repealed  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise, and  this  territory  was  opened  to  a  trial  of  strength 
between  Freedom  and  Slavery;  the  contest  being  transferred 
from  the  floors  of  Congress  and  the  Representatives  of  the 
people  to  the  settlers  of  the  soil,  who  were  to  determine 
whether  slavery  should,  or  not,  exist  in  it,  as  a  State.  The 
attraction  of  a  decisive  political  struggle  was  added  to  the 
many  favorable  features  of  position,  climate,  and  intrinsio 
value.  Southern  people  sought  to  introduce  their  peculiar 
institution,  and  northern  people  resisted.  There  was  much 
disorder  and  bloodshed.  Every  effort  was  made,  by  strategy 
and  force,  on  the  one  side  and  the  other.  The  southern  party 
was  signally  defeated  and  there  was  henceforth  no  hope  of 
preserving  to  the  slave  States  a  balance  of  power  in  the 
national  government,  and  the  civil  war  followed,  almost  as  a 
natural  consequence. 

2.  Kansas  is  larger  by  more  than  3,000  square  miles  thaq 
the  whole  of  New  England.  It  lies  very  near  the  geographical 
centre  of  the  country,  and  stretches  a  friendly  hand,  by  the 
Pacific  Railroads,  to  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  States.  A 
good  part  of  her  soil  is  declared  to  be  much  superior  to  that 


KANSAS.  523 

of  ordinary  prairie  land  in  richness,  and  to  average  four  feet 
in  depth.  It  is  fairly  watered  and  timbered,  and  freely  pro- 
duces everything,  except  the  proper  tropical  products  of  the 
extreme  south,  that  is  grown  in  the  United  States,  The  cli- 
mate is  that  of  Yirginia,  without  its  excessive  heat;  which 
may,  perhaps,  be  considered  balanced  by  its  occasional  exces- 
sively sharp  and  cutting  winds  in  winter.  These,  however,  are 
tolerably  rare,  and  the  winters,  for  the  most  part,  short  and 
mild,  the  climate  being,  on  the  whole  very  healthy.  Its 
deposits  of  salt  are  exceedingly  rich,  and  other  minerals 
abound  in  various  parts.  Its  commercial  position  is  excellent, 
and  its  manufacturing  capabilities  all  that  the  future  will  be 
likely  to  require.  Its  resources,  under  suitable  development, 
cannot  be  considered  inferior  to  any  other  equal  area  in  the 
country;  which  is  speaking  in  the  strongest  language  we  can 
command,  considering  what  may  be  said  of  so  many  different 
localities. 

3.  The  eastern  surface  is  a  succession  of  waves,  or  undula- 
tions, the  valleys  generally  extending  north  and  south.  A  nar- 
row section  west  of  it,  stretching  across  the  State  is  more  level 
and  the  soil  lighter.  Be^'ond  this  long  reaches  of  level,  fertile, 
and  well  watered  lands  are  adapted  to  flocks  and  herds.  These 
are  much  higher  than  the  river  beds,  the  valleys  of  which 
abound  in  bottoms,  beautiful  in  appearance  and  situation,  and 
of  inexhaustible  fertility.  Yast  beds  of  coal,  a  good  quality 
and  abundant  quantity  of  iron  ore,  and  petroleum  and  lead 
have  been  discovered.  Corn  and  wheat  are  the  leading  staples, 
and  it  is  believed  that  fruit  culture  will  soon  become  a  leading 
interest  of  this  promising  State. 

Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  Jan.  29, 
1861,  making  the  thirty-fourth  State.  Kansas  has  an  area  of 
78,841  square  miles,  equal  to  50,187,520  acres.  The  popula- 
tion in  1870  was  361,399,  giving  her  three  Kepresentatives  in 
Congress.  This  State  is  in  the  eighth  judicial  circuit,  and 
forms  one  judicial  district.  It  has  no  ports  of  entry  or 
delivery. 


524 


WEST   VIRGINIA. 


Topeka  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November.  The  Legislature 
meets  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January. 

Tlie  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  as  follows:  "  Be  it  enacted 
hj  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Kansas." 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 


James  Henry  Lane, 
Samuel  C.  Pomeroy, 
E.  G.  Eoss, 
Alexander  Caldwell, 
Robert  Crozier, 
James  M.  Harvey, 
John  J.  IngallSj 
P.  B.  Plumb, 


from 


1861 

to 

1866. 

1861 

u 

1873. 

1866 

a 

187L 

1871 

a 

1873. 

1873 

1874. 

1874 

(C 

187t 

1873 

i( 

1885 

1877 

u 

1883. 

WEST     VIRGINIA. 

This  is  the  only  State  ever  formed,  under  the  Constitution, 
by  the  division  of  an  organized  State.  The  interests  of  West 
Virginia  were  always  different  from  those  of  the  eastern  part; 
and  when,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Civil  War,  the  eastern 
part  seceded,  the  western  remained  loyal  and  was  erected  into 
a  separate  State;  thus  realizing  the  ancient  wish  of  its  citizens. 

The  act  of  Congress  organizing  it  as  a  State  was  passed 
December  31st,  1862,  with  condition  that  it  should  take  effect 
60  days  after  proclamation  of  its  admission  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  This  proclamation  was  issued  April 
21st,  1803;  and  it  was  admitted  to  representation  in  Congress 
as  a  sovereign  State  June  20th  thereafter.  A  temporary  gov- 
ernment without  representation  in  Congress  had  been  formed 
in  May,  1862.  It  was  the  thirty -fifth  State  admitted  into  th* 
Union. 


NEVADA.  525 

It  is  varied  in  surface,  from  high  mountain  ranges,  hilly  and 
undulating  midlands,  to  level  and  rich  river  bottoms;  and  is 
nearly  all  available  either  for  cnltivation  or  grazing  ;  while  its 
valuable  deposits  of  coal  lie  very  near  the  surface  in  nearly  all 
pai'ts  of  the  State.  Iron  abounds,  and  timber  of  the  best 
quality.  Its  manufacturing  facilities  are  great ;  and  its  canals 
and  railroads,  with  tlie  Ohio  river  on  its  northwestern  border, 
furnish  the  means  of  making  it  one  of  the  richest  States  in  the 
Union.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  scenery  picturesque, 
and  in  places  it  rises  to  wild  grandeur. 

It  has  an  area  of  23,000  square  miles,  or  14,720,000  acres. 

The  population,  in  1870  was  442,014.  This  State  has  now 
three  Members  of  Congress.  West  Virginia  was  subsequently 
put  into  the  fourth  judicial  circuit,  and  constitutes  one  judicial 
district.     Parkersburg,  also,  was  made  a  port  of  delivery. 

Wheeling  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  oix  the 
second  Tuesday  in  October.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the 
second  Tuesday  in  January. 

UNITED    STATES    SENATORS. 


Peter  G.  Van  Winkle, 

from 

1863 

to 

1869. 

Waitman  T.  Willey, 

1863 

a 

1871. 

Arthur  J.  Boreman, 

1869 

u 

1875. 

H.  G.  Davis, 

1871 

(( 

1883. 

Alien  T.  Caperon, 

1875 

(( 

1876. 

Frank  Hereford, 

1876 

(( 

1881. 

A  KV  ADA. 

«  The  Snowy  Land  "  derives  its  name  from  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, or  Snowy  Range  of  mountains  forming  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  California.  It  lies  in  the  western  part  of  the  basin 
of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  among  those  mountains,  in  whose 
rocky  bosom  was  found  the  stimulus  that  has  changed  so  much 


526  NEVADA. 

of  the  Pacific  slope,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  from  a 
wild  and  dismal  waste  to  populous  and  thriving  States. 

Gold  was  found  in  moderate  quantities  among  the  mountains, 
and  population  began  to  scatter  slowly  over  them  about  1850, 
and  soon  settlers  began  to  improve  the  valleys  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  on  the  east  for  agricultural  purposes.  Carson 
county  was  organized  by  the  territorial  government  of  Utah  in 
1854;  but  in  June,  1859,  rich  deposits  of  silver  were  found  ; 
and  emigration  began  to  pour  in  rapidly.  In  March,  1861, 
the  Territory  of  Kevada  was  organized,  and  the  same  month, 
three  years  later,  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  making  the 
thirty-sixth  State. 

The  history  of  these  States,  so  rich  in  precious  metals,  puts 
to  the  blush  the  fantastic  fables  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  The 
silver  mines  of  Nevada  are  believed  to  be  the  richest  in  the 
world.  The  celebrated  silver  mines  of  Potosi,  in  South  America, 
never  produced  over  $10,000,000  a  year,  while  in  1867,  one 
mine  in  Nevada  produced  $17,500,000,  and  is  thought  to  be 
almost,  or  quite,  inexhaustible.  The  climate,  like  that  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  healthy;  the  seasons  are  divided  into  wet  and  dry, 
and  agriculture  is  dependent  on  irrigation.  With  time  and 
pains  its  products  will  be  considerable.  It  has  much  wild  and 
sublime  scenery,  and  some  natural  curiosities;  as  Lake  Mono, 
witli  its  waters  so  sharply  acid  as  to  destroy  cloth  and  leather 
immersed  in  it.  Its  gloomy  surroundings,  and  the  great  dis- 
tance from  tlie  tops  of  the  precipitous  rocks  surrounding  its 
shores  to  the  surface  of  the  water  lend  an  impressive  and  fear- 
ful character  to  its  severe  desolation.  It  lies  below  the  reach 
of  the  winds,  and  no  living  thing  can  exist  in  its  waters. 

It  has  an  area  of  63,473  square  miles,  or  40,622,720  acres. 
The  population  in  1860,  while  yet  a  Territory,  was  6,857.  In 
1870  it  had  increased  to  42,491.  In  conformity  with  the  Con- 
stitutional provision  that  every  State  shall  have  one  Represent- 
ative in  Congress,  Nevada  has  one.  This  State  lies  in  the  ninth 
judicial  circuit,  and  forms  one  judicial  district,  called  the  dis- 
trict of  Nevada. 


NEBRASKA.  527 

Carson  City  is  the  capital.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  November  ;  and  the  Legislature  meets  on  the 
first  Monday  in  January. 

The  enacting  clause  of  the  laws  is  in  the  following  words  : 
*'■  The  people  of  the  State  of  Nevada,  represented  in  Senate 
and  Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows." 

UNITED   STATES   SENATORS. 

James  W.Nye,  from  1865  to  1873. 

William  M.  Stewart,  "  1865  "  1875. 

John  P.  Jones,  "  1873  "  1885 

Wm.  Sharon,  *'  1875  "  1881. 


NEBRASKA 

1.  Formed  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  from  the 
French  government  in  1803,  It  received  a  Territorial  govern- 
ment in  1854,  and  was,  by  the  provisions  of  the  Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill,  equally  with  Kansas,  exposed  to  the  introduction 
of  slavery ;  but  the  Southern  people  limited  their  efforts  in  that 
direction  to  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  did  not  share  in  its  disorder 
and  bloodshed. 

2.  The  greater  portion  of  the  country  consists  of  a  high, 
rolling  prairie.  The  soil  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  is 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  adjoining  portions  of  Iowa  and 
Kansas.  It  is  a  rich  loam,  finely  pulverized,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  cultivation.  The  second  district,  near  the  center 
of  the  State,  is  strictly  pastoral.  The  third,  or  western  section, 
has  a  fair  soil,  but  is  destitute  of  timber,  and  insufficiently 
supplied  with  water. 

Throughout  the  fertile  portion  of  the  State,  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
and  other  cereals,  and  vegetables  and  fruits  yield  largely.  Yast 
iierds  of  buffaloes  formerly  roamed  over  its  prairies  ;  but  they 


528  NEBRASKA. 

are  now  mostly  exterminated.  The  altitude  of  Nebrask »,  secures 
to  it  a  dry,  pure,  and  salubrious  atmosphere.  Rain  is  not  abun- 
dant,  but,  in  the  eastern  part,  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of 
the  agriculturist.  Salt,  limestone,  and  coal  are  found  in  various 
localities,  and  not  improbably  other  minerals  will  be  found  ir> 
paying  quantities.  The  State  is  too  new  to  fully  estimate  all 
its  resources  and  capabilities. 

3.  The  educational  advantages  are  good.  The  Common 
School  System,  modeled  on  that  of  Ohio,  is  well  supplied  with 
funds,  embracing  one-sixteenth  of  the  public  land,  or  2,500,000 
acres.  90,000  acres  were  given  to  endow  a  State  Agricultural 
College,  and  46,081  acres  to  the  State  University. 

Its  commercial  facilities  are  supplied  by  the  Missouri  River, 
the  Pacific  and  other  railroads,  and  are  amply  sufficient  to 
develop  its  resources.  The  future  of  the  State  has  many  ele- 
ments of  promise.  !No  public  debt  impedes  its  growth,  and 
within  the  last  few  years  it  has  increased  in  wealth  and  popu- 
lation more  rapidly  than  any  of  the  adjoining  States  or  Terri- 
tories. An  unknown,  but  certainly  not  limited,  amount  of 
wealth  still  lies  locked  up  in  its  soil,  and  its  relation  to  ocean 
commerce  by  the  mighty  Missouri,  and  to  inter-State  trade  by 
lying  in  the  great  traveled  route  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  States,  with  a  remarkably  fine,  healthy  climate,  and  the 
ease  with  wliich  its  soil  is  worked,  contribute  to  form  a  power- 
ful attraction  to  labor  and  capital,  and  we  have  no  reason  to 
suspect  any  decrease  in  its  rapid  progress. 

4.  On  its  admission,  in  1867,  it  was  the  thirty-seventh 
State.  It  has  an  area  of  122,007  square  miles,  or  78,084,480  acres. 

Population  in  1870,  122,993.  It  forms  the  ninth  judicial 
district,  and  has  no  ports  of  entry  or  delivery. 

The  capital  is  Lincoln.  The  State  election  is  held  on  the 
second  Tuesdav  in  October.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the 
Thursday  after  the  first  Monday  in  January. 

UNITED    STATES   SENATORS. 

John  M.  Thayer,  from  1867  to  1871. 

Thomas  W.  Tipton,         "  1867  "  1875. 

Phineas  W.  Hitchcock,  "  1871  "  1877. 

Algernon  S.  Paddock,     «  1875  "  I^Sl. 

Alvin  Sunders,  «  1877  "  1SS3. 


COLORADO.  528 


COLORADO 

Was  formed  from  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  Utah.  Its 
Territorial  government  was  organized  by  act  of  Congress, 
March  2nd,  1861.  It  is  situated  west  of  Kansas,  on  the  great 
route  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  States,  and  on  the  divid- 
ing  ridge,  or  backbone,  of  the  continent.  The  rivers  that  find 
their  head  waters  within  the  territory  run  southeast  and  south 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  southwest  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 
The  surface  is  nearly  equally  divided  between  a  plain,  gently 
decending  from  the  abrupt  mountain  wall  of  rock  constituting 
the  eastern  flank  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  mighty 
mass  of  that  chain,  with  its  peaks,  rising  nearly  three  miles 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  now  forming  an  elevated  plateau, 
and  again  sending  off  spurs  and  lateral  ranges  containing  beau- 
tiful valleys,  or,  in  a  more  lavish  and  genial  mood,  taking  a 
wide  circuit  inclosing  an  immense  sunken  plain  containing 
hundreds  of  square  miles  of  charming,  well  watered  farming 
land  called  parks.  Of  these  there  are  seven.  It  is  a  magnifi- 
cent region,  and  contains  all  the  elements  of  extreme  mineral 
and  agricultural  wealth.  It  has  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  and  iron.  Coal  abounds  in  all  parts,  oil  flows  from  the 
wells  with  a  little  encouragement,  and  salt  is  easily  obtained 
in  some  parts.  An  immense  soda-fountain  is  found  near  Col- 
orado City,  called  Fontaine  qui  Bouille  (boiling  fountain)  and 
there  are  indications  of  cinnabar,  platina,  and  precious  stones. 

The  climate  is  fine,  the  general  temperature  like  Southern 

Pennsylvania  or  Maryland;  and,  from  the  elevation,  the  air  is 

very  dry  and  pure.     The  plain  rises  by  imperceptible  degrees 

to  5,000  feet,  (about  one  mile,)  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  at 

34 


530  COLORADO. 

the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  numerous  valleys,  the  parks. 
«nd  much  of  the  sloping  plain,  form  as  fine  an  agricultural 
region,  with  proper  irrigation,  as  any  State  possesses,  and 
touch  of  the  remainder  furnishes  excellent  pasturage  through 
the  entire  year.  Occasionally  heavy  snow  falls  and  for  a  few 
•days  extreme  cold  prevails,  but  these  are  exceptional  years; 
and  it  does  not  lie  long.  Its  eifects  can  be  guarded  against 
with  prudent  care.  Corn,  wheat,  and  other  small  grains  and 
X'egetables  reach  their  greatest  perfection  here. 

It  furnishes  excellent  manufacturing  facilities  along  the 
Tinfailing  mountain  streams  in  the  valleys,  and  will  no  doubt 
ultimately  unite  with  Montana  and  Southwestern  Dacotah  to 
supply  the  immense  central  part  of  our  domain  with  all  the 
products  of  manufacturing  genius  and  skill. 

Denver  the  capital  and  principal  city,  is  situated  near  the 
•eastern  base  of  the  mountains,  where  these  put  on  their 
^severest  and  sublimest  aspect.  Clear  lakes  are  set  like  stars, 
liere  and  there,  and  the  beautiful  and  grand  in  scenery  are 
nowhere  more  striking,  or  more  agreeably  combined. 

Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  State,  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  August  1st,  1876,  by  proclamation  of  the  President, 
according  to  law.  It  is  estimated  to  contain  104,000  square 
miles,  or  66,560,000  acres.  Its  population  in  1870  was  39,864, 
whidi  increased  to  130,000  in  1876.  It  has  one  Representative 
in  Congress,  and  constitutes  one  judicial  district.  The  elec- 
tions are  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  October,  and  the  Legis- 
latoro  meets  biennially  the  first  Wednesday  in  January. 

UNFIED   OTATE8   SENATORS. 

Jerome  B.  Chaffee,       from  1877    to    1879. 

Henry  M- Teller,  «  1877    «     1883. 

J^.  P.  llili,  "  1879     "     1885 


CHAPTEE    LXVII. 
MOTTOES  AND  KAMES  OF  THE  STATES. 

United  States — E  Plurihus  Unuin,  "Out  of  Many,  One." 

Alabama  —  Has  no  motto.  Name,  from  its  principal  river, 
jkjcans  "Here  we  rest,"  and  denotes  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Indians  with  its  agreeable  landscape  and  climate. 

Arkansas — Regnant populi — "The  people  rule."  Has  the 
Indian  name  of  its  river.     Is  called  the  "  Bear  State." 

California — Eureka,  her  Greek  motto,  means  "  I  have 
found  it."  Derives  her  name  from  the  bay  forming  the  penin- 
sula of  lower  California. 

Colorado — Latin  motto,  WU  sine  numine,  means  "  Noth- 
ing can  be  done  without  divine  aid."     Named  from  the  river. 

Connecticut — Qui  transtulit  Sustinet,  "He  who  brought 
us  over  sustains  us."  Name  from  her  river,  which  means,  in 
the  Indian  tongue,  "The  long  river."  Is  called  the  "Nutmeg 
State." 

Delaware — Motto,  Liberty  and  Independence.  Was  named 
from  Lord  Delaware,  an  English  statesman.  Is  called  "The 
Blue  Hen." 

Florida — Motto,  "  In  God  is  our  trust."  Name  from  the 
abundance  of  flowers  w^ien  discovered,  on  Easter  Sunday.  In 
Spanish  Florida  means  flowery. 

Georgia — Motto,  "Wisdom,  justice  and  moderation." 
Named  from  George  II,  King  of  England  when  it  was  settled. 

Illinois — Motto,  "  State  Sovereignty,  National  Union." 
Name  derived  from  an  Indian  tribe,  also  applied  by  them  to 
Lake  Michigan  and  her  largest  inland  river.  Means  "  We 
are  the  men."     Is  called  the  "  Sucker  State." 

Indiana — Has  no  motto.  Name  suggested  by  its  numerous 
Indian  population.     It  is  called  the  "Hoosier  State." 

Iowa — Motto,  "  Our  liberties  we  prize,  our  rights  we  will 
maintain."  Its  Indian  name  means  "  This  is  the  Land."  Is 
called  the  "  Hawk  Eye  State." 

Kansas — Motto,  Ad  astraper  aspera,  "  To  the  stars  through 
difficulties."  Name  means  "Smoky  water,"  and  is  derived 
from  one  of  her  rivers. 

(531) 


532  MOTTOES   AND   NAMES   OF   THE    STATES. 

Kentucky — Motto,  "United  we  stand,  divided  we  fall."* 
Bears  the  Indian  name  of  one  of  her  rivers.  The  Indians- 
termed  it  the  "dark  and  bloody  ground."  It  was  the  battle: 
tield  of  Northern  and  Southern  Indians.  Is  called  the  "Blue- 
Grass  State." 

Louisiana — Motto,  "Justice,  union  and  confidence."  Xamed 
from  Louis  XIV.,  King  of  France.  It  is  called  "The  Pelican 
State." 

Maine — Latin  motto,  Dirigo,  "I  direct;"  indicative  of 
sovereignty.  Was  named  for  a  province  of  France.  Is  called 
"  The  Pine  Tree  State." 

Maryland  —  Latin  motto,  Creseite  et  7nultiplicainin{y 
"  Increase  and  multiply."  I^ame  from  the  Queen  of  England, 
the  wife  of  Charles  I. 

Massachusetts — Latin  motto,  Ense  jpetit  jplacidam  sub  lib^ 
ertate  quietem^  "  By  the  sword  she  seeks  placid  rest  in  liberty," 
or  "Conquers  a  peace."  The  name  was  acquired  from  an 
Indian  tribe  and  the  bay  on  her  coast.  Is  called  the  "  Bay 
State  "  from  her  numerous  bays. 

Michigan — Latin  motto,  Tuebor,  and.  Si  quoeris  peninsu- 
lam,  arrKEnam  circumspice.  "  I  will  defend."  "  If  you 
seek  a  pleasant  peninsula,  look  around  you."  The  name  is. 
derived  from  two  Indian  words  meaning  "Great  Lake,"  by 
them  applied  to  Huron  and  Michigan  lakes.  Is  called  "  Tlie; 
Wolverine  State." 

Minnesota — French  motto,  DEtoile  du  ^ord,  "  The  Star 
of  the  North."  The  name,  meaning  whitish  water,  (foam  of 
the  falls,)  is  derived  from  the  Indians. 

MissouKi — Latin  motto,  Saliis  pojpuli  suprenia  lex  estOy 
"Let  the  welfare  of  the  people  be  the  supreme  law."  Named 
from  her  great  river.     It  means  "  Muddy  water." 

Mississippi — Has  no  motto.  It  is  named  from  the  river, 
whose  name  signifies  "The  Father  of  Waters." 

Nebraska — Motto,  "  Equality  before  the  law."  Its  name 
is  derived  from  one  of  its  rivers,  meaning  "broad  and  shallow, 
or  low." 

New  Hampshire — Has   no    motto.     It   is    named    from    a 


MOTTOES   AND  NAMES   OF    THE    STATES.  533 

county  in  England.  Familiar  name  is  "The  Old  Granite 
State." 

New  Jersey — Motto,  "  Liberty  and  Independence."  Named 
for  the  Island  of  Jersey  on  the  coast  of  England. 

New  York — Latin  motto,  Excelsior,  "  Higher."  Named 
from  the  Duke  of  York.     Is  called  "  The  Empire  State." 

North  Carolina — Has  no  motto.  It  was  named  for  Charles 
IX,  King  of  France.  It  is  called  "  The  old  North,"  or  "  The 
Turpentine  State." 

.Nevada — Latin  motto,  Yolens  et  potens,  "Willing  and 
Able."  It  was  named  from  its  mountains.  Spanish  name 
means  "  Snowy." 

Ohio — Latin  motto,  iTnperium  in  imperio,  "  An  empire  in 
■an  empire."  It  took  its  name  from  the  river  on  its  south 
boundary.     It  is  familiarly  called  "The  Buckeye  State." 

Oregon — Latin  motto,  Alis  volat  propriis,  "  She  flies  with 
her  own  wings."     Name  is  derived  from  her  principal  river. 

Pennsylvania — Motto,  "  Virtue,  liberty  and  independence." 
Named  from  Wm.  Penn,  "Penn's  woods."  Is  called  the 
■"  Keystone  State." 

Rhode  Island — Her  motto  is  "  Hope."  Named  from  the 
Island  of  Kliodes,  in  the  MediteiTanean  Sea.  Is  familiarly 
called  "  Little  Rhody." 

South  Carolina — Latin  motto,  Animis  opihusque  paratij 
"Ready  in  will  and  deed."  Has  the  Latin  name  of  Charles 
IX,  of  France  (Carolus).     Is  known  as  the  "Palmetto  State." 

Tennessee — Motto,  "  Agriculture,  Commerce."  Has  the 
Indian  name  of  one  of  her  rivers.  She  is  called  "The  Big 
Bend  State." 

Texas — Has  no  motto.  Has  preserved  its  Mexican  name. 
Is  called  "The  Lone  Star  State." 

Vermont — Motto,  "  Freedom  and  Unity."  Has  the  French 
name  of  her  mountains  (  Yerd  Mont,  "  Green  Mountains  "). 

Virginia — Latin  motto,  Sic  semper  tyrannis,  "So  always 
Avith  tyrants."  "Was  named  from  Elizabeth  of  England,  the 
*' Virgin"  Queen.     It  is  called  "The  Old  Dominion." 


534  THE   NATIONAL   DOMAIN. 

West  Yieginia — Latin  motto,  Montani  semper  lihen^ 
"  Mountaineers  are  always  free."  Retained  the  former  name^ 
when  divided  from  Virginia." 

Wisconsin — Latin  motto,  Civilitas  siiccessit  barbaruniy. 
''The  civilized  man  succeeds  the  barbarous."  Has  the  Indian 
name  of  one  of  her  rivers.     It  is  called  "  The  Badger  State." 


CHAPTEE     LXVIII. 
THE  NATIONAL  DOMAIN. 

1.  When  the  War  of  Independence  closed,  and  the  people 
and  government  had  leisure  to  look  about  them  and  estimate 
their  situation,  they  found  the  organized  States  covering  the 
coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  (then  in  possession  of 
Spain.)  There  was  no  vacant  territory  near  the  ocean;  but 
west  of  the  States  —  which  run  back  only  a  few  hundred 
miles  —  was  a  vast  region,  peopled  by  a  few  tribes  of  Indians- 
and,  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  by  a  few  hundred  whites 
These  with  singular  hardihood  and  self  reliance,  had  not  hesi- 
tated to  brave  a  thousand  perils  to  get  possession  of  the 
charming  valleys  and  fertile  savannahs  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  great  Mississippi  Valley.  The  settlements  were  made 
near  the  mountains  that  skirted  the  western  boundaries  of  the 
original  States.  'Beyond,  to  the  Mississippi  river,  extended  as- 
beautiful  and  fertile  a  territory  as  any  land  could  boast;  many 
times  larger  than  the  original  territory,  whose  people,  poor 
and  few  as  they  were,  had  fought  for  and  won  it  by  persistent 
bravery.  It  lay  in  virgin  beauty  and  wealth,  the  prize  of  their 
strong  hands  and  courageous  hearts.  Tlie  future  of  the  new 
government  once  determined,  and  the  fundamental  Law  of  the 
Land  adopted,  they  prepared  to  take  possession  by  organizing 
a  government  over  those  already  there,  surveying  and  laying 
off  the  unsettled  lands,  and  bringing  them  into  market  for 
sale  and  settlement. 

2.  The  States  had  owned  all  the  property,  and  held  all  the 


THE   NATIONAL   DOMAIN. 


real  power,  up  to  the  adoption  of  the  present  Constitution.  It 
was  now  agreed  that  the  unsettled  lands  should  be  considered 
as  the  common  property  of  the  whole  country,  and  be  admin- 
istered by  the  General  Government.  It  was  not  without  much 
difficulty,  and  many  severe  contests,  that  this  point  was  so 
settled.  There  were  two  parties;  one  headed  by  Alexander 
Hamilton  who  wished  a  strong,  consolidated  central  govern- 
ment; the  other,  afraid  to  confer  on  it  too  much  power  lest  it 
should  prove  a  tyrannical  master,  wished  to  preserve  most  of 
the  substance  of  power  in  the  State  governments.  They  were 
led  by  Thomas  Jefferson.  The  adoption  of  the  Constitution 
was  difficult,  and  the  struggle  over  it  perilous  to  the  confeder- 
ation. It  embraced  the  main  views  of  the  first  party.  But 
for  the  personal  influence  of  Washington,  who  had  presided 
over  the  Convention  that  framed  it,  and  had,  as  it  were,  been 
its  father,  it  could  not  have  received  the  approval  of  the 
majority  of  the  people.  The  people  allowed  their  fears  to  be 
overruled  by  their  trust  in  his  wisdom  and  prudence. 

He  alone  it  has  been  believed  could  have  put  its  machinery 
in  successful  operation;  and  the  admirable  manner  in  which 
the  statesmen,  in  Congress  and  the  executive  offices,  infused 
the  spirit  of  freedom  and  moderation  into  the  administration, 
following  in  the  lead  of  the  revered  "  Father  of  his  Country,'* 
settled  it  in  the  confidence  and  afiections  of  the  people. 

3.  We  have  dwelt  on  this  point  because  it  is  intimately 
related  to  the  organization  and  government  of  the  Territories, 
and  to  the  provision  made  for  the  increase  of  States.  It  was 
important  that  they  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  original 
ones,  and  there  were  no  means  of  securing  this  and  providing 
against  the  future  growth  of  governments,  differing  from  those 
of  the  original  States,  but  by  giving  the  central  power  a  gen- 
eral control  over  tliem.  The  Constitution  conferred  it  on 
Congress.  Ohio,  and  all  the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  river, 
was  obliged"  to  wait  till  this  point  was  settled,  before  it  could 
be  opened  to  the  entrance  of  emigrants.  This  region  was 
early  erected  into  a  separate  government,  by  Congress,  called 


536  THE    NATIONAL   DOMAIN. 

the  Northwest  Territory.  Tlie  region  south  of  the  river  was 
treated  in  the  same  manner  a  little  later.  In  1800  the  Missis- 
sippi Territory  was  organized;  thus  covering  all  the  ground 
originally  belonging  to  the  New  Republic.  These  were,  as 
population  increased,  divided  into  sections,  of  convenient  size 
for  the  purpose  of  local  self  government,  and  states  created  as 
fast  as  the  requisite  number  of  citizens  had  collected  within 
such  limits ;  and  the  remainder  continued  under  the  prelim- 
inary territorial  rule. 

4.  In  1802,  the  vast  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  was 
bought  of  the  French  government.  This  extended  the  National 
Domain  from  the  mouth  to  the  head  waters  of  this  river,  and 
westward,  north  of  the  Spanish  possessions,  to  the  Pacific 
ocean.  Many  new  States  and  Territories  have  been  formed 
from  it.  The  process  of  multiplication  has  not  yet  ceased  in 
this  region.  In  1819  Florida  was  purchased;  a  part  of  Mex- 
ico was  obtained  in  1848,  and  again  in  1853 ;  and  the  increase 
of  territory  continued  by  the  acquisition  of  Alaska  in  1867. 
This  policy  has  become,  in  a  manner,  traditional,  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  it  may  be  continued  to  some  extent  in  the  future. 

5.  The  government  of  the  territories  is  established  by  act 
of  Congress;  the  President  nominates  and  the  Senate  con- 
firms the  Governor,  Secretary,  and  Judges  of  the  courts;  and 
Congress  passes  all  the  general  laws  for  the  government  of  the 
inhabitants.  A  Territorial  Legislature  is  elected  by  the 
inhabitants,  which  takes  charge  of  all  the  local  interests  of  the 
Territory.  All  these  laws  and  organizations  are  temporary, 
and  pass  away  when  a  State  government  is  founded.  Com- 
monly, an  act  of  Congress  authorizes  the  election  of  Delegates 
to  a  Convention  for  framing  a  State  Constitution ;  though  the 
Territorial  Government  sometimes  takes  the  initiative.  This 
constitution  is  then  submitted  to  the  popular  vote  of  the  citi- 
zens in  the  Territory;  and  if  they  favor  it,  presented  to  Con- 
gress for  its  approval.  If  it  is  in  harmony  with  our  usages, 
and  republican  principles,  Congress  accepts  it,  and,  if  the 
President  does  not  see  cause  to  veto  it,  a  new  State  has  come 


THE    INDIVIDUAL    TERRITORIES,  537 

Into  existence.     In  this  manner  tlie  number  of  the  States  has 
*"'ecome  nearly  three  times  as  numerous  as  at  the  beginning. 


CHAPTEE    LXIX. 

THE   INDIYIDUAL   TERRITOEIES. 

The  territories  are  here  arranged  in  the  order  of  seniority, 
the  one  which  first  received  a  territorial  government  taking 
the  lead.  T!ie  District  of  Columbia  is  older  than  any  of  them 
as  acknowledged  ISTational  property,  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
having  been  made  since  it  was  ceded  to  the  general  Govern- 
ment; but  it  was  the  last  to  receive  a  territorial  organization, 
Oongress  governing  it  directly  without  giving  it  representation 
antil  1871.     It  is  placed  last  for  that  reason. 

NEW   MEXICO 

"Was  visited  at  an  early  period  by  Spaniards,  who,  excited 
by  the  success  of  the  followers  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro  in  dis- 
sovering  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  sought  the  wealth  in 
the  dangers  and  hardships  of  travel  which  is  more  often,  if 
more  slowly,  found  as  the  reward  of  patient  toil.  An  expe- 
■dition  from  Florida  made  the  formidable  overland  journey  to 
New  Mexico,  in  1537;  and  another  from  Mexico,  after  visiting 
the  Gila  River,  passed  eastward  beyond  the  Eio  Grande  in 
1540.  In  1581  its  mineral  wealth  became  known  and  a  mission 
was  attempted;  but  no  settlement  was  made  until  1600,  when 
formal  possession  was  taken  by  an  adequate  army.  The  mis- 
sions now  became  very  successful  and  the  mines  were  worked. 
Many  of  the  natives  were  considerably  advanced  in  some  of 
the  arts  of  civilization.  In  1680  the  natives  revolted,  from 
the  severe  servitude  to  which  they  were  subjected,  and  drove 
the  Spaniards  out  of  the  country.  They  only  recovered  it  in 
1698.  It  was  never  very  numerously  peopled  by  whites.  In 
1846  it  was  conquered  by  General  Kearney,  and  in  1848  ceded 
to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.     The 


b'SS  NEW    MEXIC( 

difficulties  of  transportation  and  the  nild  and  lawless  char- 
acter of  the  inhabitants  has  prevented  any  extensive  emigra- 
tion to  it  by  Americans.  It  is  an  elevated  table-land,  nearly 
7,000  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  seu,  crossed  by  several 
ranges  of  mountains  sometimes  rising  10,000  feet  above  the 
general  surface  of  the  country.  The  atmosphere  is  dry;  little 
rain  falls;  and  agriculture  is  usually  successful  only  with  irri 
gation.  In  the  valleys,  where  this  is  employed,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  is  marvelous.  Often  two  crops  are  raised,  on  the 
same  land,  in  the  year.  Wheat  and  other  gniiiis  are  raised  h 
great  perfection.  Cotton  is  successful  in  some  parts,  fruit  can 
be  raised  in  abundance,  and  the  soil  is  said  to  be  specially 
favorable  to  the  grape,  the  wine  rivaling  that  of  France. 

Gold  and  silver  abound,  but  the  mines  have  never  been 
effectively  worked  for  want  of  transportation  and  the  requisite 
capital.  Stock  raising  is  a  profitable  occupation  in  this  Terri- 
tory. Much  of  the  land  unfit  for  cultivation  produces  gras? 
which  cures  in  drying  during  the  hot  months,  and  preserres 
all  its  nutricious  qualities.  Sheep  and  mules  are  extensively 
raised.  When  the  Pacific  railroad  shall  open  the  country  to 
immigration,  and  order,  industry,  and  capital  make  the  most 
of  its  resources,  it  will  be  ranked  among  the  favored  parts 
of  the  Union. 

It  has  many  natural  curiosities,  and  much  wild  and  beauti- 
ful scenery.  The  length  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  its  windings 
in  the  Territory,  is  about  1200  miles;  and  its  valley  from  one 
to  twelve  miles  wide.  Its  Territorial  government  was  organ- 
ized in  1850.  The  population,  in  1870,  was  91,874.  Many 
tribes  of  Indians  roam  over  the  territory  and  through  Texas, 
Arizona,  and  northern  Mexico.  Most  of  the  people  are  Roman 
Catholics.  It  includes  an  area  of  about  100,000  square  miles. 
Every  free  white  male  inhabitant  living  in  the  territory  at  the 
time  of  its  organization  had  the  right  of  suffrage,  that  right 
being  regulated  in  other  respects  by  its  legifilative*  Assemblj  • 


ITTAH.  531) 

UTAH 

"Was  formerly  a  part  of  the  Mexican  territory  of  Upper  Cal- 
ifornia, and  was  acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1848,  by  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  It  was  too  distant,  desolate, 
and  dangerous  a  region  for  much  settlement  by  Mexicans,  and 
has  little  known  history  anterior  to  the  explorations  of  Fre- 
mont between  1843  and  1846. 

The  first  American  settlement  was  made  by  the  Mormons, 
in  July,  1847,  and  was  supposed  by  them  to  be  out  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  possible 
interference.  Here,  in  the  depths  of  the  desert,  they  deter- 
mined to  build  up  a  peculiar  religious  society  embracing 
customs  opposed  to  the  views  and  institutions  of  the  United 
States.  Their  success  was  a  surprise  to  the  world,  and 
probably  to  themselves;  the  capacity  of  the  depths  of  the 
Great  American  Desert,  as  it  was  called,  for  cultivation, 
exceeding  all  previous  expectation.  But  the  war  with  Mexico, 
then  in  progress,  threw  this,  before  inaccessible,  desert  into  the 
limits  of  the  American  Union;  and  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
the  neighboring  territory  of  California,  throwing  them  almost 
midway  between  the  old  western  settlements  and  the  new  Eldo- 
rado, subjected  them  to  contact  with,  and  interference  by,  the 
tide  of  modern  civilization,  as  it  flowed  toward  the  setting 
sun ;  and  in  ten  years  from  their  first  appearance  in  the  Great 
Central  Basin  of  the  continent,  they  came  again  into  hostile 
conflict  with  the  established  authorities  they  thought  to  have 
finally  escaped.  Their  conflict  with  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, whose  customs  and  prejudices  were  at  variance  with 
their  own,  was  deferred  by  the  troubles  which  precipitated  the 
civil  war;  and  their  institutions  remain  substantially  unaltered 
to  the  present  time.  The  Pacific  Eailroad  is  now  built  through 
their  territory.  What  changes  will  be  brought  about  in  con- 
sequence of  the  immigration  which  is  taking  place  by  means 
of  the  facilities  thus  afforded,  time  alone  can  tell. 


540  WASHINGTON   TERRITORY. 

Utah  was  organized  as  a  territory  by  act  of  Congress  Sept. 
9tli,  1850.  Brighain  Young,  the  head  of  the  Mormon  church, 
became  the  first  governor.  In  185i  it  was  vainly  attempted  to 
remove  him;  and  in  1857  an  army  was  sent  to  enforce  Federal 
authority.  A  final  conflict  was  avoided  by  compromise.  In 
1862  the  Mormons  attempted  to  get  admission  into  the  Union 
as  a  State,  with  their  "  peculiar  institutions,"  but  failed.  A 
Territorial  Government  exists,  and  will  probably  remain  such 
while  the  Mormons  are  large  in  numbers.  According  to  the 
habits  of  our  people,  conflict  is  avoided  so  far  as  possible,  to 
await  the  more  peaceable  and  natural  solution  of  the  difticulty. 

Utah  is  unique  in  one  respect;  though  lying  nearly  a  mile 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  having  a  complete  system  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  there  is  no  visible  connection  of  these  with 
the  ocean.  It  is  a  continent  embosomed  within  the  depths  of 
a  continent.  The  Great  Salt  Lake  is  100  miles  long  by  50 
broad,  and  its  waters  are  very  salt — three  parts  of  the  water 
producing  one  of  pure  salt.  No  fish  can  live  in  it.  It  receives 
the  contents  of  many  considerable  streams.  Whether  they  are 
kept  in  subjection  by  evaporation  alone,  or  have  a  concealed 
outlet  to  the  ocean  is  unknown.  Tlie  soil,  though  in  its  natu- 
ral state  an  apparent  desert,  is  extremely  fertile  when  irri- 
gated, and  produces  wheat  and  other  cereals  in  great  profu- 
sion. Its  mountains  are  believed  to  be  rich  in  silver  and  gold ; 
but  the  mines  are  as  yet  undeveloped,  very  little  having 
been  done  in  that  direction. 

Cotton  is  highly  successful  in  the  southern  settlements,  and 
experiments  with  fiax  and  silk  culture  have  been  very  favora- 
ble.    The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy. 

Utah  is  a  highly  promising  section  of  our  national  domain. 
Its  population  in  1870  was  86,786 ;  its  area  about  87,500  square 
miles. 

WASHINGTON   TERKITOKY 

Was  organized  in  1853,  and  then  contained  a  much  larger 
area.      It  was  at  first  a  part  of  Oregon,  and  its  meagre  early 


WASHINGTON    TERRITORY.  54J 

history  was  the  same.  The  Straits  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  were 
visited  and  named  by  a  Spanish  navigator  in  1775.  The  Eng- 
lish government  claimed  the  territory  north  of  the  Columbia 
and  for  some  years  there  was  a  joint  occupation  by  both  nations 
by  special  agreement.  The  difficulties  concerning  this  boun- 
dary came  near  involving  the  two  nations  in  war,  but  it  was 
settled  in  1846,  giving  the  United  States  the  territory  to  the 
49th  parallel  of  latitude,  Vancouver  Island  was  assigned  to 
Great  Britain. 

Washington  is  estimated  to  contain,  west  of  the  Columbia 
river,  where  it  flows  down  from  British  America,  22,000  square 
miles  of  arable  land.  There  is  much  that  is  adapted  only  to 
grazing,  and  vast  quantities  covered  with  forests  in  the  wild 
mountain  regions  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  territory. 

It  has  an  almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  coal,  and  more  or 
less  of  the  precious  metals.  The  great  distinction  of  Wash- 
ington territory  is  its  forests.  The  warm  ocean  currents  from 
the  Indian  ocean,  after  traversing  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asia, 
are  thrown  across  the  North  Pacific  against  the  western  shores 
of  North  America,  and  effect  an  important  modification  in  the 
severity  and  humidity  of  the  temperature  of  our  Pacific  slope. 
The  climate  is  much  milder  and  more  equable  than  in  the 
same  latitude  east  of  the  mountains,  and  the  moisture  is  highly 
favorable  to  forest  growth.  It  is  the  best  ship  building  timber 
in  the  world.  The  trees  are  immense,  often  reaching  a  height 
of  300  feet  with  a  diameter  of  8  to  12  feet. 

The  portion  of  Washington  territory  lying  west  of  the  Cas- 
cade mountains  is  rich  farming  land,  heavily  timbered ;  while 
east  of  the  Cascades  the  country  is  open  prairie,  well  watered, 
with  small  and  thinly  wooded  valleys.  The  land  immediately 
about  Puget  Sound  is  sandy;  not  valuable  for  farming  though 
producing  timber,  but  a  little  way  back  is  unrivaled  in  richness. 

Corn  does  not  thrive  well,  but  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  &c,,  are 
very  prolific.  Large  quantities  of  butter,  cheese,  and  wool  are 
produced.  There  is  little  snow  in  the  winter  and  that  soon 
melts  away,  except  far  up  in  the   mountains.      Washington 


542 


WASHINOTOX   TKRUTTOIJV 


f hares  with  Oregon  the  possession  and  use  of  the  Cohimbia 
river.  There  are  fine  fisheries  on  the  coast  and  excellent  oys- 
ters, and  these  produce  a  considerable  trade.'  Immense  quanti- 
ties of  lumber  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
both  North  and  South  America,  and  even  to  Buenos  Ayres  on 
the  South  Atlantic.  The  French  come  here  for  their  best  and 
cheapest  masts  and  spars.  Thus  we  see  that  this  corner  of  the 
Republic  brings  to  the  common  stock  of  national  treasures 
some  of  its  best  and  most  valuable  material  of  wealth,  and  is 
prepared  to  whiten  the  Pacific  with  the  sails  of  the  unlimited 
commerce  which  is  already  beginning  to  grow  up  between  us 
and  the  Asiatics.  Puget  Sound  can  float  with  ease  the  navies 
of  the  world  on  its  peaceful  bosom.  The  l^orthern  Pacific 
railroad  will  originate  here,  probably,  another  great  commer- 
cial emporium.  Washington  will,  in  due  time,  become  a  great 
Hnd  wealthy  State. 

Its  area  is  about  70,000  square  miles;  and  the  popuration 
in  18'?0  was  23,955. 


DACOTAH.  543 


DACOTAH. 

This  territory  received  an  organization  and  government  in 
186I.  It  contains  240,000  square  miles;  and  is  greater  in 
extent  than  all  'New  England  together  with  the  great  and 
wealthy  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania;  and  possesses 
some  peculiar  advantages. 

The  Missouri  Riv^er  passes  from  southeast  to  northwest 
diagonally  through  it,  navigable  for  its  whole  length,  a  distance 
■of  more  than  a  thousand  miles;  the  Ked  River  of  the  North 
skirts  its  eastern  line,  its  valley  being  unrivalled  for  its  rich- 
ness, and  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  wheat.  Except  the 
extreme  northern  part  it  is  said  to  have  the  dry,  pure,  and 
healthy  climate  of  Southern  Minnesota,  with  the  soil  of  Cen- 
tral Illinois. 

It  is  free  from  the  damp,  raw,  and  chilly  weather  prevailing 
in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  and  from  the  embarrassments  to  agricul- 
ture often  experienced  in  these  States  from  excessive  spring 
rains ;  while,  in  late  spring  and  early  summer,  copious  showers 
supply  sufficient  moisture  to  promote  a  rapid  vegetable  growth. 
The  surface  east  and  north  of  the  Missouri  is  an  undulating 
prairie,  free  from  marsh,  swamp,  and  slough,  traversed  by 
many  streams  and  dotted  with  innumerable  lakes,  of  various 
sizes,  whose  woody  and  rocky  shores  and  gravel  bottoms  supply 
the  purest  water,  and  lend  the  enchantment  of  extreme  beauty 
to  the  landscape. 

It  has  all  the  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  and  transportation, 
for  the  most  profitable  pi-oduction  of  the  two  great  staples  of 
American  agriculture,  wheat  and  corn.     West  of  the  Missouri 


544  AEIZONA. 

the  country  becomes  more  rolling,  then  broken  td  hilly,  until 
the  lofty  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  reached.  These 
mountains  cross  the  southwestern  section.  A  most  desirable 
stock  raising  region  is  furnished  here,  and  mining  will  flourish 
in  the  mountains.  In  1870  it  had  a  population  of  14,181. 
Yankton  is  the  capital. 

ARIZONA. 

The  Spaniards  visited  the  valley  of  the  Colorado  at  an  early 
day;  but  the  distance  from  Mexico,  and  the  warlike  character 
of  the  Indians,  did  not  favor  settlement  beyond  what  was 
gathered  about  the  few  missions  that  were  constructed  so  as 
to  answer  for  fortresses. 

The  part  of  this  territory  lying  between  Sonora,  (of  which  it 
formed  part,)  and  California  was  acquired  to  the  United  States- 
by  the  Gadsden  treaty,  made  with  Mexico  Dec.  30th,  1853. 
The  American  government  paid  $10,000,000  for  it.  A  Terri- 
torial government  was  organized  Feb.  24th,  1863,  and  embraced 
part  of  IS^ew  Mexico,  containing,  altogether,  an  area  of  121,000 
square  miles,  or  77,440,000  acres. 

EiForts  had  been  made  previously  to  settle  the  country  and 
develop  its  mines;  and  an  overland  mail  stage  route  was 
established.  This  proved  a  success;  but  the  fierce  hostility  of 
the  Apache  Indians,  and  the  desperate  character  of  such  whites 
as  had  gathered  there,  fleeing  from  justice  in  California  and 
Sonora,  discouraged  the  immigration  of  law-abiding  citizens; 
and  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  withdrew  the  soldiers 
in  garrison  there  for  the  protection  of  the  country.  After  the 
war  the  main  stream  of  emigration  followed  the  line  of  the 
newly  opened  Pacific  railroad.  The  development  of  the  mines 
required  capital  and  machinery  and,  though  they  are  thought 
to  be  the  richest  in  the  world,  nothing  could  be  extracted  from 
them  by  individuals  without  means.  So  the  population  has 
increased  slowly,  the  census  of  1870  giving  9,658. 

It  is  a  strange  and  somewhat  fearful  land;  in  great  part  a 
region  of  desolate  mountains  and  deep  cafions.      There  are 


IDAHO.  54r, 

many  sections  susceptible  of  cultivation  that  would  produce 
immense  returns  under  irrigation,  but  most  of  the  efforts  in 
tliis  direction  have  miscarried  from  the  desolating  ravages  of 
the  Indians.  The  rainless  season  reduces  the  -whole  country 
to  the  semblance  of  a  desert.  It  is,  however,  declared  to  have 
more  arable  land  in  proportion  to  its  surface  than  New  Mexico, 
or  California;  and  will  probably,  in  time,  have  a  large  and 
prosperous  farming  community.  Cotton  is  easily  cultivated, 
and  sugar  cane,  in  the  lower  parts,  produces  abundantly. 
Grains,  vegetables,  and  melons  are  produced  in  the  greatest 
possible  perfection,  and  mature  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of 
time. 

When  the  Apaches  are  subdued,  and  society  is  reduced  to 
order,  it  will  become  a  favorite  resort  of  the  thrifty  farmers  of 
the  older  States,  and  the  diligent  German  and  other  foreign 
immigrants. 

It  contains  many  traces  of  a  race  that  has  disappeared ;  some 
of  their  dwellings  yet  remaining  in  a  partially  ruinous  state. 
They  were  probably  Aztecs,  the  race  that  ruled  Mexico  before 
the  conquest  by  Cortez,  or  are  more  ancient  still.  Hideous 
idols  are  found,  and  various  indications  of  a  barbarous  worship. 

The  completion  of  the  Southern  Pacific  railway  will  intro- 
duce the  hum  of  industry  among  its  desolate  mountains  and 
along  its  numerous  fertile  valleys,  and  the  acquisition  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Colorado,  a  large  river  opening  into  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  California,  will  give  it  a  profitable  commerce. 
Arizona  lies  south  of  Utah,  to  which  it  is  superior  in  the  num- 
ber and  size  of  its  streams,  its  larger  quantity  of  timber,  and 
the  amount  of  rain-fall  in  some  parts,  which  is  deemed,  in 
some  sections,  sufficient  to  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  irri- 
gation. 

IDAHO. 

This  territory  was  organized  March  3rd,  1863.     It  originally 
embraced  a  vast  territory  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  main  chain 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains;   but  the  eastern  portion  has  since 
35 


546  MONTANA   TEEEITOEY. 

been  erected  into  the  territory  of  Montana.  It  has  about 
90,000  square  miles  of  territory,  and  had,  in  1870,  14,999 
inhabitants. 

Idaho  has  very  little  history  prior  to  the  organization  of  its 
Territorial  government.  Its  chief  attraction  to  settlers  lies  in 
its  mines,  as  yet,  and  the  population  is  floating,  and,  in  large 
part,  rough  and  sometimes  disorderly.  The  difficulty  of  reach- 
ing it  has  prevented  its  rapid  growth.  It  is  exceedingly  rich 
in  the  precious  metals  and  this  will,  in  time,  attract  a  large 
population.  The  eastern  and  northern  parts  are  very  mountain- 
ous, abounding  in  wild  and  striking  scenery  and  in  natural 
curiosities.  The  soil  in  the  southern,  central,  and  western 
parts,  is  fertile,  producing  wheat  and  other  small  grain,  and 
vegetables  very  successfully,  but  is  unfavorable  for  corn  from 
the  late  frosts  of  spring  and  the  early  cold  of  autumn.  Snow 
falls  to  a  great  depth  in  the  mountains;  but  the  streams  are 
numerous,  and  there  is  much  choice  farming  land,  which  may, 
ultimately,  serve  to  support  its  mining  population. 

It  runs  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Utah  to  the  south 
line  of  British  America;  Washington  Territory  and  Oregon, 
lying  west.  When  railroads  shall  render  it  accessible,  and  open 
the  way  for  its  treasures  to  a  market,  it  will  be  filled  with  an 
industrious  and  hardy  population  who  will  find  all  the  ele- 
ments of  a  prosperity  as  great  as  any  section  of  the  Union 
enjoys.  It  has  three  beautiful  lakes — the  Coeur  d' Aline,  the 
Pen  d'Oreille,  and  the  Boatman — of  some  size,  and  navigable 
for  steamers.     Boise  City  is  the  capital. 

MONTANA  TEEEITOEY 

Was  organized  May  26th,  1864.  It  lies  among  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  in  part  on  the  western  slope,  but  extending  into  the 
eastern  valleys;  and  contains  the  sources  of  the  streams  form- 
ing the  Missouri  river;  while  Idaho  lies  west  among  the  Blue 
mountains  where  the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia  rise. 

Montana  abounds  in  mines  of  gold  and  silver;  and  these  are 
said  to  be  much  richer  than  those  of  California.     The  average 


ALASKA   TEERITORY. 


647 


jield  of  ores  in  the  latter  State  is  $20  per  ton,  but  the  average  in 
Montana  is  stated  to  be  four  times  that  amount.  Great  as  is 
the  yield  of  gold  mines  here  it  is  declared  that  the  ease  with 
which  silver  is  separated  from  its  combinations  in  the  ore  will 
make  that  branch  of  mining  more  profitable.  Copper  also 
abounds.  This  territory  has  several  eminent  advantages  over 
other  mining  districts.  It  is  reached  by  steamboats  on  the 
Missouri  river,  from  St.  Louis,  without  transhipment:  naviga- 
tion being  free  to  Ft.  Benton,  in  the  heart  of  Montana.  The 
river  voyage  from  St.  Louis  to  Ft.  Benton,  is  made  in  28  days. 

There  is  a  large  and  constant  supply  of  water,  a  point  of 
great  difficulty  in  most  of  the  other  raining  regions;  and  the 
country  everywhere  furnishes  easy  natural  roads,  the  principal 
range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  not  presenting  the  broken  and 
rugged  character  of  most  other  ranges.  Associated  with  this 
point  is  the  important  fact  of  great  agricultural  capability.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  grazing  regions  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
Small  grain  and  fruit  are  grown  with  the  greatest  ease,  as  also 
the  moi-e  important  vegetables.  There  is  abundance  of  timber 
for  all  purposes  of  home  consumption. 

The  area  is  stated  at  153,800  square  miles.  The  population 
in  1870  was  20,595. 

ALASKA   TERRITORY 

"Was  acquired  to  the  United  States  by  treaty  with  Russia  in 
the  year  1867,  for  $7,200,000.  It  is  a  vast  region  containing 
577,390  square  miles,  with  29,097  inhabitants. 

It  was  first  explored  by  command  of  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  in  1728.  A  government  was  first  established  on  Kodiak 
island  in  1790.  In  1799  the  Russian  American  fur  company 
was  chartered  by  the  Emperor  Paul. 

The  northern  portion  is  a  tolerably  compact  body  of  mainly 
level  country  about  600  miles  square,  and  a  line  of  coast  runs 
south  for  a  long  distance,  including  many  islands.  The  Aleu- 
tian group  of  islands  is  included.  The  principal  vahie  of  the 
region  to  Russia  was  the  fur  trade.     The  annual  export  of  these 


548  WYOMING   TERRITORY. 

amounted  to  only  a  few  hundred  thousand  dollars.  American 
thrift  will  probably  make  much  more  of  it. 

The  country  is  much  warmer  than  its  high  latitude  would 
seem  to  imply — Sitka  in  the  southern  part  having  about  the 
same  mean  temperature,  by  the  thermometer,  as  Washington! 
It  is,  however,  extremely  damp.  In  one  year  there  were  counted 
only  66  entire  days  without  rain  or  snow.  The  coast  is  broken 
with  mountains.  The  peninsula  of  Alaska  has  some  very  high 
mountains — Mt.  St.  Elias  and  Mt.  Fairweather  being  esti- 
mated at  15,000  to  18,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  islands  of 
the  Aleutian  group  are  volcanic  in  origin.  There  are  several 
rivers,  the  largest,  the  Yukon,  or  Kwickpak  being  2,000  miles 
long,  and  navigable  for  1,500  miles.  There  are  vast  supplies 
of  timber,  much  being  pine,  found  nowhere  else  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Yegetables,  and  some  grains,  may  be  raised  without 
difiiculty,  and  the  soil,  in  parts,  is  rich.  Abundant  supplies 
of  coal  are  believed  to  exist.  The  precious  metals  and  iron,  it 
is  thought,  are  to  be  found  there,  but  the  country  has  been  very 
im.  perfectly  explored. 

In  the  lively  and  extensive  trade  that  is  likely  to  grow  up 
with  Japan,  China,  and  the  East  Indies,  it  will  no  doubt  be 
found  of  great  value,  and  its  resources  contribute  to  the  wealth 
of  our  country. 

WYOMING  TERRITOEY 

Was  organized  by  act  of  Congress  July  25th,  1868,  and  is 
tlio  youngest  of  the  territories.  Its  area  is  stated  at  100,500 
square  miles,  and  it  had  a  population,  in  1870,  of  9,118. 

The  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  it,  to  which  its  settle- 
ment is  probably  mainly  due.  Montana  lies  on  the  north; 
Dacotah  and  Nebraska  on  the  east;  Colorado  and  Utah  on  the 
south,  with  the  northern  part  of  Utah  and  Idaho  on  the  west. 

The  main  chain  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  crosses  it  from 
northwest  to  southeast  which  maintain  here  the  same  general 
characteristic  as  in  Montana,  viz.:  that  of  a  rolling  upland. 
Its  outlying  ranges  are  more  broken.     Most  of  the  country  is 


DISTRICT   OF    COLUMBIA.  549 

good  arable,  or  grazing  land,  sufficiently  fertile  to  give  excel- 
lent returns  for  labor,  though,  in  large  part,  requiring  irriga- 
tion. A  few  regions  are  remarkably  sterile,  but  they  are 
limited  in  comparison  with  the  fertile  lands. 

Gold  mining  has  been  successful,  to  a  considerable  extent; 
coal  is  extremely  abundant  and  accessible;  the  supplies  for  the 
Pacific  railroad  being  obtained  in  this  territory.  Iron  has  been 
found  in  considerable  quantities,  together  with  lead  and  copper 
ores.     Oil  and  salt  springs  promise  to  be  productive. 

Thus  without,  as  yet,  developing  any  eminent  specialty,  the 
resources  of  this  Territory  seem  to  promise  all  the  requisites 
of  prosperity  to  a  large  population;  while  the  climate  is  mild 
and  extremely  healthy,  and  the  great  thoroughfare  between  the 
east  and  the  west  furnishes  all  necessary  facilities  for  transport- 
ing its  supplies  to  the  best  markets.  More  intimate  knowledge 
of  its  mineral  deposits  may  perhaps  give  it  a  higher  rank  as  a 
mining  State. 

THE  DISTEICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

The  first  Congress  convened  under  the  new  Constitution  in 
1789,  held  its  session  in  New  York.  The  seat  of  government 
was  then  removed  to  Philadelphia.  There  was  much  dissen- 
sion as  to  where  it  should  be  permanently  located.  The  North 
and  the  South,  were  each  equally  obstinate  in  their  desire  to 
locate  it  in  their  own  section,  and  the  quarrel  threatened  a 
rupture  of  the  confederacy.  The  great  political  question  of  the 
time  was  the  debts  of  the  States  contracted  in  carrying  on  the 
War  of  Independence.  The  South,  disliking  a  strong  cen- 
tral government,  opposed  giving  the  charge  of  the  finances 
of  the  country  into  its  hands;  while  the  North,  strongly 
approved  the  plan  of  clothing  it  with  authority  to  concentrate 
the  strength  of  the  nation  to  a  reasonable  extent,  so  that  it 
might  be  able  to  act  with  vigor,  and  make  the  country  for- 
midable to  its  enemies.  The  reservation  of  as  much  power  as 
possible  to  the  individual  States  was  a  vital  question  with  the 
South,  since  it  wished  to  maintain  Slavery.,  and  it  was  always 


650  ANNEXATION    POLICY. 

foreseen  that  the  north  must  preponderate,  ultimately,  in  the 
general  government;  and  the  north  was  unfriendly  to  slavery. 
The  Constitution  could  make  its  way  in  the  South  only  by 
compromise  as  to  slavery. 

The  question  was  a  very  difficult  and  delicate  one  to  adjust, 
but  with  much  tact  Jeiferson  and  Hamilton,  usually  antago- 
nists in  politics,  united  to  urge  a  compromise;  the  North 
conceding  the  location  of  the  national  capital,  and  the  South 
the  assumption,  by  the  general  government,  of  the  State  debts. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1790,  and  Washington  selected  the 
sfte  on  his  own  Potomac,  Virginia  and  Maryland  uniting  to 
give  a  tract  ten  miles  square,  extending  to  both  sides  of  the 
river.  A  new  city  was  laid  out,  and  buildings  erected  which 
were  occupied  for  the  first  time  in  1800.  This  small  territory, 
the  government  and  control  of  which  was  lodged  wholly  in 
Congress,  was  called  "  Columbia."  This  possession  of  its  own 
capital  was  considered  important  in  order  to  avoid  a  possible 
conflict  of  Federal  and  State  authority. 

The  capital  city  was  located  on  the  Maryland  side,  and 
called  Washington.  The  territory  on  the  Virginia  side  waa 
in  1846,  re-ceded  to  Virginia.  On  Feb.  21st,  1871,  the  District 
was  made  a  territory,  with  a  legislature  for  its  internal  gov- 
ernment, and  the  right  to  be  represented  by  one  member  in 
the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  population  in  1870  was  131,700.  Washington  is 
adorned  with  many  immense  buildings  erected  for  the  various 
departments  of  the  government,  and  the  capito?  itself  is  one 
of  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  cost  $5,000,000.  It  is  worthy 
of  the  great  nation  represented  in  its  halls. 


CHAPTER    LXX. 

THE  ANNEXATION  POLICY. 

1.    The  original  States  of  the  American  Union  were  9II  on 
die  Atlantic  seaboard.    The  central  States  were  separated  frow 


ANNEXATION   POLICY.  551 

the.  fertile  valleys  and  plains  of  tlie  Mississippi  and  its  tribn- 
taries  by  mountains,  while  those  lying  at  the  northern  and 
southern  extreme  found,  in  the  vast  forests  filled  with  fierce 
and  hostile  savages,  a  still  greater  barrier  against  settlement 
westward.  The  "  Old  Thirteen  "  found  their  hands  and  thousrhts 
sufficiently  occupied  with  the  establishment  of  their  liberties, 
and  the  ultimate  western  boundaries  of  the  country  were  left 
to  be  settled  in  future  years.  Fortunately  for  us  England  was 
too  much  occupied  with  the  immense  debt  the  useless  Amer- 
ican war  had  cost  her  to  make  difficulties  over  the  cession 
of  the  western  regions  to  us  ;  and,  at  the  peace,  we  were  in 
possession  of  the  whole  region  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the 
Mississippi  river.  That  was  enough  and  more  for  the  present; 
but  the  people  were  enterprising.  We  offered  a  home,  freedom, 
and  great  opportunities  to  the  oppressed  and  poor  of  other 
lands,  and  that  region  was  soon  sufficiently  peopled  to  show 
what  other  regions  were  required  to  secure  the  prosperity 
of  all. 

2.  It  soon  became  clear  that  the  development  of  the  West- 
ern States  east  of  the  Mississippi  required  the  possession  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  river  and  the  territory  on  its  western  bank. 
Circumstances  were  favorable  to  its  acquisition,  and  Louisiana, 
extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  far  up  toward  its  head 
waters,  including  several  hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  as 
valuable  land  as  was  to  be  found  on  the  continent,  was  pur- 
chased. It  entered  into  the  vindictive  policy  of  I^apoleon 
Bonaparte  to  injure  England  by  strengthening  America,  and  it 
was  obtained  for  the  comparatively  insignificant  sum  of  fifteen 
million  dollars.  This  annexation  was  altogether  essential  to 
the  security  and  development  of  the  larger  part  of  the  original 
territory. 

3.  Florida  was  discovered  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
claimed  the  coast  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Mississippi 
river.  Though  it  was  not  commercially  or  agriculturally 
important  to  us,  it  became  in  the  hands  of  a  power  not  very 
friendly,  the  support  and  refuge  of  the  barbarous  and  resolutely 


552 


AIOIEXATIOIT   POLICT. 


hostile  Indians  of  our  southern  border.  It  was  necessary  to 
nearly  exterminate  them  to  obtain  peace,  but  no  absolute  secu- 
rity could  be  assured  while  the  Spanish  territory  protected  them 
in  their  retreat  before  our  armies.  Peace,  security  against  the 
Indians,  and  freedom  from  the  intermeddling  of  a  European 
Power  required  the  acquisition  of  that  peninsula  and  the  Gulf 
Coast.  After  twenty  years  of  occasional  negotiation  it  was 
purchased  for  five  millions  of  dollars.  This  was  the  most  con- 
venient way,  also,  of  settling  an  account  for  spoliations  on  our 
commerce  which  we  held  against  Spain,  and  the  only  means 
she  then  possessed  of  making  payment.  Thus  another  annexa- 
tion was  made  under  the  pressure  of  circumstances. 

4.  By  this  time  a  sufficient  degree  of  expansion  and  strength 
had  been  acquired  by  the  ISTew  Nation  to  inspire  in  it  great 
confidence  in  itself  and  grand  views  of  its  future,  and  the 
"Monroe  Doctrine,"  that  the  United  States  would  refrain  from 
all  meddling  with  the  politics  of  Europe,  but  would  resolutely 
oppose  the  meddling  of  any  European  power  with  the  politics 
of  this  continent,  was  adopted.  This  doctrine  did  not  propose 
any  interference  with  other  governments  already  established 
here,  but  America  was  to  be  left  to  its  present  possessors,  and 
European  ambition  was  to  look  elsewhere  for  kingdoms  to 
conquer  or  found.  A  tacit  protectorate  over  all  America  was 
assumed,  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  any  other  element 
that  might  build  up  a  system  hostile  to  our  interests  and  pro- 
gress. It  was  a  legitimate  conclusion  from  the  principles  and 
necessities  that  had  led  to  the  inauguration  o^  the  annexation 
policy.  The  nation  claimed  that  it  had  a  right  to  keep  the 
ground  clear  from  obstacles  to  its  natural  development.  It 
was  a  system  of  growth  and  protection  involving  no  ideas  of 
conquest  by  force,  and  no  menace  to  governments  already 
established. 

5.  The  third  addition  to  our  territorial  area  took  place 
tinder  circumstances  which  all  true  Americans  will  ever  regret. 
If  stated  by  our  enemies  it  would  be  said  that,  after  encourag- 
ing the  settlement  of  the  territory  of  a  neighbor  by  our  own 


ANNEXATION   POLICY.  553 

citizens,  and  giving  them  covert  support  in  withdrawing  that 
territory  from  its  proper  owners,  we  took  possession  of  it,  and 
when  thej  naturally  undertook  to  protect,  or  recover  it,  we 
made  a  war  of  invasion  on  them,  employed  our  superior  skill 
and  vigor  to  disarm  their  State,  and  took  as  much  more  of  their 
territory  as  suited  our  purposes  ;  in  short,  that  we  picked  a 
quarrel,  and  being  the  strongest  bound  and  robbed  them. 

6.  It  cannot  be  agreeable  to  lovers  of  justice  and  defenders 
of  equal  rights,  that  there  should  be  so  much  of  truth  in  this 
statement  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  clearly  and  distinctly 
j)rove  tlie  contrary.  There  was,  however,  an  element  of  the 
necessary  and  unavoidable,  even  in  this,  that  was  more  in  har- 
mony with  the  previous  system  of  acquisition  than  appeared 
on  the  surface.  Texas  presented,  perhaps,  the  finest  climate 
and  the  greatest  facilities  for  money-making  on  the  continent. 
Tlie  Mexicans  inherited  the  religion  and  hatred  of  protestants 
with  the  haughty,  repelling  spirit  of  the  Spaniards,  and  wished 
to  preserve  the  old  Spanish  policy  of  separating  themselves 
from  us  by  a  broad  barrier  of  desert  and  wilderness.  They  did 
not  wish  to  settle  Texas  themselves,  nor  feel  willing  that  any 
one  else  should.  It  is  inevitable  that  enterprise  and  strength, 
impelled  by  self-interest,  will  disregard  such  wishes.  Ameri- 
cans are  neither  perfect  nor  magnanimous  enough  to  stand  on 
ceremony  when  their  interests  are  concerned.  The  best  that 
can  be  said  of  them  is  that  they  are  more  moderate  and  self- 
contained  than  any  other  people.  The  necessities  of  the  insti- 
tution of  slavery  required  more  territory  to  balance  the  rapid 
mcrease  of  free  States,  and  this  precipitated  the  movement 
that  was  inevitable  sooner  or  later  from  other  causes.  Indeed 
the  first  patent  of  territory  obtained  in  Texas,  from  the  Mexi- 
can government,  was  by  a  native  of  Connecticut.  The  rapid 
growth  of  commerce  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  agreeable  climate 
and  fertile  soil  of  California,  and  the  unsettled,  wilderness  state 
of  that  region,  caused  the  commercial  nations  of  Europe  to 
look  at  it  with  longing  eyes.  The  Monroe  doctrine  was  in 
danger  of  being  violated.    England  had  fully  prepared  to  plant 


554 


ANNEXATION   POLICY. 


a  colony  there  when  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Ameri- 
can forces. 

7.  Thus  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  the  nation,  which  had 
still  further  developed  its  instinct,  or  anticipations  and  plans, 
of  future  greatness,  required  to  use  the  vast  resources  of  the 
Gulf  region,  and  to  extend  settlements  to  the  Pacific  Slope  in 
order  to  develop  the  mineral  resources  of  that  region  and  pre- 
pare to  build  up  its  commerce  with  Eastern  Asia.  The  north- 
ern parts  of  Mexico  were  useless  to  her,  since  she  had  neither 
population  to  occupy  them,  nor  strength  to  subdue  the  Indians 
who  roamed  over  them  in  scattered  bands.  There  is  a  justice 
and  propriety  which  has  the  force  of  Natural  Law  in  allowing 
the  active  and  vigorous  to  take  possession  of  the  natural 
resources  that  others  can  not  or  will  not  develop.  The  earth 
was  made  for  mankind  as  a  whole,  and  what  cannot  benefit  one 
race,  another,  that  is  able  to  employ  it  for  its  own  and  the 
general  good,  has  some  show  of  right  in  entering  upon.  That, 
at  least,  must  be  the  justification  of  our  ancestors  in  intruding 
themselves  upon  the  lands  and  hunting  grounds  of  the  aborigi- 
nal inhabitants  of  America,  and  our  only  excuse  for  making 
war  with  the  Indians,  forcing  them  to  part  with  their  lands, 
confining  them  to  reservations,  and  denying  to  King  Philip^ 
Powhattan,  and  Tecumseh  the  admiration  and  esteem  we  give 
to  the  patriotic  defenders  of  our  native  land  and  natural  rights. 

8.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  vast  and  valuable  territory 
acquired  from  Mexico  should  be  the  spoil  of  conquest  rather 
than  the  fruit  of  peaceful  negotiation;  but  the  eagerness  of  the 
speculator,  the  unreasonable  pride  and  selfishness  of  the  Mexi- 
can, and  the  peculiar  requirements  of  our  internal  conflict  over 
slavery  put  to  silence,  for  a  time,  the  voice  of  moderation  and 
equity,  and  we  annexed  near  1,000,000  square  miles  of  territory 
by  force.  The  payment  of  $18,500,000,  when  we  might  have 
taken  it  without,  was  an  indication  that  our  ordinary  sense  of 
justice  was  not  altogether  quenched. 

9.  We  may  reasonably  consider  that  this  was  exceptional, 
and  that  the  confusion  of  judgment  and  the  disorder  consequent 
on  the  life  and  death  struggle  of  the  institution  of  slavery, 


AITNEXATION   FOUOY.  555 

which  were  in  a  few  years  to  produce  the  most  terrible  civil 
war  known  to  history,  led  us  into  the  comparatively  moderate 
aggression  and  violence  that  marked  this  annexation  to  our 
territorial  area.  Our  traditional  policy  is  to  acquire  peaceably, 
and  with  a  satisfactory  remuneration,  such  territory  as  the 
national  progress  and  development  demand.  It  is  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  our  institutions  to  oblige  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  any  region  not  within  our  boundaries  to  form  a 
part  of  the  Republic. 

10.  Two  annexations  have  been  made  since  the  Mexican 
war.  Arizona  was  obtained  by  treaty  and  purchase  from  Mex- 
ico, in  1854,  and  Alaska  by  treaty  and  purchase  from  Russia, 
in  1867.  The  first  is  valuable  for  its  mineral  treasures.  It 
was  useless  to  Mexico,  though  we  gave  $10,000,000  for  it.  It 
will  ultimately  be  worth  to  us  hundreds  of  millions,  and  its 
ruins  of  an  ancient  people  will  be  replaced  by  a  thriving  popu- 
lation of  intelligent  freemen.  Alaska  is  specially  valuable  in 
relation  to  our  future  commerce  with  Asia,  and  for  its  fisheries 
and  fur  trade.  Its  internal  resources  are,  as  yet,  scarcely  known. 

11.  The  superior  stability  of  American  institutions  and 
the  love  of  law  and  order  of  the  American  people  may  make 
annexation  desirable  and  profitable  to  the  more  volatile  and 
unsteady  Southern  States  of  America,  but  it  is  probable  that 
no  labored  efforts  to  induce  annexation  will  be  tolerated  by  the 
mass  of  the  people.  We  may  fairly  judge  that  we  have  reached 
our  natural  boundaries;  that  the  advancement  of  neighboring 
governments  in  order  and  intelligence  will  sufiice  to  give  pro- 
tection to  the  comparatively  small  numbers  who  may  find  a 
better  field  for  their  energies  without  than  within  the  Union; 
and  that  if  any  future  annexations  are  made  it  will  be  by  the 
purchase  of  uninhabited  regions  that  may  be  more  valuable  to 
us  than  to  their  owners;  or  that,  if  any  inhabited  regions  are 
incorporated  into  the  Union,  it  will  be  at  the  instance  and 
desire  of  its  own  inhabitants  rather  than  of  our  people.  We 
are  the  special  champions  of  popular  and  all  other  rights,  and 
shall  never  be  likely  to  forget  ourselves  again  so  far  as  to  re}^at 
the  Mexican  war,  however  pressing  our  desires. 


CHAPTEE    LXXI. 

CENSUS  STATISTICS. 


o 

00 


CO 

0 

h 

fl 
OS 

CO 

<1> 


:3 

o 
0. 


-1 »"' 


5S  : 


;g2 


■  am 


1^1 


IS?}? 


;:r,8 


3C;7?«3;^^  — c;i 


1  ^  irt  a_^T-i  M  5C  I-  -^  1-  TT  » 


.-co  « 
I—  5»  ei  CO  to  iJi-Tk': 

coo  CO 


^  CJ  c*  6<  •*  ^  < 


07  C'T  -^  lO 

W5»Tr  o 


i-  « >n  -x>  -H  00  « 5 

■  -»  «  5^  00  vl  C<  —.  C 

rH  5(  ■>?  j<  o;  -»  o;  c 

§25 'if 

"S-THl-lO  t 


ss 


» c:  en  a;  CO  TO  ifi  cj 


i8S5S 


w  iO  in  2?  -^  1 


CO  ^  t-  c5  !-■  s;  o  c-  eo  CO  4j  T-i 


COi-  IIOC 


■5>ooe0'^l-0:o00<       (Nt-ao:  co>nci-ocd  —  -T-rrt— 


§s 


:  1-.  ,-■  I-  K>  CO  CJ  I-  i-i  I-  I- 


cjcoaoojco      c:t-h-^c 


X)CoO'-< 

■f  coo;  »n 
col- 


oj  o!  in  in  o  CO  -i> 

05  CO  Tj-  00  I-  ^  ^ 


{-  o:  00  o  »n  00  o: 


'O  CO  cc 


cc  cr.  05      £  OD 
»noeo      coco 


SS 


^OOS  :0[ 


:  ^  j^  I.-:  fc-  t-  c» 

5  of  ^' !- CO 'r?c>'-^^ 

i       CO  T-i  CO  o  01  CO  -^ 
'      ei  r^  ^ 


CO         ^05 


oo>Oi-5*cococ*      O0"coo:o:j-      ■^at 
.    —    — i --         .-.      _      >no 


)t-a:oDcoT-i    'oiT-:r.-^i 
'     'CO^-GC^-t      oo-^a-i-oc 


>  I-  m  CR  t-  00  ■» 


'  t-  in  o  J-  CO  — 


5  i-H  C.  t- 
JOJi-c  CO 

faonai 

-'ijin.-i 

(N      i-T 


c5oo«(N 
■n-'gOTj-'oT 
I- 1- in  00 


05l- 

Si  Si 


inoo^cp  J 

cot- J- 00' 

j-co''<i  co't 

CI  I—  CO  ^-  1 


o      *  •» 

S        i-TT 
00        aty-< 


S'-'^S 


.  I-  oi  in  o  go  CR 


'  00  T- g:  3;  ,-1  CO 


co2i-<coco 

C»  03  02  I-  OS 


eco:  lO^ 
rfo;  ooo 


wo 

ino 


i(M 


.  lOcoo^Qo:  in 
'  CO  Ov»  CO  in  m  CO 
|,—  o:_^I»co^  [■-_ 

iTtofoc  t^cocc" 
'  CO  m  C-.  o  OJ 
'  mr-i  w-^  in 


«coT-05in 


t  ini-i-i 

©^■^CD 

in  o  «>  t- 

S-QOOO) 


o:03 
in  in 

??8 


COOJO 
COODOJ 

ojejTr' 

in.-iO< 


OinoQO 
CO  in-g-Q  CO 
CO  in  o  in  i- 


CCtOOOO  OJ-^ 


gco  T—  OJ 

o't-  in-rH 


cooj 


ss 


in3;5 


coi-i  tcooin 
00  !-■  00  i-  -^ 


^S 


QJpCO 

ccoToD 

02'-' t- 

coco 


CnOlOi-i 

c»sooiin 

QOr-.T-il- 


CO—'Ol- 


0, 


c-2  o 


5  s  2  S  2  d 

"1  s  =.'^  =«!=   ;  S  =«  s  o  c 


;S 


ei  c  o 


S  « 


d   . 

=3  5  « 

~  if  " 


jr  o  a  2  a)  t.  "S.^ 
O  o—  o£  oo  o  S 


«-J&^S 


"H^  S'c.S't- 


"5  go 


"Si  a 


a.2J 


(556) 


CENSUS    STATISTICS. 


557 


QO  i—  3:  if5  00 


C5-T      '     ' 


^■^■>t~-ixit     eo 


Si 


!o 


C  ea^  o  5)5. ='.•'•.£ 


a  § 
o  o 


V    u    u    .^ 


5S 


p.  ^  Eh 


O    fQ 


"S  CO   ._^ 


«   .5 


— '  S  2  "^ 

>    o    o    o 


<U    T3    S^    *     « 


Ph  £ 


-2  2  IT-  S 


o  tJ    ^ 


tc  o   » 

—  (^<    >^ 

.2  o  t5 

■Si  S   a> 

"^  O     o 

rcJ  CZJ    ^ 

«  -    OS 

*-■  'J?   d 

■2  &§ 


■S   •" 


te  S    Sc 

^^> 

O     .. 

ff  s  2 
5  §.  ^ 


.3  .5 


s  »<  ^  5  j3 


.2'§l 

•a  o   (u 
o    <u    q 

S   «  ^ 


O  <0 

-2  « 

2  o 

.2  d 


t^    GO 

eo  '-' 


o  tJ 


00    o 

C3     g     2 


"  S  .S  '£." 

3      06    S 
O     «    1^ 


j?SiS 


03CCC5:OOOOT-it^»OCCOS 


^     C3     _ 
03   T3   JS   ^ 


o:  T-Ti-Tooi^  jrt        p«  C 


°5 

c3    O 

o  ^ 

p<  ^ 

^     3 


t)   *.• 


o  o  5 


'O    j2     03    03 


^     3 

be  S 


§'  o  fi  s  d  d 


flj 


83^     _ 


■3  H 


O  O  -J* 

o  --'  ^ 

3  a;  3 

tj  *J  *^ 

,a  t3  a, 

,  03  3 

.i  o  e 

i5  ■«  o 

tB  03  O 


oi  2  -3 


a 


-1-3    P 


'  IT  «  SJ 
'  S  "  ^- 

f  ft  §  "S 
52  00  8 


oj  _«  ^  C3 


o    o  — 


C3   tS 


m  :j^     ,  o   3 


«  S  £   S   o 


gS 


M  a 


03  a 


'Ei  '^    3 


J^  t>  a 


o   oa 
^   o     . 

•  --S  a 

g   J3    I. 
O    *^     « 

Sea 
ft"E  2 

CO    '^     S 


> 


5i  S  .S  «  o    -  « 


I    3   f 
•"    C    3 

let 


to     54     (U 

ft.5  "^ 


55  p. 

t4    03 

03  W 

^   t^ 
03     ^ 


■&<   O 


PL,   •« 


.2  S 


fi  ^  ^  .^    5   -   p. 

.'-*'-  ^  ^  a  g 

c"  a 


^     «     3     M, 
■w    '3     o     3 


«    .S    _ 
00    ---^  'O 

OS  »2- 

«.2 


»    o    ft  S  o    ^ 


2^-2  5  -^  S  ft  h 


•0.2 
i  S  :J  J  t3_ 

«  a 

^g 


i   o 

—      3 

P    M 


■    --     0!    TS   is 


^  .2    !» 


■3   f'  ■s 

03   3   02 

tx      V      CO 


"SS 


p.   oi 


s^  tz;  >  o  was 


g?  ft-^ 

;   o  ^  oo 
■w  t-  -5 

IS  o| 
'So* 


PART    TRIED. 

THE  PEOPLE   AND   THE  GOYEENMENT. 


1.  All  government  is  professedly  for  tlie  good  of  the  people; 
but  ia.  point  of  fact,  nearly  every  government  that  has  ever 
been  instituted  has  been  in  the  interest  of  an  individual,  a 
family,  or  a  class.  American  statesmen,  in  forming  our  gov- 
ernment, admitted  the  superior  rights  of  no  man  or  class  of 
men.  It  was  carefully  organized  to  exclude  all  claims  or  pre- 
tenses of  that  kind,  with  a  single  exception,  at  first,  which 
afterward  disappeared  in  the  tempest  of  a  civil  war.  The  exe- 
cutive, the  various  members  of  the  government,  and  the  law 
makers  depend  on  the  people  for  their  elevation.  At  first  they 
possessed  only  the  dignity,  privileges,  and  rights  of  the  people 
at  large,  and,  their  term  of  office  expired,  they  return  to  the 
jame  level,  honored,  indeed,  if  they  have  been  faithful  servants; 
if  not,  carrying  to  their  dishonored  graves  the  reproaches  and 
contempt  of  their  fellow-citizens,  but  retaining,  in  neither  case, 
»  vestige  of  the  power  and  exaltation  over  others  that  clothed 
them  when  in  oflice,  the  contrary  of  which  so  often  makes  an 
unworthy  man  respectable  in  a  different  form  of  government. 

2.  That  the  masses  of  the  people  would  be  able  to  exercise 
A  true  sovereignty  without  abusing  it  was  always  doubted  until 
the  trial  was  made  in  this  country.  A  very  respectable  class 
of  svAtesmen  in  the  early  days  of  the  Eepublic,  sympathized  in 

(859) 


560  THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

this  doubt,  and  it  even  crept  into  the  Constitution  in  the  form 
of  electors  who  were  to  choose  the  President;  intimating  a dif*- 
trust  of  the  wisdom  and  sound  discretion  of  the  voters  in  the 
choice  of  the  Chief  Magistrate.  The  liberty  allowed  to  the 
Lesrislatures  of  the  States  to  determine  the  manner  in  which 
electors  should  be  chosen,  while  it  recognized  State  authority 
on  one  side,  on  the  other  implied  a  hesitation  to  trust  so 
important  a  matter  directly  to  the  people;  and  for  a  long  time 
they  were  only  indirectly  consulted  as  to  the  choice  of  a 
President. 

3.  It  was  not,  however,  caused  by  a  desire  to  keep  power 
from  them,  but  rather  to  avoid  the  unhappy  effect  of  popular 
heat  and  rashness,  so  often  observed  in  popular  governments 
before  attempted.  This  distrustful  party  first  took  e-ontrol  of 
the  government,  retained  it  during  three  presidential  terms,  and 
for  many  years  afterwards  formed  an  influential  minority  whose 
criticisms  were  of  importance  in  establishing  a  traditional 
policy  for  the  government.  This  party — the  Federalists,  headed 
by  Washington  and  Hamilton — sought  to  found  a  strong  an(? 
stable  government  that  should  be  able  to  fully  protect  the 
country  from  foreign  interference  and  domestic  discord,  Theii 
control  over  the  administration  was  somewhat  abruptly  closed 
by  acts  considered  arbitrary,  interfering  with  full  freedom  of 
speech  and  of  the  press — the  "  Sedition  Laws  "  as  they  were 
called.  Jefferson  and  the  Republican  party  demanded  thr 
largest  popular  freedom,  and  had  the  conduct  of  the  govern- 
ment for  twenty-four  years,  impressing  on  its  habits  and  policy 
the  respect  for  the  opinions  of  the  people  at  large  that  has  ever 
since  characterized  it.  The  people  gradually  gained  control  of 
presidential  elections  and  practically  set  the  electors  aside, 
making  and  enforcing  their  own  choice  in  general  elections. 

4.  The  exercise  of  popular  sovereignty  has  gradually  been 
enlarged,  no  qualification  but  that  of  age  and  nativity  being 
now  generally  required,  and  the  government  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered to  represent  the  views  of  a  majority  of  the  people,  and 
not  only  of  the  native,  but  also  of  the  foreign  bom ;  since  the 


THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  GOVERNMENT.  561 

great  mass  of  the  latter  are,  by  naturalization,  ubsorbed  into 
the  mass  of  citizens.  They  come  to  make  a  permanent  home 
with  us,  from  a  preference,  as  it  is  fair  to  assume,  for  republi- 
can institutions;  and  it  is  considered  right  that  they  should 
have  a  voice  in  the  conduct  of  them.  Kor  have  the  American 
people  seen  cause  to  regret  their  liberality  in  this  respect. 
Citizens  of  foreign  birth  have  usually  proved  as  thoughtful 
and  wise  as  the  rest  of  the  population,  and  as  worthy  of  citi- 
zenship. They  bring  to  us  wealth  in  their  labor  if  not  in  their 
purses,  and  soon  become  thoroughly  American  in  their  habits 
and  sympathies.  The  government  and  the  people  cordially 
welcome  them,  and  find  themselves  the  stronger  and  richer  by 
so  doing. 

5.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  strongest  fears  of  pop- 
ular influence  on  the  government,  the  stability  of  our  institu- 
tions, and  the  maintenance  of  the  good  order  necessary  to  the 
security  of  property  and  the  general  prosperity,  were  enter^ 
tained  at  the  first;  that  the  prophecies  of  the  foreseers  of  evil 
have  been  almost  uniformly  false  during  its  whole  course ;  and 
that  the  relation  between  the  people  and  the  general  govern- 
ment has  constantly  grown  closer,  to  the  great  advantage  of 
both.  The  first  war  into  which  the  country  was  plunged  after 
the  Revolution — that  of  1812 — was  comparatively  a  failure,  in 
its  earlier  part,  for  want  of  this  mutual  confidence.  Later  the 
people  and  the  government  have  been  more  closely  allied,  and 
the  government  has  been  strong  while  the  people  have  seen 
their  cherished  ends  gained. 

There  has  been  continual  advance  in  liberality  of  administra- 
tion, in  efficiency  of  organization,  and  in  the  completeness  of 
social  order.  We  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  a  tendency, 
continued  through  a  hundred  years  and  favored  by  so  many 
circumstances  that  are  common  to  all  nations  in  our  generation 
to  a  degree  never  before  known,  will  be  changed.  Eather  we 
may  confidently  expect  that  with  increased  intelligence,  expe> 
rienee,  and  prosperity  that  tendency  will  be  strengthened. 

36 


CHAPTEE   I. 

SUFFRAGE  AND   CITIZENSHIP. 

1.  rhe  right  pertaining  to  citizenship,  to  vote  for  STxch 
officers  as  are  elected  bj  the  people,  is  called  suffrage.  "When 
that  right  is  acquired  with  respect  to  one  class  of  officers  it 
always  extends  to  the  whole,  from  petty  town  or  city  officials, 
to  high  officers  of  the  State  and  United  States  government — 
all,  in  short,  who  obtain  office  directly  from  the  people. 

2.  The  Constitution  defines  who  shall  be  regarded  as  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  and  all  such  are  declared  by  it  to  be 
also  citizens  of  the  State  in  which  they  reside.  It  declares 
"  all  persons,  born,  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  its  jurisdiction  "  to  be  citizens.  Indian  tribes  are 
mostly  regarded  as  foreign  nt't  ons,  and  have  such  rights  as 
treaties  give  them,  but  are  no  taxed  and  do  not  vote;  there- 
fore they  are  not  regarded  as  citizens. 

3.  Yet  suffrage  does  not  belong  to  all  citizens.  The  special 
regulation  of  the  voting  prerogative  was  not  assumed  by  the 
Constitution,  nor  delegated  to  Congress,  and  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  it  belongs  to  the  State  governments.  The  regu- 
lations in  the  States  are  not  uniform,  but  in  no  State  do  women 
or  minors  vote.  This  cuts  off  a  large  part  of  the  citizens, 
nearly  three-fourths  belonging  to  these  classes.  Minors  are 
supposed,  however,  to  be  represented,  as  to  their  interests,  by 
their  guardians,  and  females  by  husbands  or  brothers.  Some 
of  the  States  make  minor  restrictions  as  to  length  of  residence 
in  the  State,  and  require  a  certain  amount  of  property  to  con- 
stitute a  voter,  and  in  some  naturalization  is  not  required — so 
that  the  range  of  the  right  of  suffrage  varies  within  small 
limits,  in  different  States.  Whatever  rule  is  adopted  by  the 
States  has  been  accepted  as  the  basis  of  suffrage  for  that  State 
by  the  general  government,  when  members  of  Congress  and 
President  and  Yice-President  are  voted  for. 

4.  It  seems  to  be  a  loose  point  in  the  regulations,  otherwise 
60   admirable,  since  it  may  work  a   considerabJe  inequality 

(562) 


SUFFRAGE   AND   CITIZENSHIP.  563 

under  given  circumstances;  and,  in  some  cases,  might  change 
the  policy  of  the  government.  It  is  a  question  worthy  of  con- 
sideration whetlier  there  should  not  be  an  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  establishing  uniformity  of  suffrage  in  all  the 
States.  This  point  has  caused  much  discussion  in  the  State 
governments  and  various  changes  have  been,  from  time  to 
time,  made  in  many  of  them.  These  have  been,  usually,  in 
the  direction  of  liberality — tending  to  enlarge  the  scope  of 
suffi-age.  The  property  qualification,  quite  common  in  earlier 
times,  is  now  rare.  The  fifteenth  amendment,  recently  adopted, 
has  largely  increased  the  number  of  voters. 

5.  The  experience  of  the  Republic,  thus  far,  has  been  in 
favor  of  the  doctrine  that  it  is  safe  to  trust  the  people  with 
their  own  interests,  and  that  the  responsibilities  of  self-gov- 
ernment, when  they  are  laid  on  them  under  the  favorable 
circumstances  that  exist  among  us,  tend  to  improvement 
instead  of  disorganization.  Whether  this  will  always  be  the 
case  it  may  not  be  safe  to  assume,  and  a  prudent  regard  to  pos- 
sibilities should  not  be  neglected ;  but  we  should  not  forget 
that  those  who  founded  American  liberty  ran  great  risks  of 
anarchy  in  the  eyes  of  their  contemporaries.  We  ought  to  be 
able  safely  to  continue  a  policy  of  suffrage  which  they  intro- 
duced with  results  so  fortunate. 

6.  Education  needs  to  be  encouraged,  and  this  has  always 
received  much  attention.  It  is  probable  that  but  for  the  very 
liberal  provision  made  in  this  respect,  the  fate  of  our  govern- 
ment would  have  been  very  different.  Many  foreigners  M'ho 
had  no  early  education,  have  been  naturalized,  and  the  colored 
people  born  in  the  country  have  been  made  citizens.  If  the 
remainder  of  the  people  had  not  been  intelligent,  it  would  no 
doubt  have  been  extremely  dangerous.  It  has  led  to  some 
serious  local  interruptions  of  order  and  prosperity,  but  they 
have  been,  so  far,  temporary;  and  the  general  effect  has  been 
to  awaken  ambition  for  education;  the  children  of  new-made 
citizens  have  enjoyed  the  same  facilities  as  others  to  acquire 
intelligence  necessary  to  a  citizen;    and  the  right  ot  suffrage. 


564:  OUR   CITIZENS   OF   FOBEIuN    BIRTH. 

when  extended  to  the  ignorant  and  degraded  has  seemed  to  pro, 
diice  tlie  general  effect  of  destroying  a  dangerous  class  by 
raising  them  gradually  to  intelligence  and  self-respect  and 
respect  for  the  laws,  by  making  them  the  political  equals  of 
those  who  are  socially  and  intellectually  far  above  them. 

7.  As  we  grow  in  numbers  all  influences  like  this  take  a 
wider  range,  and  acquire  more  power,  and  sometimes  produce 
different  results,  when  they  become  extensive,  from  what  was 
the  case  when  more  limited,  from  the  difference  of  influence  in 
modifying  causes;  and  there  has  always  been  fear  of  trouble 
from  the  extension  of  suffrage  to  too  many  ignorant  persons. 
It  is  well  to  be  cautious;  but  we  ought  to  venture  as  far  as 
possible  for  the  sake  of  improving  and  elevating  all  classes  of 
our  people. 

8.  It  is  also  a  question  worthy  of  attention  if  women  who 
own  property  that  is  taxed  ought  not  to  possess  the  right  of 
suffrage.  The  war  that  made  us  a  Nation  was  begun  because 
we  refused  to  be  taxed  unless  we  could  be  represented,  and  have 
a  vote  in  the  body  laying  the  taxes.  The  principle  appears  to 
be  precisely  the  same;  and  what  we  fought  for  then  should  not 
be  denied  now. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

OUK  CITIZENS  OF  FOKEIGN  BIETH. 

Whatever  fault  w^e  may  sometimes  And  with  the  conduct  of 
our  government;  however  mucli  self-seeking  to  the  neglect  of 
the  public  good  there  may  be  among  officials;  however  many 
weaknesses,  errors,  and  violations  of  law  may  call  for  our 
severest  reprobation,  and,  in  moments  of  depression,  lead  us  to 
look  gloomily  and  doubtfully  toward  the  future;  yet  it  is  not 
to  be  denied  that  the  Home  of  real  Freedom  is  with  us.  Mis- 
management is  but  temporary,  or  limited,  and  easily  admits  of 
remedy,  with  time  and  care;  our  advantages  are  permanent  and 


OIJE   CITIZENS   OF   FOREIGN   BIBTH.  5^5 

extensive.  In  eighty  years  tlie  population  has  become  nearly 
tivelve  times  as  numerous  as  at  the  beginning  of  that  period, 
and  this  rapid  growth  in  numbers  has  been  made  up  largely 
from  the  disposition  of  foreigners  to  make  a  permanent  home 
among  us.  Those  who  are  oppressed,  who  suiFer  restraint  in 
tlieir  interests  or  belief,  or  wish  for  a  wider  career  for  them- 
selves or  their  families — who  want  a  free  field  for  business 
enterprise,  for  mental  and  moral  development,  or  full  play  for 
their  abilities  to  influence  their  fellow  men,  come  to  us.  Here 
they  find  fair  opportunity  for  what  may  be  lacking  elsewhere. 
They  come  here  by  millions  ;  the  poor,  by  industry,  become 
rich  ;  the  oppressed  leave  persecutions  and  galling  burdens 
behind  them  ;  and  genius  finds  full  play  for  its  aspirations  in 
whatever  direction  its  energies  may  be  turned. 

At  the  time  of  the  last  Census  there  were  5,567,229  persons 
in  the  Union,  and  forming  part  of  our  population,  of  foreign 
birth.  A  large  part  of  these  have  become  citizens  by  Natural- 
ization. The  remainder,  or  their  descendants,  if  they  remain 
here,  will  become  citizens  by  that  process,  or  by  lapse  of  time. 

After  they  have  become  familiar  with  our  institution,  ideas, 
and  habits,  they  are  incorporated  with  the  body  of  our  citizens 
and  are  a  part  of  the  Nation.  The  naturalized  citizen  may 
become,  in  time,  a  State  oflicer,  or  member  of  Congress,  if  he 
can  make  himself  acceptable  to  his  fellow  citizens  ;  or  he  may 
possibly  live  to  see  his  son  President  of  the  United  States. 

Congress  alone  has  power,  under  the  Constitution,  to  enact 
naturalization  laws.  Suff'rage,  or  the  right  of  voting,  is  left  to 
the  regulation  of  the  States,  within  certain  limits  ;  but  every 
citizen,  made  such  by  law  of  the  General  Government,  is  also 
a  citizen  of  the  State  in  which  he  resides,  and  will  acquire, 
within  such  times  as  State  regulations  shall  determine,  the  right 
to  vote. 

State  laws  regarding  suffrage  vary.  Some  States  even  admit 
aliens  who  are  not  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  the  right 
of  suffrage  and  to  other  privileges;  and  most  require  any  citi- 
zen to  reside  a  prescribed  length  of  time  in  the  State  before  he 


566  HOW  TO    BECOME   A   CITIZEN. 

can  vote.     A  uniform  regulation  in  all  the  States  would  be 
desirable. 

HOW   TO    BECOME   A    CITIZEN. 

Any  alien,  having  arrived  in  the  United  States  after  the  age 
of  eighteen  years,  may  be  admitted  to  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
after  a  declaration,  upon  his  part,  or  oath  or  affirmation,  before 
the  Supreme,  Superior,  District,  or  Circuit  Court  of,  or  any 
court  of  record  having  common  law  jurisdiction  in,  any  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  the  territories  thereto  belonging,  or  before 
a  Circuit  or  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  or  the  Clerk 
or  Prothonotary  of  any  of  the  aforesaid  courts,  two  years  at 
least  before  his  admission,  that  it  is  his  l)ona  jf^^e intention  to 
become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  forever 
all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  any  foreign  prince,  potentate,  State 
or  sovereignty  whatever,  and  particularly  by  name,  the  prince, 
potentate.  State,  or  sovereignty,  whereof  such  alien  may  at  any 
time  have  been  a  citizen  or  subject;  if  such  alien  lius  borne  any 
hereditary  title,  or  been  of  any  of  the  orders  of  nobility  in  the 
kingdom  or  State  from  which  he  came,  he  must,  moreover, 
expressly  renounce  his  title  or  order  of  nobility,  in  the  court  in 
which  his  application  is  made,  which  renunciation  is  to  be 
recorded  in  such  county;  and  the  court  admitting  such  alien 
must  also  be  satisfied  that  he  has  continuously  resided  in  the 
United  States  for  five  years,  at  least,  immediately  preceding  his 
naturalization,  and  also  within  the  State  or  Territory  wherein 
such  court  is  at  the  time  held,  at  least  one  year  immediately 
previous  to  such  naturalization ;  and  that  during  such  five  years 
he  has  been  of  good  moral  character,  attached  to  the  principles 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  well  disposed  to 
the  good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same;  the  oath  of  at  least 
two  citizens  of  the  United  States  is  requisite  to  prove  the  fact 
of  such  residence  ;  and,  at  the  time  of  his  application  to  be 
admitted  to  citizenshij),  he  must  make,  upon  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, the  same  declaration  of  renunciation  and  abjuration  of 
allegiance  to  any  foreign  power,  and  also  make  oath  or  affirma- 
tion to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ;  all  of 


ELECTIONS.  567 

whicli  proceedings  are  to  he  recorded  by  the  Clerk  or  Prothon- 
otarj  of  the  proper  court. 

If  any  alien,  having  legally  filed  his  declaration  of  intention 
to  become  a  citizen  and  taken  the  necessary  oath  orafiirmation, 
die  before  he  is  actually  naturalized,  his  widow  and  children 
are  entitled  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizens,  upon 
taking  the  required  oaths  or  affirmations. 

Any  alien  arriving  in  the  United  States  under  the  age  of 
eighteen  years,  and  continuously  residing  therein  until  the  time 
of  his  application  for  citizenship,  may,  after  reaching  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years,  and  having  been  a  resident  within  the 
United  States  for  five  years,  including  the  three  years  of  his 
minority,  be  admitted  a  citizen,  without  making  the  formal 
declaration  of  intention  required  in  other  cases ;  but  at  the  time 
of  his  admission  he  must  make  such  declaration,  and  further 
satisfy  the  court,  upon  oath  or  affirmation,  that,  for  the  three 
years  immediately  preceding,  it  had  been  his  iona  fide  inten- 
tion to  become  such  citizen,  and  in  all  other  respects  must 
comply  with  the  naturalization  laws  of  the  United  States. 

Severe  penalties  for  counterfeiting  any  evidence  of  citizen- 
ship, or  disposing  of  a  certificate  of  naturalization  to  any  per- 
son other  than  the  one  for  whom  it  was  issued,  are  imposed  by 
act  of  Congress. 


CHAPTEE     III. 

ELECTIONS. 

1.  A  pure  democracy  is  a  government  in  which  all  the  peo- 
ple who  have  the  proper  qualifications  for  voting  personally 
take  part — or  have  the  right  to  do  so — in  the  discussion  of 
public  measures,  and  enactment  of  the  laws.  This  is  not  prac- 
ticable unless  the  State  consist  of  a  small  number  of  persons; 
and  a  representative  democracy  is  substituted,  in  which  the 
masses  of  the  people  exercise  the  voting  and  ruling  preroga- 


668  ELECTIONS. 

tive  by  appointing  a  small  number  of  substitutes  to  act  in  their 
place  and  represent  them.  This  appointment  of  representa- 
tives is  for  the  most  part  the  only  direct  way  in  which  the 
people  of  this  country  are  able  to  take  part  in  the  government. 
Though  the  theory  is  that  the  people  alone  are  sovereign,  this 
is  the  only  way  in  which  sovereignty  can  exert  itself.  Even 
if  present  in  a  legislative  assembly,  they  cannot  discuss  or  vote 
unless  they  are  Representatives,  duly  elected. 

2.  Elections,  then,  are  of  the  highest  importance.  If  a  cit- 
izen would  exert  his  sovereign  authority,  as  one  of  the  deposi- 
taries of  power,  he  must  take  part  in  them.  Representatives 
elected  to  make  laws  are  expected  to  express  the  will  of  the 
majority  of  the  people  whom  they  represent.  They  are  pledged, 
expressly  or  tacitly,  to  do  so.  If  they  disobey  the  w^ill  of  their 
constituents,  there  is  no  immediate  redress.  They  can  be  dis- 
placed only  at  the  close  of  the  term  for  which  they  were  elected. 
There  is  some  inconvenience  and  danger  attending  this  method ; 
though  the  fear  of  the  displeasure  of  their  constituents  is 
usually  sufficient  to  secure  faithfulness.  Where  the  people  are 
numerous,  (there  are  now  more  than  135,000  persons  to  each 
representative,)  it  becomes  a  matter  of  much  interest  to  know 
what  is  their  will.  It  is  ascertained  by  the  elections.  The 
people  vote  for  a  candidate,  or  nominee,  known  to  hold  certain 
political  principles.  As  men  do  not  often  see  or  think  alike 
there  is  generally  more  than  one  principle,  or  system  of  views, 
regarding  public  measures,  involved  in  every  election,  and 
therefore  more  than  one  candidate.  The  result  of  the  vote 
shows  the  will  of  the  majority.  The  same  question  generally 
occupies  the  attention  of  the  whole  country,  and  the  elections 
to  Congress  determine  the  policy  of  the  government,  so  far  as 
legislation  is  concerned. 

3.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  election  of  the  President 
and  the  members  of  the  State  governments.  The  choice  of 
men  for  the  State  legislatures  determines  the  policy  and  politi- 
cal principles  of  the  State  government,  and  as  the  majority  in 
State  legislatures  appoint  the  Senators,  the  character  of  Con- 


EATio  OF  kepeesentation;  569 

gress  and  its  measures  are  influenced  by  State  elections.  The 
choice  of  the  President  is  not,  in  theory,  made  directly,  since 
Electors  are  chosen,  who  afterwards  vote  for  the  President; 
but  it  is  understood  tliat  they  will  vote  for  a  certain  man ;  and 
it  has  been  so  invariably  their  custom  to  do  so,  that  the  result 
is  considered  as  settled  by  the  direct  vote  of  the  people. 
Should  the  Electors  do  otherwise  the  people  would  be  very 
much  sui'prised  and  displeased,  and  those  Electors  would  have 
little  prospect  of  appointment  to  office  again.  Yery  few  men 
in  office  are  willing  to  seriously  offend  their  constituents,  so 
that  practically,  the  people  vote  directly  for  the  President  and 
Vice-President  they  prefer. 

4.  Of  all  our  elections  none  is  considered  of  so  much  impor- 
tance as  the  Presidential.  These  come  every  four  years, 
because  the  Constitution  provides  that  the  term  for  which  a 
President  is  chosen,  shall  be  four  years.  Our  elections,  both 
for  the  general  and  State  governments,  are  by  ballot,  instead 
of  viva  voce,  (the  living  voice,)  as  in  some  countries. 

The  ballot  is  a  small  piece  of  paper,  with  the  name  of  the 
candidate  or  candidates  printed  or  written  upon  it,  and  then 
folded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hide  them,  so  that  no  one  but 
the  voter  can  tell  what  names  are  on  his  ballot.  A  vote  by 
viva  voce,  is  when  the  voter,  in  the  presence  of  the  inspectors 
of  the  election,  audibly  and  clearly  calls  out  the  name  of  the 
candidate  for  whom  he  votes,  and  thus  proclaims  in  the  hearing 
of  all  present  how  he  votes.  But  the  ballot  enables  the  voter 
to  vote  secretly  if  he  chooses  to  do  so. 


CHAPTEE    lY. 
EATIO  OF  EEPEESENTATION. 

1.  The  ratio  of  representation  simply  means  the  ratio 
between  the  whole  population  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
whole  number  of  their  Eepresentatives  in  Congress;  and  this 
of  course  includes  the  ratio  between  the  people  of  any  individ- 


670  EATIO    OF   EEFEESENTATION. 

ual  State,  and  the  Representatives  it  is  entitled  to;  botli  being 
estimated  upon  the  same  basis,  and  determiiv«2d  by  the  same 
rule. 

2.  The  distinctive  characteristic  of  our  government  is,  that 
it  is  2i popular  government.  Its  power  is  vested  in  the  people. 
They  elect  their  rulers,  who  are  the  servants  of  the  people,  and 
these  rulers  are  expected  to  carry  out  the  people's  wishes. 
Upon  such  a  system,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  first  importance,  to 
distribute  this  power  equally  among  all  the  people,  and  after 
having  fixed  upon  the  ratio  between  the  whole  population  and 
the  whole  number  of  Representatives;  or,  in  other  words,  after 
having  determined  how  many  members  shall  compose  the 
lower  House  of  Congress,  the  next  step  is  to  apportion  these 
members  among  all  the  States  in  the  ratio  of  their  population* 
If  one  State  has  twice  the  number  of  inhabitants  that  another 
has,  it  will  be  entitled  to  twice  the  number  of  Representative? 
in  Congress.  If  one  has  ten  times  the  inhabitants  that  anotlier 
has,  it  will  be  entitled  to  ten  times  the  number  of  Representa- 
tives, and  so  on;  with  this  one  exception,  which  is,  that  by  a 
provision  in  the  Constitution,  every  State,  without  regard  to 
its  population,  is  entitled  to  one  Representative  in  the  lower 
House. 

3.  The  adjustment  of  this  matter  is  all  provided  for  in  the 
Constitution,  that  is,  in  its  general  features;  but  it  devolves 
upon  Congress  in  every  tenth  year  to  re-adjust  and  re-appor- 
tion the  Representatives  among  the  several  States,  according 
to  the  population  of  each  State  as  shown  by  the  last  census, 
which  is  taken  every  tenth  year;  and  when  the  apportionment 
is  once  made,  it  remains  the  same  for  the  next  ten  j^ears,  when 
the  census  is  taken  again,  and  a  new  apportionment  is  made. 

4:.  Up  to  the  present  time  (1877.)  this  has  been  done  nine 
times.  It  was  done  the  first  time  by  the  convention  which 
formed  the  Constitution.  That  apportionment  is  found  in  the 
Constitution,  and  is  as  follows: 

To  New  Hampshire,  3         Pennsylvania,  8 

Massachusetts,  8         Delaware,  1 


RATIO   OF   REPRESEaSTTATION.  57 1 

Rhode  Island,  1         Maryland,  6 

Connecticut,  5'       Yirginia,  10 

'New  York,  6        North  Carolina,         5 

New  Jersey,  4        South  Carolina,         5 

Georgia,         3 

By  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  Congress  consisted  of 

but  65  members. 

The  Constitution  also  provided  that  Representatives  should 
not  exceed  one  to  every  30,000  people.  The  next  year  after  the 
government  went  into  operation,  (1790,)  the  first  census  was 
taken,  and  as  soon  as  the  result  was  known,  a  new  apportion- 
ment was  made.  This  was  done  in  1792,  and  was  made  upon 
the  ratio  of  one  Representative  to  every  33,000  of  representa- 
tive* population. 

5.  In  1800,  the  second  census  was  taken;  and  when  Con- 
gress made  the  apportionment,  which  was  done  in  1803,  it  did 
not  change  the  ratio,  but  left  it  at  one  Representative  to  every 
33,000  of  the  representative  population. 

In  1810,  the  third  census  was  taken,  and  in  1811  the  ratio 
was  fixed  at  one  Representative  for  every  35,000  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

In  1820,  the  fourth  census  was  taken,  and  in  1822  Congress 
fixed  the  ratio  at  one  Representative  for  every  40,000  of  the 
population. 

In  1830,  the  fifth  census  was  taken,  and  in  1832  the  ratio 
was  fixed  at  one  Representative  to  every  47,700  of  the  popula- 
tion. 

In  1840,  the  sixth  census  w^as  taken,  and  in  1842  Congress 
again  declared  that  the  ratio  should  be  one  Representative  to 
every  70,680  of  the  population. 

6.  In  1850,  the  seventh  census  was  taken,  and  in  conform- 
ity with  the  law  passed  this  year,  the  number  of  members  was 

*  The  Representative  population  includes  all  free  persons,  white  or  black ; 
to  which  (according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution),  three-fifths  of  all 
the  shives  were  to  be  added.  But  this  proviso,  now  that  slavery  is  abol- 
ished,  has  become  a  nullity. 


572  RATIO   OF   REPEESENTATION. 

for  the  first  time  limited ;  the  limit  being  233 ;  and  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  was  ordered  to  take  the  census  returns,  and 
divide  the  whole  representative  population  by  the  number  233, 
and  to  make  the  quotient  the  ratio  between  the  Representatives 
and  the  people. 

7.  We  have  never  seen  the  result  of  the  Secretary's  esti- 
mate, but^  taking  the  population  of  1850  and  dividing  it  by 
233,  would  produce  a  quotient  of  nearly  94,000;  and  this  we 
take  as  the  ratio,  after  the  time  when  it  was  done,  1852;  that 
is,  one  Representative  to  every  94,000  of  the  population. 

8.  Tlie  eighth  census  was  taken  in  1860,  and  on  it  an  appor- 
tionment was  based,  which  allowed  one  Representative  for 
every  127,000  of  the  population. 

In  1850  Congress  adopted  the  principle  of  permanently  fix- 
ing the  number  of  members  of  Congress,  to  save  the  trouble  of 
doing  it  as  heretofore,  every  ten  years.  An  act  was  passed 
limiting  it  to  233;  but  notwithstanding  this  limitation,  it  was 
provided  that  if  any  new  State  came  in,  it  should  have  its 
member,  which  would  add  to  the  number.  But  this  increase 
was  to  continue  no  longer  than  until  the  next  apportionment, 
when  the  number  was  to  fall  back  again  to  the  old  figure. 

In  1862  the  law  was  modified  to  make  the  whole  number  of 
meinbers  consist  of  241  after  the  3d  of  March,  1863.  In  1870 
the  ninth  census  was  taken,  and  in  1872  Congress  decided  that 
after  March  3d,  1873,  the  Representatives  should  comprise  292 
members,  being  one  Representative  for  every  135,239  of  the 
population  and  apportioned  them  among  the  several  States  as 
follows : 


Alabama, 

8 

Missouri, 

13 

Arkansas, 

4 

Nebraska, 

1 

California, 

4 

Nevada, 

1 

Connecticut, 

4 

New  Hampshire, 

3 

Delaware, 

1 

New  Jersey, 

7 

Florida, 

2 

New  York, 

33 

Georgia, 

9 

North  Carolina, 

8 

Mississippi, 

6 

Ohio, 

20 

EATIO    OF   REPRESENTATION.  §73 


Illinois, 

19 

Oregon, 

1 

Indiana, 

13 

Pennsylvania, 

27 

Iowa, 

9 

Rhode  Island, 

2 

Kansas, 

3 

South  Carolina, 

5 

Kentucky, 

10 

Tennessee, 

10 

Louisiana, 

6 

Texas, 

6 

Maine, 

6 

Yermont, 

3 

Maryland, 

6 

Virginia, 

9 

Massachusetts. 

11 

West  Virginia, 

3 

Michigan, 

9 

Wisconsin, 

8 

Minnesota, 

3 

*  Colorado, 

1 

9.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Congress  has  the 
Iwiwer  to  alter  all  this,  and  to  enact  that  Congress  shall  consist 
of  any  other  number  of  members,  although  it  is  not  probable 
that  this  will  be  done  soon. 

10.  The  foregoing  statements  will  show  the  general  plan 
upon  which  the  House  of  Eepresentatives  is  constituted,  and 
how  the  several  States  are  constantly  changing  the  number  of 
their  Representatives,  and  their  relative  power  and  influence  in 
Congress.  This  can  be  readily  understood  by  remembering  the 
fact  that  new  States  come  into  the  Union  every  few  years,  and 
that  the  population  increases  much  more  rapidly  in  the  West- 
ern States  than  in  the  Eastern,  and  that,  consequently,  the 
West  is  rapidly  gaining  power  in  Congress,  while  the  Atlantic 
States  are  losing  it. 

11.  In  the  apportionment  no  regard  is  had  to  the  Territo- 
ries or  to  their  population.  In  this  adjustment,  the  States  and 
their  population  only  are  regarded,  and  the  number  of  mem- 
bers is  all  given  to  the  States.  Every  Representative  from  a 
Territory  is  an  addition  to  that  number,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  Terj-itorial  member  has  no  right  to  vote  on  any 
question,  but  has  only  the  right  to  debate;  and  for  this  reason 
he  is  not,  in  the  fullest  sense,  a  member,  and  is  not  counted  in 
adjusting  the  number  of  which  the  House  is  made  to  consist 

*  Recentli^  udmittctl,  m;ikiug  298  Reprcsentalives. 


CHAPTEE    Y. 

OATHS  AND   BONDS. 

1.  An  oath  is  an  appeal  to  God,  by  him  who  makes  it,  that 
what  he  has  said,  or  what  he  shall  say,  is  the  truth.  It  is  the 
most  solemn  form  under  which  one  can  assert  or  pronounce 
anything.  To  utter  a  falsehood  while  under  oath  is  perjury,  a 
crime  of  the  darkest  hue.  One  which  God  has  declared  he 
will  punish,  and  one  which  is  made  infamous,  and  punishable 
by  fine  and  imprisonment  by  the  laws  of  the  land. 

2.  The  Constitution  (Art.  6,  Sec.  3)  requires  that  Senators 
and  Representatives,  and  members  of  the  several  State  Legis- 
latures, and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath 
or  affirmation  to  support  the  Constitution.  Then  in  the  second 
article,  section  eight,  the  form  of  the  oath  required  of  the 
President  before  he  enters  upon  his  duties,  is  given  in  these 
words : 

"•  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  exe- 
cute the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to 
the  best  of  my  ability  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Consti- 
stitution  of  the  United  States." 

3.  This  is  all  the  Constitution  says  about  oaths ;  but  it  is 
■enough  to  show  that  no  man  (unless  he  commit  perjurv)  can 
accept  office,  either  under  the  United  States  or  any  State  gov- 
ernment, unless  he  in  good  faith  will  support  the  Constitution. 

But  in  the  laws  enacted  by  Congress,  we  find  that  not  only 
official  oaths  are  required ;  but  in  a  great  variety  of  other  cases, 
men  who  transact  business  with  the  government  arc  required 
to  verify  their  accounts  and  statements  with  an  oath.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  those  who  do  business  with  the  cus- 
tom house;  such  as  merchants,  shipowners,  and  masters  of 
vessels.  Many  oaths  must  be  put  in  the  form  of  affidavits; 
that  is,  the  oath  must  be  written  and  signed  by  the  deponent, 
that  the  statements  made  may  be  preserved. 

4.  The  form  of  official  oaths  varies  according  to  the  nature 

(574) 


OATHS    AND   BONDS.  5T5 

ol  the  duties  to  be  performed  by  tlie  deponent.  Tlie  oatb  must 
be  taken  before  the  officer  enters  upon  his  duties.  Should  he 
neglect  or  refuse  to  do  this,  his  acts  will  be  illegal,  and  he 
would  make  himself  liable  to  punishment. 

After  the  late  civil  war  broke  out,  Congress  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  those  who  had  voluntarily  taken  part  in  the 
rebellion,  from  holding  thereafter  any  office  under  the  govern- 
ment, passed  an  act  requiring  every  one  before  he  could  accept 
any  office,  either  in  the  civil,  military,  or  naval  departments,  to 
take  an  oath  in  the  following  form: 

5.  I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  have  never 
voluntarily  borne  arms  against  the  United  States,  since  I  have 
oeeu  a  citizen  thereof;  that  I  have  voluntarily  given  no  aid, 
countenance,  counsel  or  encouragement  to  persons  engaged  in 
armed  hostility  thereto;  that  I  have  neither  sought,  nor 
accepted,  nor  attempted  to  exercise  the  functions  of  any  office 
whatever,  under  any  authority  or  pretended  authority  in  hos- 
tility to  tlie  United  States;  that  1  have  not  yielded  a  voluntary 
fiupport  to  any  pretended  government,  authority,  power  or 
•Constitution,  within  the  United  States,  hostile  or  inimical 
thereto.  And  I  do  further  swear  (or  affirm)  that  to  the  best  of 
my  knowledge  and  ability,  I  will  support  and  defend  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  against  all  enemies,  foreign  and 
■domestic;  that  I  will  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  same; 
that  I  take  this  obligation  freely,  without  any  mental  reserva- 
tion or  purpose  of  evasion,  and  that  I  will  well  and  faithfully 
discharge  the  duties  of  the  office  on  which  I  am  about  to  enter. 
So  help  me  God." 

So  strong  and  comprehensive  an  oath  as  this  was  never  before 
required  from  any  officer  of  the  government.  It  answers  th& 
requirements  of  the  Constitution,  and  substantially  compre- 
hends all  contained  in  any  other  forms  heretofore  used.  It  is 
at  once  an  oath  of  allegiance,  an  oath  of  support  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  an  oath  to  discharge  faithfully  the  duties  of  the 
office  taken.  This  goes  by  the  name  of  the  Test  oath,  and 
frequently  "  The  Iron-clad  Oath." 


576  OATHS   AND    BONDS. 

6.  The  object  of  the  test  oath  was,  during  the  Civil  "War, 
to  prevent  the  entrance  into  any  office  of  a  person  who  might 
be  secretly  unfriendly  to  the  government,  and  use  his  position 
to  the  advantage  of  its  enemies.  So  comprehensive  and  minute 
an  oath  would  allow  no  chance  of  mental  evasion  to  a  con- 
scientious person,  and  would  lay  the  offender  under  the  liability 
of  severe  punishment.  It  is  evidently  proper  to  bind  all  offi- 
cers of  the  general  and  State  governments  under  the  strongest 
and  most  solemn  obligation  to  a  faithful  and  honest  discharge 
of  their  duties. 

7.  Whoever  receives  an  office  in  the  United  States,  which 
is  connected  with  the  revenue  in  any  way,  so  that  public  money 
passes  through  his  hands,  is  required  to  give  a  bond  as  secu- 
rity for  such  money.  These  bonds  give  the  government  a  claim 
on  their  property  if  the  money  is  not  accounted  for  according 
to  the  directions  of  the  law.  They  are  signed  by  one  or  more 
persons  who  must  show  that  they  have  the  means  to  pay  the 
amount  for  which  they  become  security.  The  amount  ot  secu- 
rity required  depends  on  the  sums  of  money  that  are  to  pass 
through  the  hands  of  the  official,  or  which  is  likely  at  any  time  to 
accumulate  in  his  possession.  The  government  takes  all  the  care 
it  can  that  there  shall  be  no  risk  of  loss  of  the  public  property, 
and  the  bond  is  designed  to  afford  adequate  security  for  all  that 
any  officer  may  have  charge  of. 

8.  By  this  means  two  important  ends  are  gained.  No  per- 
son can  get  an  office  who  has  no  friends  and  no  reputation  for 
uprightness  sufficient  to  induce  those  that  know  him  to  risk 
their  own  property  on  his  honesty  and  faithfulness.  It  was 
designed  to  be  a  sure  means  for  the  government  of  finding  out 
who  were  to  be  trusted.  If  he  has  not  property  himself,  so 
that  he  can  secure  his  bondsmen  to  their  satisfaction,  he  must 
have  so  high  a  character  for  integrity  that  they  are  willing  to 
risk  their  money  in  his  hands,  or  he  cannot  obtain  an  office. 
Security  for  public  funds,  and  a  high  degree  of  personal  worth 
are  both  expected  to  be  gained  by  this  requirement. 

On  the  whole,  this  works  very  well  indeed,  in  both  respects, 


GOVERNMENT   PRISONS.  57T 

but  there  seems  no  security,  that  is  quite  infallible,  against 
roguery,  unless  it  be  in  the  extreme  care  of  the  people,  and  their 
constant  watchfulness  over  all  the  affairs  of  the  country  and  all 
the  men  who  represent  them.  It  ie  difficult  to  make  a  house 
so  strong  that  a  thief  cannot  get  into  it  by  force  or  stratagem, 
and  rogues  who  wish  to  steal  from  the  public  funds  may  band 
together  and  help  one  another  to  get  into  office  and  then  divide 
what  spoil  they  can  secure;  or  unforseen  events  may  bring 
more  money  than  was  properly  secured  into  an  officer's  hands, 
or  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  he  disburses  the  funds  at 
the  right  times  may  be  careless  or  dishonest. 

9.  The  only  sure  way  is  to  take  care  that  none  but  men  of 
proved  integrity  get  into  office,  and  to  take  all  pains  to  cultivate 
honesty  in  the  community  at  large.  The  money  lost  by  the 
government  is  probably  much  less  ia  proportion  than  in  the 
private  business  of  the  country.  Great  watchfulness  is  really 
exercised,  and  when  such  a  case  occurs  it  is  immediately  known 
through  the  whole  country.  Not  many  men  are  willing  to  run 
so  much  risk  of  punishment  and  public  reprobation.  Too 
much  care,  however,  cannot  be  taken  to  prevent  corruption  in 
public  life.  It  destroys  the  purity  and  soundness  of  character 
on  which  our  institutions  are  founded.  A  republic  cannot 
exist  without  a  high  standard  of  virtue. 

10.  Every  official  is  required  to  take  an  oath,  or  make  a  sol- 
emn affirmation  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  office  faithfully. 
Though  we  cannot  expect  to  be  quite  secure  against  the  trick- 
ery and  insincerity  of  false  and  corrupt  men,  yet  we  have 
reason,  on  the  whole,  to  congratulate  ourselves  on  the  general 
security  of  public  property,  and  the  watchfulness  of  the  people 
ovftr  their  servants  in  places  of  trust. 


CHAPTEE    YI. 

GOYEENMENT  PEISONS. 

i.     The  United  States  government  has  always  endeavored  to 
continue,  as  it  commenced,  to  rule  with  vigor,  and  to  preserve 
37 


578  PROCLAMATIONS. 

a  wholesome  respect  for  its  own  aiitkority  and  the  rights  of  all 
its  citizens,  while  it  has,  beyond  all  other  governments,  proba- 
bly, that  have  ever  existed  sought  to  avoid  arbitrariness  and 
severity;  keeping  in  mind  the  principle  lying  at  the  founda- 
tion of  its  institutions  that  it  exists,  not  for  itself,  but  for  the 
good  of  the  people.  It  has  assumed  that  the  people  generally 
would  not  require  coercion  to  submit  to  its  regulations,  and 
has  not,  therefore,  made  that  ample  provision  for  punishment 
and  intimidation  that  is  usual  among  governments. 

In  confirmation  of  this  we  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
general  government  does  not  own,  and  has  never  built,  prisons 
for  the  confinement  of  offenders  against  its  laws.  Imprison- 
ment, as  the  mildest  form  of  punishment,  has,  indeed,  very  often 
been  inflicted,  more  often  than  any  other  form  of  punishment. 
How  does  this  occur  when  they  own  no  prisons?  The  answer 
is  that  they  use  the  prisons  of  the  States  wherever  they  will 
allow  it.  This  arrangement  between  the  general  and  State 
governments  has  been  made  in  nearly  if  not  all  the  States;  the 
United  States  paying  for  the  support  of  their  prisoners. 

2.  But  in  case  any  State  should  refuse  to  make  such  an 
agreement,  the  United  States  marshal  of  any  district  where  a 
prisoner  is  to  be  confined,  is  authorized  to  procure  some  build- 
ing where  the  prisoners  may  be  safely  confined  in  the  district 
where  they  have  been  tried  and  convicted,  or  where  they  have 
been  arrested  and  are  held  for  trial. 

This  is  a  far  more  economical  plan  than  it  would  be  for  the 
United  States  to  build  prisons  all  over  the  country,  and  then  to 
employ  keepers  of  them.  It  exemplifies  the  friendly  relations 
existing  between  the  States  and  the  general  government. 


CHAPTER    YII. 

PEOCLAMATIONS. 

1.     A  Proclamation  is  an  official  notice  published  by  one 
high  in  authority,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  reliable  and  author- 


PROCLAMATIONS.  579 

itative  information  to  the  people  that  something  has  been  done, 
or  will  soon  be  done,  which  is  important  for  them  to  know, 
that  they  may  act,  or  refrain  from  acting  according  to  the 
information  contained  in  the  proclamation.  These  proclama- 
tions arc  made  known  to  the  country  through  the  most  exten- 
sive channels  of  information  that  can  be  used  for  conveying 
intelligence  to  everybody  in  the  Republic.  In  our  day,  and  in 
our  country,  the  newspapers  are  the  best  means  that  can  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  But  in  ancient  times,  and  before  the 
art  of  printing  was  known,  swift  riders  or  runners  were  dis- 
patched to  every  part  of  the  kingdom  or  country  over  which 
the  proclamation  was  to  be  made  knoMm.  These  messengers 
carried  it  with  them,  and  proclaimed  it  in  the  ears  of  all  the 
people. 

2.  Tliese  documents  are  official  acts  brought  before  the 
people  in  due  form  and  solemnity.  Sometimes  they  are  only 
recommendations;  at  others  they  have  all  the  force  of  organic 
law,  or  tlie  acts  of  Congress. 

It  has,  for  some  years,  been  the  custom  of  the  Executive 
to  designate  some  day  toward  the  close  of  the  year  as  a  day 
of  thanksgiving,  recommending  the  day  to  be  observed  in  a 
religious  manner.  Important  changes  in  the  commercial 
affairs  between  us  and  some  foreign  country  are  made  known 
by  the  same  method. 

3.  A  memorable  proclamation  was  made  by  President 
Lincoln,  in  1862,  by  which  he  made  known  to  the  country,  and 
especially  to  the  Southern  States,  that  if  they  continued  their 
war  against  the  United  States  for  one  hundred  days  after  its 
issuance,  he  would  then,  in  virtue  of  his  authority  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  and  navy,  liberate  the  slaves  in 
all  the  seceded  States.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time,  which 
was  on  the  first  of  January,  1863,  he  issued  another  proclama- 
tion, in  and  by  which  he  did  emancipate  all  the  slaves  in  every 
State  which  had  warred  against  the  United  States  government. 

The  blockading  of  our  ports  at  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war,  and  the  imposition  of  an  embargo  upon  our  ship- 


580  COMMISSIONERS. 

ping,  previous  to  the  last  war  with  England,  were  both  subjects 
which  brought  out  proclamations  from  the  President  who  then 
filled  the  Executive  chair, 

4.  The  above  examples  show  the  character  of  the  cases  which 
cause  proclamations  to  be  issued.  In  some  instances  they  have 
tlie  authority  of  law;  in  others  they  are  merely  recommenda- 
tions; and  in  others  only  communicate  important  intelligence 
in  regard  to  our  public  affairs  at  home  or  abroad. 


CHAPTEK    YIII. 

COMMISSIONEES. 

1.  As  it  is  one  purpose  of  this  work  to  give  a  clear  and 
complete  account  of  the  mode  of  conducting  the  affairs  of  the 
general  government,  we  have  thought  it  best  to  call  attention 
to  the  class  of  officers  named  at  the  head  of  this  chapter;  and 
especially  since  persons  acting  under  this  title  are  assigned  to 
a  variety  of  duties,  sometimes  permanent  and  sometimes 
temporary.  In  the  first  place,  they  act  as  heads  of  bureaus  in 
the  various  departments.  These  commissioners  are  permanent 
officials  of  the  government,  established  and  provided  for  by 
law;  such  are  the  commissioners  of  the  land  office,  patent 
office,  pension  office,  &c. 

2.  Another  class  of  commissioners  can  hardly  be  considered 
officers,  but  rather  temporary  or  special  agents.  In  the  multi- 
fui'ious  duties  devolving  uj)on  Congress,  the  President,  and  all 
the  departments,  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  it  is  imprac- 
ticable for  them  to  do  certain  things  necessary  to  be  done. 
The  business  to  be  transacted  may  bo  at  a  great  distance  from 
the  capital,  even  in  a  foreign  country.  In  these  cases  com- 
missioners are  appointed  to  do  such  business.  They  have 
been  appointed  to  negotiate  a  peace,  to  make  treaties  of  various 
kinds  between  us  and  other  powers,  and  to  negotiate  with  the 
Indians  for  the  purchase  of  their  lands.  The  United  States 
courts  appoint  them  to  take  bail,  or  to  take  testimony  to  be 


OFFICIAL    REGISTER.  581 

used  on  trials,  and  do  various  other  things  necessary  in  trials 
und  proceedings  before  them. 

3.  Congress  frequently  appoints  commissioners  to  obtain 
information,  or  to  investigate  some  matter  on  which  they 
expect  to  legislate.  In  all  eases  they  must  report  their  pro- 
ceedings, either  to  Congress,  to  the  President,  or  to  the  head 
of  the  department  under  whose  instruction  they  act.  Perma- 
nent commissioners  report  once  a  year,  or  oftener  if  required, 
that  Congress  may  know  the  condition  of  aifairs  in  their 
respective  bureaus.  Special  commissioners,  after  they  have 
performed  the  work  assigned,  make  their  report;  after  which 
their  duties  cease,  and  their  commission  comes  to  an  end. 

4.  The  lowest  grade  of  diplomatic  agents  are  called  com- 
missioners. We  are  thus  represented  at  the  present  time  in 
the  Republics  of  Hayti  and  Liberia. 

5.  By  recent  acts  of  Congress,  the  powers  of  commission- 
ers in  some  cases  have  been  enlarged.  They  now  examine 
persons  charged  with  crimes  against  the  laws  of  the  United 
States;  hold  them  to  bail,  discharge  them,  or  commit  them  to 
prison;  and  do  other  magisterial  acts,  preliminary  to  the  trial 
of  the  accused.  When  acting  in  such  cases,  they  are  clothed 
with  some  of  the  powers  of  a  court. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

OFFICIAL   REGISTER. 

1.  Congress,  in  1816,  passed  an  act  authorizing  and  requir- 
ing the  Secretary  of  State,  once  in  two  years,  to  print  and 
publish  a  book  called  "  the  official  register,"  in  which  he  was 
ordered  to  register  the  name  of  every  officer  and  agent  of  the 
government,  in  the  civil,  military  and  naval  departments, 
including  cadets  and  midshipmen,  together  with  the  compen- 
sation received  by  each;  the  names  of  the  State  and  county 
where  born;  and  the  name  of  the  place  where  employed, 
"vr^ther  at  home  or  dbroad. 


582  THE   STAES   AND    STRIPES. 

To  the  list  of  persons  employed  in  the  Navy  Department, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  required  to  subjoin  the  names, 
force  and  condition  of  all  the  ships  and  vessels  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  and  when  and  where  built. 

This  work  has  been  published  and  distributed,  as  the  law 
directs,  ever  since  the  passage  of  the  act,  and  is  sometimes 
denominated  "  the  blue  book."  It  is  a  very  convenient  and 
useful  publication,  as  it  shows  in  compact  form  the  whole  offi- 
cial force  of  the  government  in  each  department,  together  with 
the  cost  of  maintaining  it. 

As  it  contains  only  names  and  dates  and  facts  relating  to 
persons,  comparatively  few  would  take  the  pains  to  read  it, 
and  but  a  small  number  is  published.  It  can  be  found  in 
the  Congressional  library  at  "Washington,  where  twenty-five 
copies  of  each  edition  are  deposited. 


CHAPTEE    X. 

THE  STAES  AND  STEIPES. 

A  nation's  Flag  represents  its  sovereignty.  It  is  adopted 
by  its  supreme  authority  as  a  symbol  or  sign  of  itself,  and 
wherever  it  waves  the  fact  of  the  substantial  control  of  that 
authority,  at  that  point,  is  thereby  asserted.  If  there  is  a 
struggle  between  two  powers  for  control,  the  presence  of  the 
flag  proves  that  the  authority  it  represents  still  maintains 
itself,  and  its  subjugation  is  declared  by  lowering  its  flag  and 
by  the  substitution  of  another  in  its  place. 

The  flag  is,  therefore,  an  expression  to  the  eye  of  the  condi- 
tion of  things;  and  attracts  the  sympathies  and  antipathies, 
the  joys  and  sorrows,  the  hopes  and  fears  of  those  interested  in 
the  sovereignty  it  represents.  It  is  the  rallying  point  of  sen- 
timent and  of  energy.  The  affection  and  reverence  bestowed 
on  our  country  will  light  up  into  a  patriotic  flame  at  sight  of 
its  flag.  It  is  associated  with  all  the  heroic  deeds  and  achiev- 
ments  that  adorn  our  national  history,  and  with  the  loss  of  all 


THE   STARS   AND   STRIPES.  683 

those  we  honored  and  loved  who  followed  and  fought  for  it,  and 
gave  their  lives  in  its  defense.  Onr  "  Star  Spangled  Banner  " 
has  been  a  thousand  times  baptized  in  blood  dearer  to  us  than 
our  own,  and  the  sight  of  it  recalls  all  these  sacrifices  so  cheer- 
fully made  to  establish  or  to  preserve  our  institutions.  The 
flag  of  the  United  States  may  well  call  forth  more  enthusiastic 
affection,  pride,  and  hope  than  any  other  in  the  world ;  for  it 
symbolizes  not  only  home,  country,  and  associations  dear  to 
Americans,  but  the  justice,  liberty,  and  right  of  self  govern- 
ment that  are  dear  to  all  mankind.  Humanity  at  large  has  a 
deep  interest  in  it. 

Its  history  is  this:  Soon  after  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence the  Continental  Congress  appointed  a  committee  to  con- 
fer with  Gen.  Washington  and  "  design  a  suitable  flag  for  the 
nation."  After  the  painful  and  depressing  defeat  on  Long 
Island,  the  retreat  through  the  Jerseys  and  across  the  Dela- 
ware, when  everything  seemed  lost  for  the  new  government, 
Washington  suddenly  struck  the  vigorous  blows  at  Trenton 
and  Princeton  that  confounded  the  enemy  and  drove  him  back 
to  Staten  Island.  Congress  and  the  country  were  cheered  with 
a  hope  and  a  resolution  that  never  afterwards  failed  them ;  for 
in  the  next  campaign  occurred  the  capture  of  Burgoyne,  fol- 
lowed by  the  treaty  with  France;  and  the  close  of  the  war  in 
our  favor  was  henceforth  only  a  question  of  time. 

In  the  month  of  Mayor  early  June,  1777,  following  the  stag- 
gering blow  Washington  had  given  the  British  army  in  Jer- 
sey, the  committee  referred  to  above,  and  Washington,  com- 
pleted the  design  for  a  flag.  This  was  accomplished  and  the 
first  flag  made  at  the  house  of  a  Mrs.  Ross,  in  Arch  St.,  Phila- 
delphia. The  house  is  still  standing — 'No.  239.  She  had  a 
shop  where  she  followed  the  "  upholder"  trade,  as  it  was  ther 
called — the  same  as  our  upholstering.  One  day  the  Com- 
mander-in-chief, Hon.  Geo.  Eoss,  a  relative  of  hers,  and  certain 
members  of  Congress,  called  on  her,  with  a  design  for  a  flag — 
thirteen  red  and  white  stripes,  alternate  with  thirteen  six 
pointed  stars — and  requested  her  to  make  the  flag.     She  con- 


584  THE    STARS   AND   STRIPES. 

sen  ted  but  suggested  that  the  stars  would  be  more  symmetrical 
and  more  pleasing  to  the  eye  if  made  with  five  points,  and 
folded  a  sheet  of  paper  and  produced  the  pattern  by  a  single 
cut.  This  was  approved  and  she  finished  a  flag  the  next  day. 
Mrs.  Koss  was  given  the  position  of  manufacturer  of  flags  for 
the  government,  which  descended  to  her  children. 

This  was  the  flag  that  led  our  armies  to  victory  during  the 
remainder  of  the  war,  waved  over  the  crestfallen  soldiers  of 
Burgoyne  and  Cornwallis,  and  at  the  mast  head  of  John  Paul 
Jones  on  the  English  coast.  In  1794  this  flag  was  changed, 
though  its  chief  features  were  retained.  Congress  then  ordered 
that  the  flag  should  consist  of  fifteen  stripes,  alternate  red  and 
white,  and  fifteen  stars,  white  on  a  blue  field.  There  were 
then  fifteen  States.  The  stars  and  stripes  were  equal,  and  a 
stripe  and  a  star  were  added  with  the  advent  of  each  new  State. 
This  was  changed  in  1818,  as  the  States  increased  and  the  flag 
threatened  to  become  too  large,  by  reducing  the  stripes  to  thir- 
teen, representing  the  original  Union,  and  the  stars  were  made 
equal  to  the  number  of  States.  No  change  has  since  been 
made  except  to  add  a  star  whenever  the  union  increased  by  the 
admission  of  a  State. 

"  The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  a  stirring  patriotic  song  which 
is  to  Americans  what  the  "  Marseillaise  "  is  to  the  French, 
was  composed  by  the  author  during  the  cannonade  of  Fort 
McHenry,  near  Baltimore,  by  the  British  fleet  co-operating 
with  an  army  which  was  to  attack  it,  simultaneously  with  the 
fall  of  the  fort,  by  land,  Sept.  13th,  1814.  Tlie  poet  had  gone 
on  board  the  fleet  under  a  flag  of  truce  before  the  attack  began, 
to  negotiate  about  some  prisoners,  and  was  obliged  to  remain 
until  the  next  day,  the  cannonade  continuing  during  the  night. 
If  the  fort  surrendered  Baltimore  would  be  taken;  and  the  fate 
of  Washington,  pillaged  and  burned  a  few  days  before,  filled 
the  people  with  the  anxiety  which  is  expressed  by  the  poet,  to 
know  if  the  fiag  still  waved  in  the  morning  "  over  the  Land  of 
the  Free  and  the  Home  of  the  Brave."  The  joy  of  all  America 
may  be  conceived  when  Admiral  Cockrane  drew  off  his  fleet 


GKEAT   SEAL   OF   THE   TINITED   STATES.  585 

and  took  the  British  army  on  board,  while  the  "  Stars  and 
Stripes "  continued  to  float  gaily  on  the  breeze  over  Fort 
McHenry. 


CHAPTER     XI. 

THE  GREAT  SEAL  OF  THE  UJSTITED  STATES. 

1.  The  use  of  seals  to  give  authority  to  documents,  and  to 
establish  their  genuineness,  comes  down  to  us  from  a  remote 
antiquity.  It  is  much  easier  to  counterfeit  a  signature  alone, 
than  the  impression  of  a  seal,  and  when  both  occur  on  a  docu- 
ment it  is  considered  fairly  safe  to  be  relied  on  as  a  sign  of 
authority. 

They  are  usually  emblematic  of  some  event,  or  sentiment 
attaching  to  the  history  or  prevailing  tendency  and  feeling  of 
a  country.  They  are  used  on  documents  or  papers  issued  by 
the  government.  Some  of  the  Departments  have  a  special  seal 
for  their  own  use,  in  cases  where  the  signature  of  the  Presi- 
dent is  not  required.  If  it  is  not  aflSxed  to  the  proper  papers 
they  fail  to  become  legal  and  have  no  authority. 

2.  The  usual  mode  of  affixing  the  seal  formerly  was  by 
placing  melted  wax  on  the  paper  and  pressing  the  seal  on  it 
giving  a  fac  simile  or  perfect  representation  of  it.  As  this 
required  time  and  business  increased  with  the  growth  of  the 
country.  Congress  passed  an  act  making  it  lawful  to  affix  the 
seal  by  making  the  impression  directly  on  paper. 

The  custody  of  the  Great  Seal  is  with  the  Secretary  of  State, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  affix  it  to  all  civil  commissions  issued  to 
officers  of  the  United  States  appointed  by  the  President  and 
Senate,  or  by  the  President  alone.  But  it  is  forbidden  to  be 
affixed  before  the  President  has  signed  it.  The  seal  alone 
without  the  signature  has  no  value.  It  is  used  to  show  the 
genuineness  of  the  President's  signature. 

3.  The  Secretary  of  State  and  all  the  other  secretaries  of  the 
great  departments,  each  have  a  seal  of  office  which  is  affixed  to 


586  GEEAT   SEAL    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

commissions,  and  to  other  instruments  emanating  from  their 
respective  offices. 

Several  of  the  most  important  bureaus  are  required  by  law 
to  have  seals  of  office;  for  example,  the  Land  Office  and  the 
Patent  Office.  When  the  United  States  gives  a  patent  (title) 
to  land,  it  must  be  sealed  by  the  Land  Office  seal.  A  patent 
right  must  be  issued  under  the  seal  of  the.  Patent  Office. 

4.  One  of  the  most  common  and  important  uses  of  seals 
arises  from  the  necessity  people  are  often  under  to  have  copies 
of  records,  maps,  and  various  other  papers,  the  originals  of 
which  are  in  some  of  the  departments  at  Washington,  to  be 
used  as  evidence  in  courts,  where  trials  and  other  legal  proceed- 
ings are  pending.  In  order  to  provide  for  this  necessity.  Con- 
gress has  enacted  that  copies  of  such  records,  maps  and  papers 
belonging  to  any  of  the  government  offices,  under  the  signa- 
ture of  the  head  of  such  office,  or  of  its  chief  clerk,  with  the 
seal  affixed,  shall  be  as  competent  evidence  in  all  cases  as  their 
originals  would  be, 

mSTORY    OF   THE    GREAT   SEAL. 

1.  Soon  after  the  formal  establishment  of  the  Republic  by 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  Benjamin  Franklin,  John 
A-dams,  and  Thomas  Jefferson  were  appointed  a  committee  to 
prepare  a  seal.  They  employed  an  artist  and  furnished  various 
devices;  Jefferson  combining  them  all  at  the  request  of  the 
others.  The  paper  still  exists  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  at  Washington.  They  reported  Aug.  10th,  1776,  but  for 
some  unknown  reason,  probably  neglect,  it  was  not  acted  on. 

In  1779  another  committee  was  appointed,  to  make  a  device. 
They  reported  May  10th,  1780.  It  was  nofacceptable,  and  was 
recommitted,  being  again  reported  a  year  afterwards,  but  not 
adopted.  In  1782  a  third  committee  was  appointed,  but  could 
not  satisfy  Congress  in  their  report.  It  was  then  referred  to 
the  Secretary  of  Congress,  Charles  Thomson,  who  procured 
various  devices  that  were  unsatisfactory. 

After  vainly  striving  to  perfect  a  seal  which  should  meet  the 
approval  of  Congress,  Thomson  finally  received  from  JohD 


GKEAT   SEAL    OF  THE    UNITED    STATES.  58T 

Adams,  then  in  London,  an  exceedingly  simple  and  appropriate 
device,  suggested  by  Sir  John  Prestwitch,  a  baronet  of  the 
"West  of  England,  who  was  a  warm  friend  of  America,  and  an 
accomplished  antiquarian.  It  consisted  of  an  escutcheon  bear- 
ing thirteen  perpendicular  stripes,  white  and  red,  with  the 
chief  blue,  and  spangled  with  thirteen  stars;  and,  to  give  it 
greater  consequence,  he  proposed  to  place  it  on  the  breast  of 
an  American  eagle,  displayed,  without  supporters,  as  emblem- 
atic of  self-reliance.  It  met  with  general  approbation,  in  and 
out  of  Congress,  and  was  adopted  in  June,  1782;  so  it  is  man- 
ifest, although  the  fact  is  not  extensively  known,  that  we  are 
indebted  for  our  national  arms  to  a  titled  aristocrat  of  the 
country  with  which  we  were  then  at  war.  Eschewing  all  her- 
aldic technicalities,  it  may  be  thus  described  in  plain  English: 
Tliirteen  perpendicular  pieces,  white  and  red;  a  blue  field;  the 
escutcheon  on  the  breast  of  the  American  eagle  displayed,  hold- 
ing in  his  right  talon  an  olive-branch,  and  in  his  left  a  bundle 
of  thirteen  arrows,  and  in  his  beak  a  scroll,  inscribed  with  the 
motto  E  Pluribus  Unum.  For  the  crest,  over  the  head  of 
the  eagle,  which  appears  above  the  escutcheon,  a  golden  glory 
breaking  through  a  cloud,  and  surrounding  thirteen  stars, 
forming  a  constellation  of  white  stars  on  a  blue  field. 

Reverse. — A  pyramid  unfinished.  In  the  zenith,  an  eye  in 
a  triangle,  surrounded  with  a  glory.  Over  the  eye,  the  words 
Annuit  Cmptis — "God  has  favored  the  undertaking."  On 
the  base  of  the  pyramid,  are  the  numeral  Roman  letters 
MDCCLXXYI;  and  underneath  the  motto,  Novus  Ordo 
SeculoTv.m — "  A  New  Series  of  Ages  " — denoting  that  a  new 
order  of  things  had  commenced  in  the  "Western  hemisphere. 
Thus,  after  many  fruitless  efforts,  for  nearly  six  years,  a  very 
simple  seal  was  adopted,  and  yet  remains  the  arms  of  the 
United  States. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

THE   ORIGIN   OF  LAW. 

1.  Tlie  origin  of  law  varies  with  the  character  or  class  of 
the  government  under  which  it  is  made.  Yv^here  all  authority- 
is  concentrated  in  the  liands  of  one  man  his  will  becomes  law 
whenever  expressed,  or  when  expressed  in  some  regular  and 
formal  way.  More  generally  laws  are  originated,  in  our  days, 
in  civilized  countries  where  there  is  a  monarchial  government, 
by  the  ruler  in  conjunction  with  representatives  of  the  people 
or  some  classes  of  them.  In  point  of  fact,  rulers  are  always 
obliged  to  regard  the  habits,  traditions,  and  feelings  of  the 
people  more  or  less,  or  they  may  be  obliged  by  a  revolution,  or 
the  intrigues  of  the  ambitious  founded  on  their  discontent,  to 
retire  to  private  life.  The  real  prominence  of  the  people  in 
their  governments  is  constantly  becoming  greater  in  all  civiL 
ized  lands,  and  it  seems  highly  probable  that,  before  many 
generations  have  passed,  all  governments  not  founded  on  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  Sovereignty  of  the  People  will  be 
incapable  of  maintaining  themselves. 

2.  In  the  United  States  of  America  the  source  of  all 
authority,  and  the  origin  of  all  law,  is  in  the  people  alone. 
The  fact  that  laws  are  made  by  Representatives  does  not  alter 
the  princijple  at  all.  They  are  simply  the  substitutes  or  agents 
of  the  people.  Where  there  are  man;)?  people  any  other  than 
a  Represontative  Democracy  is  impossible.  These  are  chosen 
from  among  their  equals,  and  when  their  term  of  office  has 
expired  return  to  the  common  level.  If  they  are  ambitious 
of  more  than  '>ne  term  of  office  they  must  take  special  care 
not  to  offisnd  the  majority  that  first  elected  them. 

3.  The  first  signal  exercise  of  the  law  making  power  by  the 
people  was  in  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  as  the  Funda- 
mental Law.  This  established  the  character  of  the  govern- 
ment, prescribed  the  duties  and  limits  of  the  legislative  and 
executive  branches,  and  organized  a  third  branch  to  watch 
over  the  action  of  the  other  two  and  keep  it  in  harmony  with 

(588) 


THE   ORIGIN    OF   LAW.  589 

the  Constitution.  Tliis  Instrument  then  became  the  source  or 
foundation  of  all  special  law.  It  is  a  comprehensive  state- 
ment of  the  will  of  the  people,  but  it  may  be  changed  or 
enlarged  in  a  prescribed  way.  It  is  binding  on  all  legislators 
and  executives.  Whatever  may  be  enacted  or  done  by  them 
not  in  accord  with  it  is  nuU  and  void;  the  Supreme  Court 
being  bound  so  to  announce  when  the  fact  shall  be  proved 
before  it.  The  Constitution  is  the  Law  of  the  Land,  Any 
laws  enacted  by  Congress,  or  by  State  Legislatures,  not  con- 
trary to  it,  are  valid  and  binding ;  but  any  attempt  to  set  aside 
any  of  its  provisions,  or  disregard  its  true  intent,  would  be 
usurpation  and  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  the  people.  The 
term  State  Sovereignty  can,  consequently,  be  true  only  in  a 
limited  and  secondary  sense,  this  being  a  higher  Sovereignty 
6till. 

4.  The  larger  part  of  the  general  laws  by  which  we  are  gov- 
erned are  made  by  Congress,  that  body  having  been  instituted 
to  that  special  end.  It  is  composed  of  a  popular  House,  or 
one  chosen  directly  by  the  people,  and  one  more  select,  chosen 
by  the  State  Legislatures  to  represent  their  States  as  a  whole. 
If  the  Legislature  represents  the  will  of  the  people  of  the 
State  accurately,  as  it  always  does  unless  some  change  in  pop- 
ular opinion  takes  place  suddenly  after  it  has  been  elected,  the 
Senators  as  well  as  Representatives  will  embody  the  views  of 
the  people  in  their  respective  States.  So  we  see  that  the  peo- 
ple are  Sovereign  and  law  really  originates  with  them.  Laws, 
indeed,  may  be  made  by  their  agents  that  do  not  suit  them ; 
but,  if  they  cannot  induce  them  to  repeal  such  laws  by  peti- 
tion, remonstrance,  or  otherwise,  at  once,  by  waiting  a  little 
until  the  terms  of  such  members  expire  they  can  replace  them 
by  others  pledged  to  carry  out  their  views.  Thus  the  general 
policy  of  the  government  is  determined  by  the  people  at  the 
general  elections.  They  give  the  law  to  the  law  makers,  and 
appoint  the  executives  who  will  administer  them  in  the  spirit 
they  approve.  The  whole  matter  is  within  their  control  as  a 
point  of  power,  and  still  more  so  from  the  natural  deference 


590  THE   ORIGIN   OF   LAW. 

the  Representatives  of  the  people  feel  toward  the  wlsnes  of 
those  on  whose  favor  they  depend.  The  deep  indignatioi*  or 
contempt  of  their  fellow  men  will  seldom  be  incurred,  even  if 
they  have  no  ambition  for  further  electoral  honors. 

5.  The  treaties  made  by  the  President,  which  require  to  be 
ratified  by  the  Senate  to  become  binding,  and  the  approval  of 
the  House  of  Kepresentatives  if  money  is  required  to  carry 
them  into  effect  —  since  only  that  branch  can  dispose  of  the 
property  of  the  country,  or  originate  laws  for  raising  money — 
have  also  the  force  of  general  laws.  The  whole  country  is 
bound  to  act  in  conformity  with  their  provisions.  We  have, 
then,  three  kinds  of  law,  or  laws  from  three  different  sources 
that  are  alike  binding  on  the  whole  country :  the  Constitution, 
which  is  unchangeable  except  by  vote  of  the  Legislatures  or 
conventions  of  three-fourths  of  the  States;  the  laws  of  Con- 
gress, which  may  be  made  and  repealed  at  their  pleasure;  and 
treaty  law,  which  involves  the  consent  of  a  foreign  State,  but 
requires  the  assent  of  the  President  and  one  or  both  bodies  of 
Congress,  and  which  may  be  abrogated  or  modified  at  the 
united  pleasure  of  all  the  parties  concerned  in  making  it. 

6.  There  is  a  fourth  species  of  law  more  general  still  and 
more  or  less  of  which  is  often  involved  in  treaties  with  foreign 
governments.  This  is  the  Law  of  Nations,  or  the  principles 
acknowledged  by  all  civilized  nations  as  binding  on  them  in 
their  intercourse  with  each  other.  The  only  binding  force  it 
possesses  is  in  the  general  practice  of  mankind,  and  the 
authority  of  public  opinion.  This  is  commonly  effective,  since 
all  law  depends  really  on  the  approval  of  the  people  for  its 
efficacy,  or  at  least  on  their  silent  submission  if  they  disapprove. 

7.  In  every  State  in  the  Union  the  people  elect  a  Legisla- 
tive body  w^hich  makes  such  local  laws  as  the  people  wish  to 
be  governed  by,  and  as  their  special  circumstances  require; 
but  they  are  not  permitted  to  legislate  on  general  questions, 
to  make  any  law  contrary  to  the  Constitution,  or  to  the  laws 
of  Congress,  nor  are  its  laM^s  binding  on  any  but  the  citizens 
of  the  State  in  which  they  are  made,  or  such  others  as  may  be 


THE   LAW   OF   NATIONS.  591 

residing  there.  Each  State  has  a  Constitution  which  deter- 
mines the  special  organization  of  its  government,  and  limits 
and  defines  the  powers  of  its  diflferent  branches;  but  it  is 
required  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Tlie  Constitution,  Legislature  and*  officers  of  a  State 
are  determined  bj  vote  of  its  people. 

8.  After  this  examination  we  reach  this  conclusion:  That 
there  is  no  institution  in  the  United  States  that  has  not  been 
virtually  established  by  the  people,  its  fundamental  law  was 
adopted  by  them  of  their  own  free  will  and  may  be  changed 
when  they  see  fit;  and  that  if  all  the  laws,  of  Avhatever  kind, 
that  are  binding  on  them,  are  not  such  as  they  prefer,  they  are, 
at  least,  originally  responsible  for  them,  and  have  in  their 
hands  the  means  of  changing  them  within  a  reasonably  short 
period.  In  fact  their  demand  or  the  zeal  of  their  Representa- 
tives for  their  interests  usually  originates  whatever  laws  are 
made.  The  constant  general  prosperity  of  the  country  since 
the  establishment  of  the  present  government,  the  increase  of 
intelligence  and  self  respect  among  the  people,  and  the  bene- 
ficial influence  exerted  by  the  United  States  on  the  world  tend 
to  confirm  and  settle  its  principles  and  laws  on  a  permanent 
foundation. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
THE  LAW  OF  NATIONS. 

1.  The  laws  of  any  nation  are  the  rules  by  which  it  is  gov- 
erned, a  violation  of  which  renders  the  offender  liable  to  the 
infliction  of  certain  penalties.  These  laws,  in  many  nations, 
.a,re  carefully  and  systematically  arranged  in  the  beginning,  as 
I'n  the  United  States;  in  others,  as  in  England,  they  are  gradu- 
ally produced,  the  course  taken  in  dealing  with  the  first  of  a 
class  of  similar  cases  furnishing  a  precedent  that  is  equal  in 
force  to  a  general  law. 

2.  From  very  early  times  the  different  nations  who  had 


692  THE  LAW   OF   NATIONS. 

intercourse  with  each  other  began  to  follow  certain  rules,  which 
commonly  originated  in  the  mode  last  mentioned  above;  and 
many  of  them  became  generally  recognized  as  the  proper  guide 
in  international  intercourse.  These  customs  came,  at  length, 
to  be  called  the  L^w  of  Nations.  Writers  of  eminence  care- 
fully investigated  them,  and  studied  the  principles  on  which 
they  were  founded.  These  writers  are  held  to  be  authorities 
as  to  this  law,  and  the  principles  they  have  laid  down  are  gen- 
erally acknowledged,  by  civilized  nations  in  modern  times,  as 
the  standard  of  International  Law. 

3.  There  is  no  possibility,  in  the  present  state  of  the  world, 
of  organizing  a  tribunal  with  authority  to  impose  penalties  for 
violations  of  this  law  by  individual  nations;  though  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  may  some  time  be  the  case.  The  only  representa- 
tive of  such  a  tribunal  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  civilized 
world;  and  nations  must,  themselves,  act  as  supreme  judges 
and  executors  of  the  law  as  it  applies  (or  as  they  choose  to  hold 
it  as  applying)  to  their  disputes.  When  they  cannot  come  to 
an  agreement  with  their  adversaries,  they  commonly  Declare 
War,  and  endeavor  to  right  themselves  by  force. 

4.  This  is  not,  by  any  means,  an  equitable  cr  satisfactory 
way  of  avenging  wrongs.  The  aggressor  may  be  the  strong- 
3st;  and  the  offense,  in  that  case,  will  be  greatly  increased.  It 
causes  the  penalty,  in  any  case,  to  fall  very  heavily  on  many 
innocent  heads,  and  produces  lamentable  and  wide-spread  deso- 
lation. Yet  it  is  sometimes  better  than  tame  submission ;  and 
the  right  to  make  war  when  grievous  wrong  has  been  suffered, 
or  indignity  offered  to  the  national  honor,  is  recognized  by  the 
Law  of  ISTations ;  and  certain  rules  are  applied  by  it  as  a  guide 
in  honorable  warfare.  There  is  nothing  but  self-respect,  and 
respect  for  the  opinions  of  the  civilized  world,  to  keep  belliger- 
ent nations  within  the  limits  of  these  rules.  They  are,  how- 
ever, continually  becoming  better  defined,  and  Public  Opinion 
has  more  and  more  weight  in  each  succeeding  generation. 

5.  Some  of  the  more  important  features  of  International 
Law  (or  the  Law  of  Nations)  are,  that  every  nation  has  the  right 


THE   LAW   OF   NATIONS.  593. 

to  regulate  her  own  internal  aifairs  without  interference  frona^ 
others,  unless  some  of  these  regulations  may  seriously  aifect 
the  interests  of  a  foreign  power;  that  national  boundaries  are- 
to  be  respected  ;  that  bodies  of  water  lying  within  a  national 
territory,  and  the-  seacoast  for  three  miles  from  the  shore,  are- 
under  its  exclusive  jurisdiction  ;  and  that  a  nation  may  take- 
measures  to  protect  its  own  citizens  who  may  be  traveling  or- 
doing  business  in  other  countries,  unless  they,  violate  its  laws;, 
and  then  it  may  first  examine  the  case  T)efore  the  accused  is 
given  up  for  trial  and  punishment  to  a  foreign  court.     There - 
are  many  other  rules.     These  will  serve  as  examples. 

6.  One  class  of  these  laws  requires  special  mention,  because* 
they  are  often  more  carefully  defined  than  most  other  inter- 
national customs.     ThcfcC  are  Neutrality  Laws.     Those  now  in.' 
force  in  the  United  States  were  enacted  in  1818.  They  are  only 
a  formal  recognition  by  our  highest  legislative  authority — Con- 
gress — of  the  Law  of  i^ations  as  generally  accepted  by  other 
governments.     The  leading  regulations  are,  that  our  citizens- 
shall  not  interfere,  but  at  their  own  risk  and  peril,  in  contests- 
between  other  nations;  that  no  armament  shall  be  fitted  out  in. 
our  territory  for  the  purpose  of  making  war  on  any  power  with  s 
which  we  are  at  peace  ;  and  making  it  unlawful  for  an  Ameri- 
can vessel  to  carry  "  Contraband  of  War"  (or  war  material)  to- 
either  of  two  warring  nations.     Tt  forbids  granting  to  one- 
nation  rights  not  allowed  to  the  (tn.r  \/ith  which  it  is  at  war.. 
Neutrality  Laws  are  designed  to  avoid  causes  of  unfriendly 
feeling,  and  to  prevent  the  improper  interference  of  our  citizens 
in  the  quarrels  of  other  nations. 

7.  Our  government  believed  itself  wronged  in  the  course - 
of  the  recent  Civil  War  by  England.  It  claimed  that  the  Eng-- 
lish  government  had  not  been  at  proper  pains  to  preserve  a. 
neutral  attitude;  and  complaint  being  made,  the  two  govern- 
ments agreed  to  appoint  a  Commission  to  examine  and  arbitrate- 
the  case  —  the  decision,  whatever  it  might  be,  to  be  accepted, 
by  both  parties.  Tliis  was  done,  at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland;, 
and  probably  prevented  a  war  between  the  two  countries.     It 

38 


594  RELATION    OF   GOVERNMENT   TO    RELIGION. 

is  to  be  hoped  that  all  national  disputes  may  hereafter  be  set* 
tied  in  this  reasonable  and  Christian  way. 

8.  Treaties  are  international  laws  binding  on  the  two  oi 
more  parties  making  the  contract;  and  our  Foreign  Represen- 
tatives (as  ambassadors,  ministers  resident,  etc.)  deal  with 
International  Law  as  arranged  by  treaties  and  the  Laws  of 
Ifations. 


CHAPTEE  XIY. 

DELATION   OF    GOVERNMENT   TO   RELIGION. 

1.  Religion  has  always  exerted  so  much  influence  on  men 
that  it  has  been  customary  for  governments  to  assume  more  or 
less  control  over  it;  and,  as  the  leaders  of  religious  systems 
have  commonly  been  glad  to  get  the  support  of  governments, 
there  has  usually  existed  what  is  called  a  "  Union  of  Church 
and  State,"  the  government  endorsing  the  views  of  some 
special  religious  system,  and  giving  more  or  less  support  to  its 
officials;  sometimes,  even  refusing  to  tolerate  any  other;  or, 
if  tolerated,  reserving  its  special  recognition  and  favors,  and 
whatever  material  support  it  chose  to  give  to  religious  estab- 
lishments to  that  termed  National,  alone;  that  church  return- 
ing the  favor  by  using  its  r  eat  influence  with  the  people  to 
support  the  measures  of  the  government. 

It  is  very  distasteful  to  many  men  who  differ  from  the  views 
of  the  favored  system  to  be  required  to  support  it,  and  to  be 
frowned  upon  by  the  government  if  they  do  not  feel  inclined  tc 
cionnect  theniselves  with  it. 

2.  The  Founders  of  our  government  were  wise  enough  to 
leave  the  people  to  arrange  religious  questions  according  to 
their  pleasure.  They  were  not  unbelievers  in  religion,  but 
thought,  as  most  of  our  citizens  now  think,  that  entire  liberty 
should  be  left  to  all  to  act  in  religious  matters  as  they  felt  able 
and  inclined.  All  religious  systems  are  equally  tolerated — no 
^>vernment  support  is  given  specially  to  any.     Some  people 


RELATION   OF   GOVERNMENT   TO   RELIGION.  Li95 

do  not  approve  of  religious  oaths  (an  affirmation  in  the  iiatne 
of  God,  or  calling  God  to  witness  that  what  is  said  is  true,) 
and  from  such  persons  a  solemn  affirmation  or  statement, 
answers  the  purposes  of  the  law. 

Although  neither  the  Constitution,  nor  Congress  in  its  laws, 
prescribe  a  religious  profession  of  any  kind,  and  the  Constitu- 
tion prohibits  Congress  from  making  laws  respecting  the 
■establishment  of  a  State  religion,  or  interfering  witlt  the  free 
«xercise  of  it,  and  declares  that  "  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be 
required,  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust,  under 
the  United  States,"  neither  do  they  discourage  religion. 
Respect  is  shown,  in  many  ways,  to  religion.  Congress  usually 
appoints  a  chaplain,  now  of  one  denomination,  and  now  of 
another;  it  allows  chaplains  in  the  army  and  uavy,  and  pro- 
vides them  a  salary;  and,  of  late  years,  the  President  recom- 
mends a  day  of  IS'ational  thanksgiving  to  God  once  a  year,  for 
the  blessings  we  enjoy,  and  sometimes  proclaims  a  day  of  fast- 
ing and  prayer.  It  shows  all  due  respect  to  the  religious 
beliefs  among  the  people,  but  leaves  all  free  to  practice  any 
form  of  it,  or  to  reject  them  all. 

3.  Entire  religious  liberty  is  a  rarity  in  the  world,  «nd  is 
much  more  favorable  to  the  purity  and  weighty  influence  of 
religious  teachings  than  a  State  religion.  Many  of  the  colonies 
that  afterwards  became  States,  were  founded  by  persons  who 
fled  from  religious  persecution  in  the  countries  of  the  Old 
World,  and  multitudes  have  emigrated  here  to  secure  freedom 
in  the  enjoyment  of  their  religious  views  and  practices,  or  even 
entire  freedom  to  reject  all  religion  if  they  could  not  believe  in 
any,  though  that  is  seldom  the  case. 

Our  example  has  been  much  approved  and  is  having  much, 
influence  on  other  nations. 

TOLERATION   OF   OPINIONS, 

4.  Is  characteristic  of  the  American  Government.  Liberty 
of  the  Press,  or  freedom  to  state  any  views  a  man  may  entertain, 
is  as  complete  as  liberty  in  religious  matters.  Yery  severe 
things  are  sometimes  written  and  published  of  tlie  government. 


696  CHAPLAINS. 

and  sometimes  things  that  would  do  much  harm  if  they  were 
generally  believed,  and  no  notice  is  taken  of  it,  unless  some 
one  sees  fit  to  contradict  it  or  prove  it  to  be  incorrect. 

If  a  man  injures  another's  character  by  writing  things  that 
are  false,  he  can  be  tried,  and,  if  convicted,  punished  by  the 
courts.  Yile  and  indecent  writings  are  prohibited ;  but  other- 
wise there  is  entire  freedom.  Falsehood  and  error  are  left  to  be 
destroyed  in  a  natural  way  by  the  truth. 

This  is  a  great  gain  to  tlie  truth  since  error  has  often  been, 
protected,  in  other  countries,  by  government  authority,  on  the 
conviction  that  it  was  the  truth,  to  the  great  prejudice  of  triitK 
itself. 

5.  Although,  during  the  Civil  "War,  there  was  some  restraint 
put  upon  the  freedom  of  publishing  things  that  might  be 
hurtful  to  the  government,  the  instances  were  not  very  numer- 
ous, and,  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  spirit  of  toleration  was. 
shown  in  a  way  very  creditable  to  our  people,  and  very  praise- 
worthy in  our  government,  which  left  the  way  open  to  a  speedier 
reunion  of  sentiment  and  sympathy  in  the  sections  that  had 
fought  each  other  so  bravely. 

Tlie  brave  and  resolute  can  afford  to  be  just  to  each  other, 
and  to  allow  entire  freedom  of  opinion  to  all.  In  this  respect 
we  have  fairly  earned  the  right  to  call  ourselves  a  nation  of 
freemen. 


CHAPTEE    XY. 

CHAPLAINS. 

1.  Regard  to  the  religious  habits  of  a  large  number  of  the 
people  has  led  Congress  to  appoint,  or  permit  the  appointment,, 
of  chaplains  to  supply  such  religious  instruction  and  services 
in  the  army  and  navy  as  might  be  felt  desirable  by  those  con- 
cerned. 

Though  chaplains  are  not  properly  officers  of  the  govern- 
ment, they  are  employees  of  it,  for  they  are  appointed  by  its 


cnAPLAixs.  597 

authority,  and  paid  from  its  treasury.  Those  in  the  army 
receive  the  same  pay  and  emoluments  as  a  major  of  infantry; 
or  this  was  the  compensation  allowed  by  act  of  Congress  in 
1812.  But  by  an  act  of  1862,  it  was  fixed  at  $100  per  month,  and 
two  rations  per  day,  for  those  in  the  army  or  hospitals.  By 
the  act  of  1812,  one  chaplain  was  allowed  to  every  brigade; 
but  by  an  act  of  1861  (during  the  civil  war,)  one  for  every 
regiment  was  allowed. 

Navy  chaplains,  in  1835,  received  $1,200  per  year.  But  in 
1860  this  was  raised  to  a  lieutenant's  pay ;  and  this  in  1862  was 
$1,800  per  annum. 

Chaplains  in  Congress  receive  $750  per  annum. 

2.  The  tJnited  States  also  employ  a  chaplain  in  the  military 
academy  at  "West  Point. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  in -time  of  war,  with 
-one  chaplain  for  every  regiment,  and  one  for  every  ship  of  war, 
and  others  in  hospitals  and  military  posts,  quite  a  large  num- 
ber of  clergymen  are  employed  by  the  government. 

This  provision  for  the  religious  instruction  of  those  who 
cannot,  from  their  peculiar  position,  attend  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel,  or  other  religious  services,  is  certainly  an  indica- 
tion that  our  government  respects  religion,  and  looks  after 
the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  temporal  interests  of  its  army  and 
navy. 

3.  In  the  appointment  of  chaplains,  the  government  pur- 
sues a  liberal  course.  No  particular  preference  is  given  to  any 
■denomination,  but  they  are  appointed  from  almost  every  relig- 
ious sect,  and  allowed  to  conduct  religious  services  after  the 
forms  of  the  church  to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

Every  body  knows  what  the  duties  of  a  chaplain  are.  So  we 
need  not  explain  them  here,  and  will  only  add  that  a  faithful 
chaplain  in  the  army  in  time  of  war  has  much  to  do  besides 
preaching  and  holding  regular  services.  The  wounded,  the 
sick,  and  the  dying,  should  be  the  particular  objects  of  his 
attention.  He  should  not  only  minister  religious  instruction 
and  consolation  to  them,  but  look  after  their  physical  comforts. 


598  COMPROMISES. 

Many  of  tliese  clergymen,  during  the  late  most  unfortunate 
civil  war,  distinguished  themselves  by  their  exertions  to  pro- 
mote the  bodily  comforts  of  those  unfortunate  men,  as  well  as- 
to  give  them  religious  instruction,  not  refusing  to  nurse  the 
sick  and  wounded  wherever  they  could  relieve  their  pains  or 
mitigate  their  sufferings. 


CHAPTER    XYI 
COMPEOMISES. 

1.  In  a  large  and  prosperous  country  there  are  very  likel;^ 
to  arise  antagonisms  of  interest  and  sentiment  which  will 
require  the  strong  pressure  of  some  common  and  more  imper- 
ative interest  to  overawe  and  reconcile  by  a  process  of  mutual 
concession,  called  Compromise. 

The  States  of  the  two  sections  —  North  and  South  —  were 
unlike  in  several  general  respects  ;  but  it  was  in  nothing  so 
marked  as  in  regard  to  Slavery.  This  system  was  introduced 
in  Virginia  in  the  same  year  that  the  Plymouth  colony  was- 
founded  in  Massachusetts,  and  spread  to  all  the  colonies,  in. 
time;  but  never  was  much  practiced  north  of  Maryland.  In 
all  the  Southern  colonies  it  took  deep  root  from  the  first.  It 
formed  the  subject  of  the  most  difficult 

COMPROMISE    OF   THE    CONSTITUTION. 

2.  This  compromise  consisted  of  concessions  made  by  each 
section.  The  North  conceded  the  return  of  fugitives  from 
their  Southern  masters,  when  escaped  to  the  north,  and  an 
enumeration  of  three-fifths  of  the  slave  population  in  com- 
puting the  representation  in  Congress.  This  was  a  great  sacri' 
fice  for  that  section  to  make,  for  its  people  were,  at  heart,  deeply 
hostile  to  Slavery.  Botli  their  interests  and  sentiments  made 
"it  important  to  exclude  it  from  the  new  States  where  they  were 

likely  to  settle  in  considerable  numbers.  But  a  close  and  strong 
union  of  the  States  was  a  vital  point  with  them.     Commerce, 


COMPROMISES.  590 

trade,  and  manufactures,  to  whicli  they  were  largely  given, 
required  resources  and  vigor  in  the  central  government,  to 
maintain  the  public  credit  at  home,  and  secure  respect  and 
safety  abroad.  The  South  conceded  :he  final  close  of  the  Slave 
Trade  at  a  given  time  (1808).  Outside  of  the  Constitution  it, 
at  the  same  time,  conceded  the  "  Ordinance  of  178T,"  by  which 
Slavery  was  excluded  from  the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  river. 
Thus  the  North  and  South  divided  the  country  between  them. 

3.  This  was,  however,  a  very  troublesome  subject,  and 
affected  so  many  legislative  questions  as  to  be  constantly  com- 
ing up  for  debate.  The  sentiments  of  tlie  Northern  people 
grew  more  hostile  to  the  institution,  and  the  South  stood  on 
guard  with  growing  apprehension  and  anger,  as  this  state  of 
feeling  developed  in  the  North  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it 
became  evident  that  the  more  rapid  growth  of  the  northern 
population  gave  them  an  increasing  preponderance  in  Congres- 
sional representation.  They  jealously  watched  over  the  rights 
of  the  State  governments  from  their  fear  of  Congressional  or 
executive  interference,  and  industriously  sought  means  to  extend 
their  area  and  increase  the  number  of  Slave  States.  They  were 
always  much  assisted  by  a  large  party  in  the  north  of  those 
who  cherished  the  Union  and  were  fearful  of  its  dissolution. 
They  were  ever  pouring  oil  on  the  troubled  waters,  and  medi- 
ating between  the  two  extremes. 

tup:  Missouia  compbomise. 

4.  The  arrangement  of  the  Slavery  question  so  termed  was 
made  in  1820,  and  took  effect  as  to  the  State  of  Missouri  in 
1821.  In  the  five  years  that  followed  the  close  of  the  last  war 
^  ith  England  there  was  great  activity  in  settlement  of  the 
unoccupied  territory,  and  the  country  gave  indications  of  the 
power  of  rapid  development  that  has  so  strongly  characterized 
it  since.  Tlie  South  foresaw  the  loss  of  its  balance  of  power 
if  too  many  of  the  new  States  were  organized  as  free.  Mis- 
souri had  included  a  clause  in  her  Constitution,  presented  for 
the  approval  of  Congress,  prohibiting  slavery.  This  clause  the 
South  demanded  should  be  stricken  out.     It  produced  great 


600  COaiPEOMTSES. 

excitement  and  hot  discussion  throughout  the  country,  and 
seemed  to  threaten  the  stability  of  the  Union.  Both  sections 
were  resolute  in  maintaining  their  principle,  but  both  appre- 
ciated the  necessity  of  stre.igth  in  the  government  and  harmony 
between  the  sections,  ana  each  made  a  sacrifice  for  the  sake  of 
these.  Missouri  was  required  to  admit  slavery,  and  the  con- 
dition was  annexed  that  no  more  Slave  States  should  be  formed 
north  of  its  southern  line.  This  was  a  concession  trying  to 
both  sides.  The  ISTorth  became  a  party  to  the  extension  of 
Slavery,  and  the  South  gave  definite  limits  to  her  power  of 
expansion.  Each,  however,  gained  something  :  the  South  a 
£tate  above  the  limits  before  virtually  fixed,  and  the  North  a 
definite  and  final  limit  to  the  extension  of  a  hated  institution. 
This  was  quite  generally  satisfactory,  and  for  many  years  set 
that  question  at  rest. 

5.  "  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line  "  was  the  term  applied  to  the 
boundary  between  the  Free  and  Slave  States.  This  name  origi- 
nated in  colonial  times.  The  royal  grants  to  colonial  propri- 
•etors  or  companies  were  often  very  carelessly  made,  and  those 
to  Lord  Baltimore,  the  founder  of  Maryland,  and  William 
Penn,  the  proprietor  of  Pennsylvania,  were  specially  indefinite, 
giving  rise  to  adverse  claims  that  nearly  produced  war  along 
the  border.  Commissioners  were  at  length  appointed,  who 
employed  Mason  and  Dixon,  eminent  English  astronomers  and 
■surveyors,  to  establish  the  boundary,  which  they  did  satisfac- 
/torily.  The  importance  of  the  question  settled,  and  the  repu- 
tation of  the  surveyors  for  scientific  accuracy,  attached  their 
•name  to  the  boundary  permanently.  It  acquired  political 
significance  afterwards,  as  the  boundary  between  Maryland,  the 
most  northern  of  the  slave  States,  and  Pennsylvania,  the  most 
southern  of  the  original  free  States.  When  new  States  were 
formed,  with  the  Ohio  river  as  a  boundary  from  its  point  of 
-departure  out  of  Pennsylvania,  that  name  was  extended  in  its 
application  to  the  whole  dividing  line  between  the  free  and 
slave  States — south  or  north  of  Mason,  and  Dixon's  Line  mean- 
ing, in  slave  or  free  territory. 


COMPROMISES.  601 

6.  After  some  years  the  southern  statesmen  began  again  to 
feel  apprehensive  of  a  loss  of  their  equality  of  power  in  the 
general  government,  so  rapidly  did  the  northern  territories  fill 
up.  They  began  to  look  for  more  territory,  and  favored  the 
settlement,  independence,  and  annexation  of  Texas.  Though 
long  resisted,  they  succeeded  in  the  election  of  18M,  with  this 
annexation  and  a  probable  war  with  Mexico  as  test  questions, 
and  added  not  only  Texas  but  ISTew  Mexico  and  California  to 
the  territory  wherein  slavery,  by  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
would  be  admissible. 

7.  Their  satisfaction  was  not  very  durable.  The  discovery 
of  gold  in  California  filled  it  with  inhabitants  so  soon,  and 
these  so  largely  from  the  free  States,  that  in  two  years  from  its 
definite  acquisition  it  petitioned  for  admission  into  the  Union 
with  a  clause  in  its  Constitution  prohibiting  Slavery.  This 
was  very  exasperating  to  the  South,  and  after  a  long  and  violent 
contest  could  be  carried  by  the  North  only  by  the  passage  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law — a  re-enactment  of  a  part  of  the  Com- 
promise of  the  Constitution  with  provisions  so  vigorous  and 
effective,  could  they  have  been  enforced,  as  to  be,  in  the  highest 
degree,  oftensive  to  a  considerable  part  of  the  northern  people. 
Utah  was  given  a  Territorial  government  as  a  concession  to  the 
South,  and  the  Slave  Trade  was  abolished  in  the  District  of 
■Columbia  as  her  corresponding  concession  to  the  North.  These 
were  the  four  compromise  measures  of  1850,  the  result  of  a 
discussion  lasting  nearly  a  year,  engendering  great  bitterness 
on  both  sides,  and  failing  to  satisfy  eitlier. 

8.  Tlie  attempt  to  enforce  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  proved 
ineffectual,  in  the  end  ;  the  rooted  aversion  of  the  Northern 
people  to  Slavery,  kept  in  abeyance  before  by  less  offensive  com- 
promises, being  fully  aroused.  This  produced  in  the  Southern 
people  a  bitter  indignation  as  showing  a  disposition  to  rebel 
against  a  constitutional  provision  in  their  favor.  They  pro- 
cured, in  1854,  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in  the 
famous  "  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill,"  and  sought  to  introduce 
Slavery  into  Kansas.     A  civil  war  in  that  Territory  followed, 


€02  TREASON. 

which  resnlted  in  the  triumph  of  the  ^Northern  party.  The 
extinction  of  Slavery  was  now  apparently  but  a  question  of 
time,  the  hostility  to  it  in  the  North  becoming  so  out-spoken 
and  averse  to  Compromises  acceptable  to  the  South,  that  they 
began  to  look  forward  to  separation,  which  they  endeavored  to 
accomplish  from  1860-5.  A  civil  war,  such  as  only  Americans 
could  wage,  was  carried  on  during  these  years.  The  resolution, 
bravery,  and  military  talents  of  either  side  were  never  excelled ; 
but  the  resources  of  the  North  seemed  inexhaustible.  Her 
numbers,  activity,  and  the  inventive  genius  of  her  skilled  arti- 
sans gave  her  an  immense  superiority.  This  war  is  a  cause 
at  once  of  pride  and  grief  to  every  true  American.  In  the 
contest  Slavery,  the  cause  of  it,  disappeared,  the  Constitution 
was  amended,  and  the  necessity  of  Compromises  on  this  ques- 
tion forever  ceased. 


CHAPTEE    XYII. 

TEE  A  SON. 

1.  This  is  an  offense  aiming  at  the  existence  of  the  govern, 
ment;  and  in  all  other  governments  it  has  ever  been  customary 
to  punish  it  with  extreme  severity.  Many  things  are  consid- 
ered to  be  of  the  nature  of  treason,  and,  as  such,  severely 
punished  in  most  countries.  The  Constitution  defines  treason 
to  be  "  levying  war  against  the  United  States,  or  adhering  to 
their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort;"  so  that  the 
highest  or  capital  crime  alone  may  be  pursued  with  its  penal- 
ties. This  is  another  evidence  of  the  extreme  moderation  of 
the  founders  of  the  government,  which  we  have  had  occasion 
to  notice  so  often  in  our  examination. 

2.  An  act  of  Congress  passed  April  30th,  1790,  defines  it 
in  the  same  sense  and  orders  that  the  convicted  ofifender  shali 
be  hung. 

By  another  act  passed  17th  July,  1862,  it  was  made  discre- 
tionary with  the  court  trying  the  case  to  put  the  offender  to 


POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  603 

death,  or  to  imprison  him  for  not  less  than  five  years,  and  to 
fine  him  for  a  sum  not  less  than  ten  thousand  dollars.  The 
penalty  for  this  crime,  even  in  its  mildest  form,  is  very  severe; 
thus  showing  how  atrocious  this  offense  is  considered. 

3.  None  but  a  person  owing  allegiance  to  the  United  States 
can  commit  treason  against  them.  The  same  acts  which  would 
be  treason  in  a  citizen  would  not  be  treason  if  perpetrated  by 
a  foreigner. 

"  Misprision  of  treason  "  is  the  concealment  of  it  by  a  person 
who  knows  it  has  been  committed.  This  also  is  a  grave  offense, 
and  is  punishable  bj^  a  seven  years'  imprisonment,  and  a  fine 
not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars. 

4.  Any  person  tried  for  treason,  must  be  indicted  by  a 
grand  jury,  and  tried  by  a  petit  jury  in  the  Circuit  Court  of 
the  United  States  within  three  years  after  the  crime  has  been 
committed;  otherwise  it  is  barred  by  limitation — or,  in  other 
words,  outlawed. 


CHAPTEE    XYIII. 
POLITICAL  GEOGEAPHY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  Geography  proper  describes  the  general  character  of  a 
country,  as  its  rivers,  bays,  gulfs,  plains,  mountains  and  natu- 
ral divisions.  Leavino^  this  to  other  works  we  confine  ourselves 
to  those  divisions  made  by  the  government  for  convenience  in 
administering  its  affairs. 

Formerly  there  was  a  separation  into  North  and  South,  by 
"Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,"  between  which  there  existed  a 
marked  difference  of  governmental,  social,  and  industrial 
policy.  The  States  south  of  that  line  might  hold  slaves,  while 
in  those  north  of  it  that  institution  was  illegal.  That  differ- 
ence was  abolished  by  the  thirteenth  amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution, as  a  result  of  the  Civil  War.  The  next  largest — and 
these  exist  now — are  those  made  by  the 


^04  POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

CIRCUIT   COURTS, 

2.  These  often  comprise  several  States  and  are  clianged,  hy 
act  of  Congress,  when  the  convenience  of  the  Associate  Judges 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  who  preside  over  them  requires  it. 
The  next  largest  political  divisions  are 

THE    STATES, 

3.  These  exercise  sovereign  powers  in  all  matters  where 
control  has  not  been  expressly  delegated  by  the  Constitution 
to  the  National  Congress.  The  other  political  boundaries  are 
ever  liable  to  change,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  changing 
circumstances.  These  are  definitely  fixed,  any  change  being 
very  rare  and  unlikely  after  they  are  duly  organized  and 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  States.  Each  of  the  original 
thirteen  colonies  became  States,  with  the  boundaries  they  had 
as  colonies  at  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  others 
received  such  boundaries  as  suited  the  convenience  and  wishes 
of  the  people  when  they  were  admitted.  Their  object  is  to 
prevent  the  centralization  of  too  much  power  in  the  general 
government,  and  to  render  legislation  on  local  affairs  and  inter- 
ests more  convenient,  and  more  satisfactory  to  the  people  of 
each  State.  The  State  having  the  least  number  of  inhabitants 
numbers  between  40,000  and  50,000;  the  one  having  the 
largest  number  contains  between  4,000,000  and  5,000,000. 
The  number  of  the  States  determines  the  number  of  Senators 
in  Congress,  two  being  allotted  to  each;  so  that  a  State  may  be 
considered  as  a  Senatorial  District. 

DISTRICT  COURTS 

4.  Produce  another  class  of  political  divisions.  These 
attend  to  legal  differences  involving  the  laws  of  the  general 
government,  but  of  a  secondary  class.  They  are  more  numer- 
ous than  the  Circuit  Courts.  In  some  States  there  is  but  one, 
and  some  have  several,  according  to  size  and  population, 

COLLECTION    DISTRICTS, 

5.  Another  class  of  districts  has  been  formed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  the  duties  on  imported  goods.     These  are 


POLITICAL   GEOGKAPHY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES.  605 

called  "  collection  districts."  They  extend  along,  and  embrace 
the  whole  sea  coast  and  the  shores  of  navigable  lakes  and  rivers. 
In  a  few  instances  they  are  located  inland,  at  points  where 
goods  may  be  brought  into  the  United  States  by  land.  Each 
collection  district  has  a  port  of  entry,  and  very  often  several 
ports  of  delivery ;  also  a  collector  of  customs,  and  generally  a 
custom  house. 

6.  Another  class  of  collection  districts  was  formed  during 
the  late  civil  war.  They  grew  out  of  the  war,  and  were  estab- 
lished for  the  collection  of  the  tax  termed  the  "internal 
revenue,"  which  had  to  be  levied  to  pay  the  war  expenses. 
These  districts  differ  entirely,  both  in  their  objects  and  in  the 
territory  embraced  within  them,  from  those  established  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  duties  on  imports,  and  correspond  as  far 
as  practicable  with  the  Congressional  districts  in  each  State. 

LAND    DISTRICTS. 

7.  Land  districts  may  also  be  noticed  among  these  divisions. 
In  every  State  and  Territory  where  there  are  public  lands  for 
sale,  after  they  are  surveyed  and  mapped,  they  are  divided  into 
districts — two,  three  or  four,  in  each  State  and  Territory — as 
convenience  and  economy  may  dictate.  In  each  district  a  land 
oliic'e  is  established  for  the  sale  of  the  lands  in  said  district. 

LIGHT   HOUSE    DISTRICTS. 

8.  Again,  the  whole  of  our  sea  coasts,  both  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  together  with  the  shores  of  the  navigable 
lakes  and  rivers,  are  divided  into  twelve  light  house  districts 
(or  their  number  must  not  exceed  that,)  for  the  purpose  of 
building,  repairing,  illuminating  and  superintending  the  light 
houses  on  all  the  coasts  and  shores  wherever  located.  These 
are  the  principal  divisions  we  have  to  notice.  It  is  important 
to  have  a  knowledge  of  them,  for  with  such  knowledge  we  can 
better  understand  how  government  affairs  are  conducted. 


CHAPTEK    XIX. 
CHEONOLOGY  OF  THE  U.  S.  rEOM.1783  TO  1812. 

1783. 
Washington's  army  had  lain  in  camp  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  since  the 
surrender  of  Cornwallis.  The  Preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  Jan. 
20th,  at  Paris ;  but  it  was  not  officially  announced  in  the  camp  at  New- 
burg, until  April  19th ;  just  eight  years  from  the  Battle  of  Lexington  that 
commenced  it! 

July,  — Congress  prepared  to  disband  the  army,  and  Washington  to  resiga 
his  commission  as  Commander-in-Chief. 
"  21 — The  great  difficulty  Congress  had  to  contend  with  was  raising 
money  to  pay  the  troops.  Congress  had  no  authority,  under  the 
Confederation,  to  lay  taxes  or  impose  duties.  It  exhausted  its 
own  credit  in  the  issue  of  paper  money  which  soon  became  of 
little  value.  It  made  some  foreign  loans,  and  persuaded  the  States, 
which  alone  could  lay  taxes,  to  raise  a  small  sum.  But  this  did 
not  suffice  to  pay  the  army  at  last.  There  was  much  suffering  and 
discontent. 

On  this  day  a  body  of  soldiers,  in  large  part  new  recruits,  who 
had  comparatively  little  to  complain  of,  without  muskets,  but 
wearing  side  arms,  beset  the  doors  of  Congress  in  Philadelphia, 
for  three  hours.     No  violence  was  offered.    Congress  adjourned 
to  Princeton,  N.  J. 
Sept.  3 — The  final  and  definite  Treaty  of  Peace  between  England,  France, 
and  the  United  States,  in  which  the  independence  of  the  latter  was 
acknowledged,  its  boundaries  defined,   and  various  matters  of 
interest  arranged  to  the  profit  of  the  United  States,  was  signed  at 
Paris. 
Nov.  2 — A  proclamation  is  issued  by  Congress  for  disbanding  the  army. 
"    25 — The  British  troops  evacuate  New  York,  and  it  is  occupied  by 
American  troops  under  Gen.  Knox. 
Dec.  4 — Long  Island  and  Staten  Island  abandoned  by  the  British.    Wash- 
ington takes  leave  of  his  officers,  at  New  York. 
"    25 — He  resigns  his  commission  to  Congress,   in  a  public  audience, 
given  him  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  where  Congress  was  then  sitting,  and 
goes  home  to  Mt.  Vernon. 

Caesar  Rodney,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died 
this  year. 

1784. 
The  want  of  public  credit  was  very  much  felt.    There  was  no  authority 
sufficient  to  raise  money  to  meet  the  interest,  even,  on  the  debt ;  and  thU 
produced  great  distress. 

(606) 


HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  607 

^*y   I — Tlie  Continental  Congress  meets  at  Trenton,  N.  J.    Richard  Henry- 
Lee,  of  Va.,  is  chosen  President, 
Oct.  4 — A  treaty  with  the  Six  Nations,  who  had  sided  with  the  British 
during  the  war,  was  made  at  Ft.  Schuyler  (formerly  Ft.  Stanwix — 
now  Utica,  N.  Y.). 

Commerce  begins  to  revive.  Reciprocity  treaties  were  made,  and 
trade  with  eastern  Asia  commenced  this  year  by  a  voyage  to  China, 
from  New  York. 

1785. 
Jan.    — Congress  adjourns  to  New  York,  where  it  continued  to  hold  its 

sessions  for  some  years. 
Mar.  10 — Thomas  Jefferson  appointed  to  fill  the  place  of  Franklin,  as  Min- 
ister to  France ;  Franklin  wishes  to  return  home.     He  had  been 
there  nine  years. 
July   — Commercial  treaties  negotiated  with  Prussia,  Denmark,  Portugal, 
and  Tuscany. 

The  treaty  with  Prussia  stipulated  that,  in  case  of  war  between 
that  country  and  the  United  States,  there  should  be  no  privateering. 
"    13 — Stephen  Hopkins,  of  R.  I.,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, died. 
*'    28 — Wm.  Whipple,  of  N.  H.,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ 

ence,  died. 
"    "  — Treaties  made  with  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  and  Chickasaws. 

1786. 
Financial  troubles  were  now  approaching  a  crisis.     In  1784-5  the  impor- 
tations  from  England  had  amounted  to  $30,000,000.    The  exportations  to 
only  $9,000,000.    Paper  money  was  depreciated  so  much  as  to  be  of  little 
value.    Debt  oppressed  government  and  people ;  want  of  vigorous  author- 
ity was  everywhere  felt ;  and  many  disorders  in  Tennessee,  Kentucky  and 
elsewhere,  begin  to  threaten  the  internal  peace  of  the  country. 
June  19 — Gen.  Nathaniel  Greene,  an  able  commander  in  the  Revolutionary 
armies,  died.     He  manouvered  against  Cornwallis  in  North  and 
South  Carolina  with  great  abilitJ^ 
Dec.  5 — Shay's  Rebellion  broke  out  in  Mass.    That  State  wished  to  raise 
money  to  aid  Congress  in  paying  the  interest  on  the  federal  debt 
The  people  felt  unable  to  pay  it.    They  mobbed  the  courts  but 
were  dispersed  by  troops  under  Gen.  Lincoln.    Three  were  killed 
and  one  wounded,  in  an  attack  the  insurgents  made  on  an  arsenal. 
There  was  little  otlier  fighting.    Fourteen  persons  were  tried  and 
condemned  to  death  but  afterwards  pardoned. 
1787. 
Tliese  and  other  events  convinced  the  people  that  an  importan ",  chan^  2 
In  the  government  was  necessary.     It  became  clear  that  a  vigorous  central 
authority,  alone,  could  answer  the  purpose.    The  States  were  nearly  inde- 


608  HISTORY   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

pendent  of  each  other ;  but  this  produced  conflicts  and  want  of  harmony, 

■which  nearly  ruined  them  all. 
A  congress  of  deputies  to  consider  commercial  questions,  called  by  Va. 

had,  in  Sept.,  1786,  recommended  a  convention  to  revise  the  Articles  of 

Confederation. 

Feb.  2 — The  Continental  Congress  assembled,  electing  Gen.  St.  Clair,  Pres- 
ident. 
"    12 — Congress  approves  the  call  for  a  Constitutional  Convention. 

May  35 — The  convention  assembled  in  Philadelphia,  and  elected  Gen.  Geo. 
Washington,  President. 

July  11— The  Continental  Congress  organize  the  Northwest  Territory — 
north  of  the  Ohio  river.  Pi'eparatious  were  immediately  made 
for  settling  it. 

Sept.  38 — The  Constitution,  as  signed  by  the  members  of  the  convention, 
laid  before  Congress,  which  sends  it  to  the  State  Legislatures  foi 
approval. 

Arthur  Middleton  of  S.  C,  and  Thomas  Stone  of  Md.  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died,  Jan.  1st  and  Oct.  5th» 
respectively. 

Dec.  7 — Delaware  ratifies  the  Constitution. 
"     12 — Pennsylvania  accepts  the  Constitution. 

1788. 

July  4 — The  anniversary  of  Independence  is  kept  with  great  display,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  special  honor  of  the  adoption  of  th3  new  Con- 
stitution. 

By  the  close  of  July  nine  more  States  !iad  ratified  the  Constitu. 
tion,  and  it  went  into  operation. 

Sept.  13 — Congress  selects  the  first  Wednesday  of  Jan.  (1789)  for  the 
appointment  of  Presidential  electors;  the  first  Wednesday  in 
February  for  their  appointment  of  President  and  Vice-President; 
and  March  4th  (the  first  Wednesday  that  month)  for  the  new  gov- 
ernment to  go  into  operation. 
1789. 

Jan,  4 — Thomas  Nelson,  of  Va.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,, 
died. 

Feb.  13 — Ethan  Allen,  of  Revolutionary  fame,  died. 

April  30 — Washington  inaugurated  as  first  President. 

May  12 — A  Tarifl"  Bill  for  raising  a  revenue  reported  in  Congress.    This 
became  a  law,  and  went  into  effect  Aug.  1st,  1789. 
'    20 — The   Department  of   Foreign    Afl"airs  (afterwards    called    State 
Department,)  organized. 

The  Treasury  Department  is  next  established,  followed  by  the  War 
Department,  to  which  the  Navj'  was  joined  for  the  present. 
The  Judiciary  was  then  constituted.     Salaries,  and  the  rules  for 
parliamentary  procedure  were  determined.    The  Postmaster  gen- 


HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  609 

eral  had  long  been  an  officer  of  the  government,  and  required  less 
change  than  most  of  the  others.    This  made  a  very  busy  session. 
Congress  also  passed  a  resolution  to  add  ten  amendments  to  the 
Constitution— which  were  submitted  to  the  States  and  afterward 
ratified.    Congress  adjourned  the  last  of  September. 
The  democratic  tone  of  the  government,  and  the  spirit  applied  te 
the  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  by  the  first  Congress,  hap 
generally  prevailed  ever  since.    That  tone  and  spirit  were  truly 
republican. 
Nov.  8— The  President  made  a  tour  through  New  England. 
"    13— North  Carolina  ratified  the  Constitution. 
Many  Indian  treaties  were  made  this  year. 
1790. 
Jan.  8— Congress  reassembled.    This  session  was  scarcely  inferior  in  inter- 
est  and  importance  to  the  first  from  the  variety  of  new  questions 
required  to  be  settled,  and  the  more  perfect  development  given  to 
former  ones. 
Feb.  8— Provision  was  made  for  payment  of  the  foreign  debt. 
Mar.  1 — An  act  ordering  a  census  to  be  taken  was  passed. 
"    24 — A  naturalization  law  was  originated. 
Apr.  15 — A  patent  law  was  constructed. 
"    30 — Treason  was  defined  and  the  penalty  determined  on. 
May  29 — The  Constitution  ratified  by  Rhode  Island;  making  up  the  whole 

number  of  thirteen  States. 
"  31 — "An  act  to  encourage  learning"  secured  copyrights  to  authors. 
.July  16 — Three  very  exciting  debates  that  had  occupied  much  of  the  time 
of  Congress,  had  a  bearing  on  the  location  of  the  National  Capital, 
which  was  this  day  permanently  settled.  The  President  was 
authorized  to  determine  the  site  on  the  Potomac,  and  have  the 
buildings  erected  so  as  to  be  ready  for  occupation  in  1800.  Agreea- 
bly to  this  act  Maryland  and  Virginia  ceded  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia to  the  United  States. 

Gen.  Putnam,  a  brave  Revolutionary  soldier,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
of  Pa.,  Wm.  Hooper,  of  N.  C,  and  Francis  Hopkinson,  of  N.  J., 
all  except  Putnam  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
died  this  year. 

The  Territory  South  of  the  Ohio  was  organized  this  year.  The 
financial  system  of  the  country  was  established,  the  slavery  ques- 
tion debated  and  settled  in  accordance  with  the  compromise  of  the 
Constitution,  and  the  State  debts  transferred  to  the  United  States. 
Aug.  12 — Congress  adjourned  to  meet  next  in  Philadelphia  and  thereafter 

until  1800. 
"    V6—A  treaty  with  the  Creek  Indians  solemnly  ratified  by  Washington. 

39 


610  HISTOKY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

Dec.  6 — ^The  Third  Session  of  Congress  commenced.  The  President  con. 
gratulates  Congress  on  the  improvement  of  the  finances,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  country. 

1791. 

F*^.    — The  United  States  Bank  established.    It  was  to  have  a  capital  of 
$10,000,000 — its  charter  to  run  twenty  years. 
"      4 — Kentucky  voted  admission  into  the  Union  in  the  next  year  (Jan. 

1st,  1793). 
«  18 — ^Vermont  having  (Jan.  20th)  ratified  the  Constitution  and  asked 
admission  into  tlie  Union,  it  is  granted  this  day. 
The  immediate  prosperity  that  followed  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution of  1787,  the  strength,  vigor,  and  moderation  seen  to  be 
combined  in  its  arrangement  of  the  government,  led  most  of  the 
States  to  remodel  their  State  Constitutions  on  it,  in  a  short  time. 

July,  — The  subscription  to  the  stock  of  the  National  Bank  is  all  taken  in 
a  few  hours  after  the  books  are  opened. 

Aug.  — Great  Britain  first  sends  a  minister  to  the  United  States  Govern, 
ment. 

Sep.l7 — An  expedition  of  2,000  troops,  under  Gen.  St.  Clair,  starts  from 
Ft.  Washington  against  the  Indians  in  the  Northwest  Territory. 

Nov.  4 — Gen.  St.  Clair  is  surprised  and  defeated  by  the  Indians.  There 
were  600  killed — the  whole  loss  amounted  to  upward  of  900. 
Several  other  smaller  expeditions  had  been  sent  against  the  Indians 
in  the  course  of  the  year.  One,  Gen.  Harmer's,  had  been  defeated. 
Internal  taxes  on  spirits  were  first  commenced  this  year. 
Benj.  Harrison,  of  Va.,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, died  this  year.  A  voyage  around  the  world,  by  way  of  Ore- 
gon, China,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  had  opened  wide  fields 
to  commerce.  The  first  census  was  now  completed.  The  Second 
Congress,  assembled  at  Philadelphia,  Oct.  24,  was  occupied  in 
arranging  the  new  ratio  of  Representatives.  It  was  a  very  diffi- 
cult matter  to  settle  from  the  sectional  struggles  that  entered  into 
the  question. 

1793. 

Feb.l6 — A  bounty  for  fishing  vessels  provided. 
"   20 — The  Post  Office  Department  reorganized. 

Apr.  2 — The  establishment  and  regulations  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  are  embodied 
in  a  law. 
"  14 — Act  apportioning  Representatives  passed.    This  gave  the  next 
House  of  Representatives  in  Congress  105  members. 

May  8 — Laws  organizing  the  Militia  are  passed. 

Dec.  8 — Henry  Laurens,  first  President  of  the  Continental  Congress,  died. 
The  second  presidential  election  this  year  resulted  in  the  re-elec- 
tion of  Washington  and  Adams.  Washington  received  all  the 
electoral  votes — the  anti -federalists  opposing  only  Mr.  Adam« 


HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.  611 

whose  electoral  vote  was  77,  the  candidate  of  the  opposition 
receiving  50.    Much  seditious  opposition  was  made  in  North 
Carolina  and  Pennsylvania  to  the  excise  law,  —  the  tax  on  spirits. 
The  President  issued  a  proclamation  against  them,  Sept.  39th. 
1793. 

fan.  94— The  proclamation  of  the  French  Republic  is  greeted  in  Boston 
with  a  celebration  in  its  honor.  The  close  and  friendly  relations 
of  the  United  States  with  France,  arising  from  their  aid  to  us  in 
the  Revolutionary  War,  led  the  French  minister,  Genet,  to  a  course 
of  conduct  inconsistent  with  the  existence  of  our  friendly  rela- 
tions with  England.  The  U.  S.  Government  decided  to  proclaim 
neutrality — the  people  sympathized  strongly  with  France.  Wash- 
ington and  his  cabinet  pursued  a  strict  neutral  course,  in  which 
the  people  finally  acquiesced,  and  Genet's  recall  was  solicited  and 
obtained. 

Feb.  12 — A  Fugitive  Slave  law  passed. 

July  23 — Roger  Sherman,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died. 

Oct.  S — ^John  Hancock,  of  Mass.,  the  first  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  died.  This  year  laid  the  foundation  of  the  policy 
of  neutrality  or  non-interference  with  the  European  wars,  that 
became  the  settled  polic}'  of  the  United  States. 
The  year  was  also  distinguished  by  the  violence  of  party- 
feeling. 

Dec.  2 — Congress  assembles  at  Philadelphia. 
"   31— Jefierson  resigns  his  seat  in  the  Cabinet.    He  was  Secretary  of 
State. 

1794. 

Mar.  11 — An  act  is  passed  for  building  four  ships  of  war,  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  our  present  navy. 

Some  hostile  English  "  Orders  in  Council "  led  to  arrangements  for 
fortifying  the  harbors  of  the  country. 
"  22 — The  Slave  trade  is  regulated  by  law,  no  American  vessel  being 
allowed  to  supply  slaves  to  another  nation.  The  importation  of 
slaves  into  this  country  had  been  allowed  until  the  year  1808,  by 
Art.  1st,  Sec.  9th,  of  the  Constitution. 
*'  26— As  a  retaliation  on  the  British  "  Orders  in  Council "  for  seizing 
all  goods  going  to  France  in  American  vessels,  an  embargo 
was  laid  on  all  shipping  which  was  continued  60  days.  Thift 
stopped  all  commerce  for  the  present. 

fune  5 — A  law  relating  to  neutrality  passed  in  Congress. 
"  19— Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Va.,  died;  Abraham  Clark,  of  N.  J.,  and 
John  Witherspoon,  of  N.  J.,  later,  all  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independance,  died. 

July  16— An  insurrection  breaks  out  against  the  excise  law  in  western 
Pennsylvania,  by  an  armed  attack  on  the  oflacers  of  the  law.    An 


612  HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

army  of  15,000  men  was  raised  and  marched  into  that  region,  the 
appearance  of  which  immediately  restored  order. 

Aug.  20 — Gen.  Wayne  inflicts  a  tliorough  chastisement  on  the  Indians  of 
Ohio,  on  the  Maumee  river. 

Nov.  4 — Congress  again  assembles. 
"  28 — Baron  Steuben,  a  German,  who  had  done  us  great  service  as  an 
officer  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  died,  aged  61. 
1795. 
This  year  a  commercial  treaty  was  negotiated  with  England,  which  was 

the  cause  of  violent  demonstrations  of  the  two  parties.     Only  the  firmness 

and  moderation  of  Washington  and  his  supporters  saved  the  country  from 

war  with  that  power. 

Jan.  33 — Gen.  Sullivan  died.    He  had  been  an  able  Maj.  Gen.  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war. 
"    29 — A  more  stringent  naturalization  law  passes. 

May  19 — Josiah  Bartlett,  of  N.  H.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, died. 

Aug.  3 — A  Treaty  with  the  Northwestern  Indians  concluded,  which  closed 
the  Indian  war. 

Sept.  5 — A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Algiers,  which  closed  a  war  with  those 
pirates,  whose  attacks  had  been  so  disastrous  to  our  commerce. 

Oct.  20 — A  treaty  of  boundaries,  and  which  opened  the  Mississippi  to  nav- 
igation,  is  concluded  with  Spain. 

Dec.  7— The  fourth  Congress  meets. 

1796. 

March  24 — The  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  require  the  President  to 
send  them  the  papers  relating  to  the  British  treaty.  The  Presi- 
dent declines,  denying  that  they  form  part  of  the  treaty  making 
power. 

April  30 — The  exciting  struggle  on  the  British  treaty  is  closed,  by  a  provi- 
sion made  by  the  House  of  Representatives  for  carrying  it  'nto 
eftect. 

June  1 — An  act  is  passed  admitting  Tennessee  into  the  Union. 

"   29 — A  new  treaty  is  made  with  the  Creek  Indians,  and  the  Southern, 
as  well  as  the  Northern  Indians,  are  pacified. 

Sept.  19 — Washington's  Farewell  address  is  issued,  to  let  the  people  know 
that  he  would  not  accept  office  again.  A  presidential  election 
was  held  this  autumn,  in  which  John  Adams  was  elected  President. 
Serious  difficulties  began  to  rise  with  France,  which  took  great 
offense  at  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain. 
1797. 

Feb.  8 — Mr.  Pinckney,  American  Minister  to  JS^ance,  was  refused  a  recep- 
tion,  by  the  French  government,  and  'Obliged  this  day  to  leave  the 
country.  Much  violence  was  done  about  this  time,  to  American 
commerce,  by  the  French. 


HISTOKY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  613 

Mar.  4 — John  Adams  is  inaugurated  President  of  the  United  States. 
"    25 — A.  special  session  of  Congress  is  called  to  consider  the  threatening 
posture  of  our  relations  with  France. 
June  14 — Congress  imposed  a  fine  of  $10,000  and  ten  years  imprisonment 
on  any  American  who  should  engage  in  privateering,  in  any  way, 
against  a  nation  with  whom  we  were  at  peace. 
July  3 — The  President  transmits   to    Congress    information   of   Spanish 
troubles  on  the  southern  and  western  frontier.    These  were  after- 
wards discovered  to  have  aimed  at  detaching  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  valleys  from  the  United  States,  and  erecting  them  into  an 
independent  power,  in  close  alliance  with  Spain. 
Two  new  envoys  are  sent  to  France.    These  envoys  spent  many 
months  in  Paris,  treated  with  insolence  and  neglect. 
In  this  year  Francis  L.  Lee,  of  Va.,  Carter  Braxton,  of  Va.,  and 
Oliver  Wolcott,  of  Conn.,  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, died. 

1798. 
The  French  government  continues  to  labor  to  draw  the  United  States 
into  a  war  with  them  agaiast  England.    Two  of  the  three  Commissioners 
are  required  to  leave  France. 
April  3 — The  Mississippi  Territory  organized. 
"    14 — ^The  navy  is  taken  from  the  control  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  and 
a  Navy  Department  with  a  Secretary,  organized. 
June  12 — All  commercial  intercourse  with  France  suspended.    In  antici- 
pation of  war  the  naturalization  law  is  amended ;  an  "Alien  Act " 
passed ;  and  the  navy  and  army  largely  strengthened. 
"     21 — The  President  announces  the  failure  of  the  Commissioners  sent 
to  France,  to  make  peace. 
July  8 — A  limited  naval  warfare  with  France  is  authorized,  and  several 
U.  S.  vessels  of  war  go  to  sea. 
"    16 — An  additional  naval  armament  provided  for. 
"    17 — ^Washington  accepts  the  appointment  of  Commander-in-Chief  of 

the  Army,  which  is  being  raised  in  expectation  of  war. 
*•       — About  this  time  some  365  armed  vessels  had  been  commissioned 
by  the  U.  S.  government,  besides  the  regular  navy,  to  make  war 
on  the  armed  vessels  of  France.    This  armament  was,  however^ 
chiefly  used  for  defense. 

Lewis  Morris,  of  N.  Y.,  James  Wilson,  of  Pa.,  and  Geo.  Read,  of 
Del.,  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died  this  year. 
1799. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  year  Congress  provided  for  the  raising  of 
an  army  of  40,000  men. 

Feb.  18 — By  invitation  of   the  French  government,  the  President  nom- 
inates another  embassy  to  France. 
June  6— Patrick  Henry,  a  distinguished  patriot  of  Virginia,  died,  aged  68. 


614  HI8T0ET   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Feb.  7 — The  French  frigate  I'Insurgente  captured  in  the  West  Indies  by 
the  U.  S.  frigate  Constellation. 

April  — The  Legislature  of  New  York  abolishes  Slavery  in  that  State. 

Dec.  14 — Gen.  Washington's  death,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  a2;e. 

Wm.  Paca,  of  Md.,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
died  this  year. 

A  change  in  the  government  of  France,  and  the  vigorous  action 
of  the  U.  S.  government  in  arming  for  war,  induced  the  French  to 
retreat  from  their  unfriendly  position  and  offer  to  arrange  tht 
difference.  The  refusal  of  our  government  to  entangle  themselves 
with  European  politics  became  a  settled  principle,  of  great  valua 
to  us ;  though  it  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Anti-Federalists. 
•    1800. 

Jan.  23 — Edward  Rutledge,  of  S.  C,  signer  of  Dec.  of  Ind.  died. 

Feb.  1 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Constellation  beats  without  capturing  the  French 
frigate  La  Vengeance. 

April  4 — General  bankruptcy  law  passed  by  Congress. 

May  7 — The  Territory  of  Indiana  organized  by  act  of  Congress. 

"  10 — An  act  authorizing  the  election  of  a  Territorial  Assembly  in  thf 
Territory  of  Mississippi,  organized  some  years  before,  was  passed 

July — The  government  is  moved  to  the  new  capital  at  Washington. 

Oct.  1 — The  envoys  to  France  arrange  a  convention,  or  temporary  treaty, 
which  prevents  the  formal  outbreak  of  war,  though  it  had  long 
continued  to  be  waged  on  the  sea.  More  than  50  vessels  had  been 
captured  from  the  French  this  year.  The  gratitude  of  American* 
to  France  for  her  aid,  formerlj^  made  a  large  part  of  the  people 
very  unwilling  to  declare  war;  but  her  arrogant  demands  and  war 
on  our  commerce  had  the  good  effect  to  separate  the  country  from 
all  close  alliances  in  Europe. 

Nov. — The  fourth  presidential  election  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Feder- 
alist party,  by  the  election  of  Thomas  Jefferson  as  President.  Ita 
opponent,  the  anti-federalist,  or  Republican  party,  feared  a  strong 
central  government;  yet  when  they  came  into  power  they  adopted 
the  same  policy.  Any  other  policy  would  have  ruined  the 
country. 

1801. 

Feb.  16 — The  Convention  with  France,  to  remain  in  force  eight  years, 
ratified. 

Mar.  8 — The  Sixth  Congress  terminates,  and  with  it  the  administration  of 
President  Adams. 
"  4 — Jefferson  inaugurated  President.  The  trial  of  the  Constitution 
was  now  past.  It  was  permanently  settled  in  the  respect  of  the 
people,  and  had  made  the  country  respected  by  other  nations. 
The  "  Sedition  Laws  "  passed  in  July,  1798,  became  inoperative  at 
this  time,  by  the  provision  accompanying  them.    They  had  been 


HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  615 

framed  for  the  suppression  of  dangerous  political  intrigues  in  time 
of  war.  Party  spirit  was  exceedingly  bitter  at  this  time,  and 
these  laws  produced  much  excitement,  but  contributed  to  the  safety 
of  the  government. 

June  10— The  Basha  of  Tripoli  declares  war  on  the  United  States. 
"     14 — Benedict  Arnold  died  in  London. 

Aug.  6— The  U.  S.  vessel  of  war  Experiment,  captures  a  Tripolitan  vessel  in 
the  Mediterranean  sea. 

Dec.  7 — The  Seventh  Congress  assembles.  The  reaction,  at  this  time,  in 
public  sentiment,  produced  by  the  French  Revolution,  the  excesses 
of  which  resulted  in  a  military  despotism  under  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, infused  a  spirit  of  moderation  and  caution  into  the  politics 
of  the  United  States  under  the  new  party  now  in  power,  that  was 
highly  beneficial.  Extreme  views  were  checked,  and  no  serious 
change  was  made  in  the  general  policy  of  the  country. 
1803. 

Jan.  4 — The  reapportionment  of  Representatives  in  Congress  by  the  census 
of  1800,  was  made.  No  change  in  the  number  of  inhabitants  to 
one  Representative  (one  to  every  33,000)  was  introduced.  The 
foundation  of  a  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  was  laid 
at  this  time. 

April  14 — The  Naturalization  Laws,  made  very  stringent  in  the  last  admin, 
istration  to  correspond  with  a  state  of  war,  were  liberalized. 

April  30 — An  act  authorizing  the  formation  of  a  State  Constitution  in  Ohio, 
preparatory  to  its  admission  into  the  Union,  is  passed. 

May  3 — Washington,  D.  C,  incorporated  as  a  city. 

Oct.  16 — Commerce  on  the  Mississippi  by  American  citizens,  suspended 
by  the  Spanish  authorities  at  New  Orleans. 

It  became  evident  that  the  possession  of  the  Mississippi  River  and 
territory  near  it  was  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  welfare  of 
the  West,  and  measures  looking  toward  the  acquisition  of  it  began 
to  be  taken. 

A  large  reduction  was  made  this  year  in  the  public  debt,  and  the 
policy  of  economy  in  public  expenditure  became  a  leading  feature 
of  the  administration. 

1803. 

March  3 — The  anxiety  of  the  people  in  regard  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  leads  Congress  to  invest  the  President  with  extraordi- 
nary authority  to  negotiate,  or  use  force,  in  his  discretion.  He 
was  authorized  to  call  on  the  States  to  furnish  80,000  men,  if 
need  be. 

April  30 — A  treaty  is  concluded  with  Napoleon  Bonaparte  for  the  purchase 
of  the  whole  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  for  $15,000,000. 

Aug.  13 — By  a  treaty  with  the  Kaskaskia  Indians  a  large  part  of  Illinois  is 
opened  to  settlement. 


6 in  HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Oct.  31 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Philadelphia  ran  on  a  sunken  rock  in  the  harbor 
of  Tripoli,  and  was  captured.  The  American  fleet  had  captured 
or  destroyed  several  Tripolitan  vessels  of  war  during  the  summer. 

Pec.  20 — The  I*resident  takes  possession  of  Louisiana. 

1804 

Feb.  2 — Geo.  Walton,  of  Geo.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
died, 
"     15 — New  Jersey  passes  a  law  freeing  all  the  slaves    born    in    the 

State  after  the  next  4th  of  July. 
"     16 — Lieut.  Decatur,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  ran  into  the  harbor  of  Tripoli 
in  the  night  and  burned  the  Philadelphia — captured  by  the  Tri- 
politans,  some  time  before.    This  done  he  withdrew  in  safety,  in 
the  sloop  he  had  employed  for  the  bold  enterprise. 

July  11 — Alexander  Hamilton,  an  eminent  statesman,  was  killed  in  a  duel 
with  Aaron  Burr,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
48  years  old  and  his  death  was  considered  as  a  public  calamity. 

Aug.  3— Com.  Preble  attacks  Tripoli,  sinks  two  vessels,  captures  three 
more,  and  bombards  the  city. 

The  city  was  blockaded  during  the  remainder  of   the  year  and 
through  the  winter. 

Nov.  18— Gen.  Philip  Schuyler  died  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Jefferson  was  re-elected  President  in  this  month. 
1805. 
Great  commercial  prosperity  marked  this  period.    France  and  England 

were  at  war  and  most  of  the  carrying  trade  fell  to  American  vessels.      The 

peaceful  acquisition  of  Louisiana,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  west  in  con- 
sequence, contributed  much  to  the   development  of  the  country.      The 

grand  era  of  progress  in  the  United  States  began  to  dawn,  though  overcast 

by  threatening  difficulties  with  Spain  and  England. 

March — Chief  Justice  Chase  having  been  impeached  by  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, was  acquitted  by  the  Senate. 
"    4 — Jefferson's  second  inauguration  as  President. 

June  3 — A  treaty  of  peace  made  with  Tripoli. 

A  Territorial  Legislatui-e  is  authorized  in  the  Territory  of  Orleans, 
and  the  Territory  of  Louisiana  organized. 

June  11 — The  Territory  of  Michigan  is  organized.  It  was  very  thinly 
settled,  but  separated  by  so  great  a  distance  from  the  inhabited 
parts  of  Indiana  Territory  as  to  require  a  separate  government. 

July  4 — Large  cessions  of  land  are  obtained,  by  treaty  and  purchase,  from 
the  Indians.  Most  of  their  lands  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  along  the 
Ohio  River  were  acquired  in  an  equitable  manner.  Large  ces- 
sions are  obtained  this  year  from  the  Creeks  and  Cherokees,  who 
received  a  fair  equivalent. 

Sept.  12 — Wm.  Moultrie,  a  distinguished  Revolutionary  soldier,  died. 

Measures  are  set  on  foot  to  purchase  Florida  from  the  Spaniards. 


HISTOKY    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  617 

There  seemed  no  alternative  but  such  a  purchase  or  a  war.    Diffl' 
culties  with  England  began  to  increase.     Several  American  ves- 
sels with  valuable  cargoes  are  seized  by  the  British. 
1806. 

Jan.  16— Two  million  dollars  are  voted  that  the  President  may  commence 
negotiations  with  Spain  for  Florida.  The  British  continue  to  vio- 
late our  flag  by  impressing  seamen  on  our  vessels. 

March  a6 — A  retaliatory  law  was  enacted  by  Congress  forbidding  the 
importation  of  certain  English  goods, to  take  eflfectin  November  in 
order  to  give  time  for  negotiation.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
increasing  the  army  and  navy. 

The  summer  of  this  year  was  disturbed,  in  the  west,  by  rumors  of 
a  design  to  separate  the  Louisiana  Territory  and  Western  States 
from  the  Union,  by  the  establishment  of  an  independent  govern- 
ment. 

A-pr.  10 — Gen.  Horatio  Gates,  an  officer  of  the  Revolution,  died. 

JDec.  — The  session  of  Congress  commencing  tlie  first  of  this  month  was 
largely  occupied  with  a  law  forbidding  the  slave  trade  after  1808. 
There  was  much  violent  debate  but  the  law  was  enacted  early  in 
the  next  year. 

Robt.  Morris,  of  Pa.,  on  the  8th  of  May;  Geo.  Wythe,  of  Va.,  on 
the  8th  of  June;  James  Smith,  of  Pa.,  on  the  11th  of  July,  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  and  Gen.  Henry  Knox,  an 
oflicer  of  the  Revolution,  on  the  25tli  of  Oct.,  died.  Gen.  Knox 
was  Secretary  of  War  during  Washington's  administration. 
1807. 

Feb.  10 — An  act  for  commencing  the  Coast  Survey,  and  appropriating 
$50,000  for  that  purpose,  is  passed. 

The  English  had  defeated  and  almost  annihilated  the  French 
and  Spanish  navies,  and  became  very  tyrannical  toward  neutral 
nations,  which  begins  to  injure  our  commerce.  Bonaparte  retal- 
iates in  the  same  spirit  which  doubles  tlie  difficulty. 

Mar.  18 — A  treaty  made  by  American  ambassadors  with  England  was 
rejected  by  our  government  because  the  British  refused  to  allow 
that  British  born  citizens  could  become  American  citizens  by 
naturalization.  These  the  English  government  claimed  the  right 
of  impressing  from  our  vessels,  which  we  denied. 

June  22 — A  British  ship  of  war,  the  Leopard,  fires  into  the  American  frigate 
Chesapeake  wJiile  unprepared  to  resist,  and  took  several  men  from 
her.  Three  Americans  were  killed,  and  eighteen  wounded.  It 
greatly  exasperated  the  Americans. 

July  2— The  President  ordered  all  English  ships  of  war  to  leave  American 
waters. 

Aug.  25— Com.  Preble,  of  the  U.  S.  navy,  died. 

Sep*..  15— Aaron  Burr  tried  for  treason,  (he  was  the  leader  of  the  conspiracy 


618  raSTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

believed  to  have  endeavored  to  detach  the  Mississippi  Valley 
from  the  Union,)  was  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence,  though  gen- 
erally believed  guilty. 

Nov.  26— Oliver  Ellsworth,  U.  S.  Chief  Justice,  died. 

Dec.  17 — Bonaparte's  "Milan  Decree  "  subjects  American  commercial  ves- 
sels to  seizure. 
"    22 — This  and  like  British  "Orders  in  Council"  caused  Congress  to  lay 
an  embargo,  forbidding  any  vessels  to  sail  from  our  ports. 
1808. 

Jan.  1 — The  act  of  Congress,  passed  in  the  previous  session,  to  carry  out 
the  provision  of  the  Constitution  to  abolish  the  slave  trade  at  this 
time,  goes  into  effect  to-day. 

Apr.  17 — Bonaparte  orders  the  seizure  and  confiscation  of  all  American 
vessels  in  France,  or  that  should  afterwards  arrive  there. 

Nov.  7 — The  tenth  Congress  assembles  again.  Much  discussion  is  had 
over  the  embargo,  but  it,  is  finally  determined  to  make  it  still 
more  stringent  and  place  the  country  in  a  state  of  defense. 
"  — ^A  presidential  election  this  month  results  in  the  choice  of  James 
Madison  for  the  next  term.  He  was  a  republican,  or  democrat,  in 
politics. 

1809. 

Jan.  9 — An  act  is  passed  "  more  effectually  to  enforce  the  embargo." 

Feb.  3 — Illinois  organized  under  a  Territorial  Government. 
"    27 — The  embargo  is  partially  repealed. 

Mar.  3 — The  Tenth  Congress  closes,  at  the  same  time  as  the  AdminlKtra^ 
tion  of  Jeft'erson.  Madison  was  inaugurated  the  next  day.  He 
served  two  terms.  A  war  with  Great  Britain  was  commenceu  in 
his  first,  and  ended  in  his  second  term. 
"  9 — Thos.  Haywood,  of  S.  C,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence,  died. 

Apr.  19 — An  arrangement  of  the  difficulties  with  England  concluded  with 
the  British  Minister,  Erskine,  and,  in  the  expectation  of  perman- 
ent peace,  the  Embargo  and  Non-intercourse  acts  cease  by  proc- 
lamation of  the  President. 

May  22 — An  extra  session  of  of  the  eleventh  Congress  meets. 

July  20 — News  arrives  of  the  rejection  by  the  English  government  of  the 
Erskine  treaty. 

Aug.  9 — The  President  forbids,  by  proclamation,  all  intercourse  with  Great 
Britain  and  France. 

Nov.  8 — A  new  English  minister  having  been  sent,  his  arrogant  tone  caii<^8 
the  U.  S.  government  to  decline  further  intercourse  with  him. 
1810. 

Mar.  23 — Bonaparte  crders  the  sale  and  confiscation  of  132  American  ves 
sels  (^detained  in  France  by  previous  decree)  and  their  cargoes. 
and  the  same  confiscation  is  ordered  of  all  American  vessels  »fter. 


mSTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  61^ 

ward  entering  French  ports.    The  132  vessels  and  their  cargoes 
were  wortli  $8,000,000. 

Aug.  5 — The  French  government  announces  the  revocation  of  their  confis- 
cation act,  to  take  eflPect  Nov.  1.  A  deadly  struggle  had  been,  for 
many  years,  going  on  between  Napolean  Bonaparte  and  England 
This  hostility  of  France  to  American  commerce  was  in  retaliation 
of  the  British  "  Orders  in  Council "  against  neutral  commerce 
trading  with  France.  England  had  nearly  destroyed  the  French 
navy  and  considered  herself  mistress  of  the  seas.  She  wished  to 
reduce  American  commerce  to  the  condition  of  colonial  times, 
which,  with  impressment  of  seamen,  was  the  cause  of  the  present 
struggle.  Our  commerce  was  constantly  growing,  our  people 
spirited,  and  resolved  to  have  their  rights  and  Flag  respected. 
1811. 

Feb.  26 — An  act  passed  establishing  naval  hospitals. 

May  16 — The  American  frigate  President,  and  the  British  sloop  of  war 
Little  Belt,  fire  into  each  other.  The  Little  Belt  is  disabled.  This 
was  a  retaliation  of  the  firing  of  the  British  ship  Leopard  on  the 
American  Chesapeake,  four  years  before,  and  also  of  the  capture  of 
an  American  merchantman  bound  to  France,  off  New  York,  by  a 
British  vessel  about  this  time.  Several  instances  of  impressment, 
by  the  British,  from  American  vessels,  had  lately  occurred,  and 
there  was  a  feeling  of  great  exasperation  toward  England.  The 
English  government  had  not  yet  made  any  atonement  for  the  attack 
on  the  Chesapeake. 

Jnne  1 — Gen.  Eaton,  prominent  in  the  war  with  Tripoli,  died. 
"    19 — Samuel  Chase,  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.,  died. 

Ai^.  2— Wm.  Williams,  of  Conn.,  died.  The  two  last  were  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

Tlie  relief  of  American  commerce  from  outrages  by  the  French 
proved  delusive,  and  many  grievous  wrongs  aresufifered  this  year. 

Kf*v.  7— Two  twin  brothers  of  the  Shawanese  tribe  of  Indians  (Tecumseh 
and  the  Prophet)  had  been  for  some  years  engaged  in  forming  a 
conspiracy  among  a  large  number  of  Indian  tribes  on  the  North- 
western frontier  to  exterminate  the  whites.  Gen.  Harrison's  army 
is  attacked  by  the  Indians  this  day,  at  Tippecanoe.  They  are 
defeated  by  Gen.  Harrison. 

Dec  a— The  ratio  of  Representation  is  revised  on  the  census  of  1800,  and 
fixed  at  35,000. 

1812. 

Jan.  —Various  acts  are  passed  for  putting  the  army  and  navy  in  a  condi- 
tion  for  war. 

Apr.  4— An  embargo  is  laid  on  American  shipping,  by  act  of  Congress. 
"      8 — Louisiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
«    20— Geo.  Clinton,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  died. 


620  THE   WAR   OF    1812. 

June  4 — The  Territory  of  Missouri  organized. 
"    23 — The  British  government  repeal  the  obnoxious  "  Orders  in  Council." 
but  refuse  to  give  up  the  right  of  search  and  impressment  on 
American  vessels.    The  American  government  refuses  to  be  satis- 
fied with  this ;  besides,  it  had  already  declared  war,  June  18ln. 


CHAPTEE    XX. 
THE  WAR  OF   1812. 

We  have  stated  in  connection  with  the  appropriate  events,  the  causes  of 
this  war  which  had  accumulated  during  the  last  five  years  at  a  rapid  rate. 
The  seizure  and  captures  of  American  vessels  by  Great  Britain  amounted 
to  917 ;  by  France  to  558.  Upwards  of  6,000  cases  of  impressments  were 
recorded  in  the  American  Department  of  State ;  and  in  all  these  our  Flag 
had  been  violated.  It  was  estimated  that  about  as  many  more  had  been 
made,  of  which  no  official  information  had  been  received.  The  Ameri- 
cans were  averse  to  war  and  had  long  borne  these  injuries  in  the  hope 
that  a  settlement  might  be  reached  by  negotiation ;  but  they  insisted  on 
the  inviolability  of  our  Flag,  and  the  right  of  naturalization.  On  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  2,500  of  these  impressed  sailors,  claiming  to 
be  American  citizens,  refused  to  fight  against  America,  and  were  impris- 
oned by  the  English  government,  where  most  of  them  were  kept  to  the 
close  of  the  war. 

Aug.  24 — The  English  government,  however,  Lad  the  magnanimity,  when 
news  arrived  of  the  Declaration  of  War  by  the  United  States,  to 
allow  all  American  vessels  then  in  their  ports  six  weeks  to  dis- 
pose of  their  lading  and  to  depart  undisturbed. 
The  great  success  of  the  war  on  the  American  side  was  on  the 
sea,  where  it  was  much  more  seriously  detrimental  and  mortifying 
to  the  English  than  victories  on  the  land  would  have  been.    The 
land  forces  were  generally  inefficiently  conducted,  though  the 
close  of  the  war  was  signalized  by  the  victory  of  Gen.  Jackson,  at 
New  Orleans,  which  was  extremely  gratifying  to  American  pride. 
July  12 — Gen.  Hull,  with  1,800  troops,  invades  Canada. 
Aug.  8 — After  various  mishaps,  Hull  retreats  to  Detroit. 
"      9 — Col.  Miller  defeats  Tecumseh  and  a  body  of  British  troops  at 

Maguaga. 
"    15 — ^Ft.  Dearborn  (now  Chicago)  was  abandoned  by  its  small  garrison, 
by  the  orders  of  Hull.     During  their  retreat  they  were  attacked, 
and  most  of  them  massacred  by  the  Indians. 
*'    16 — Gen.  Hull  surrendered  Detroit  and  all  the  military  forces  and 
stores  in  the  territory  to  the  British.     He  was  afterward  aantenced 


THE   WAR   OF    1812.  621 

to  death  by  a  court-martial,  but  pardoned  by  the  president,  though 
degraded  from  all  military  command. 
"    19 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Constitution,  Capt.  Hull,  does  great  honor  to  the 
American  arras  by  the  capture  of  the  English  frigate  Guerriere. 
This  vessel  had  challenged  the  American  vessels  in  a  contemptu- 
ous way.     She  had  79  killed  and  wounded,  the  Constitution  only 
13.    There  were  10  impressed  American  seamen  on  the  Guerriere. 
Sept.  7 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Essex  captures  the  Alert  in  8  minutes. 
Oct.  13 — In  another  invasion  of  Canada  by  Gen.  Van  Kensselaer,  though 
much  gallantry  was  displayed,  an  unexpected  British  reinforce- 
ment obliged  the  surrender  of  700  men  after  160  had  been  killed 
and  wounded.  ' 

"    18 — The  U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Wasp  captures  the  British  sloop  of  war 
Frolic,  which  was  the  strongest  vessel.    The  Frolic  had  100  killed 
and  wounded,  the  Wasp  but  10.    Both  were  captured  by  a  British 
74  pounder  the  same  day. 
"    25 — Capt.  Decatur,  of  the  frigate  United  States,  captures  the  Macedo- 
nian, a  British  frigate.     British  loss  104,  American  only  7. 
Nov.  22 — ^The  U.  S.  brig  Vixen  is  captured  by  the  English  frigate  South- 
ampton.    Both  were  afterward  shipwrecked. 
A  presidential  election  in  this  month  secured  the  re-election  of 
Madison. 
Dec.  29 — ^The  U.  8.  frigate  Constitution,  Commodore  Bainbridge,  captures 
the  British  frigate  Java,  off  the  coast  of  Brazil.     American  loss 
44,  British  151.    These  naval  victories  with  so  little  loss  produced 
much  exultation  in  America,  and  much  surprise  and  mortifica- 
tion in  England.     The  Americans  were  able  seamen,  and  had 
long  burned  to  avenge  the  insults  and  contempt  of  the  English 
navy.    Americans  are  capable  of  extraordinary  vigor  when  thor- 
oughly aroused.  The  operations  on  land  had  been  much  interfered 
with  by  the  strenuous  and  almost  treasonable  opposition  of  the 
anti-war  party,  and  this  continued  to  be  an  embarrassment  during 
nearly  its  whole  course.    The  general  disfavor  with  which  this 
violent  opposition  was  regarded,  however,  and  the  sympathy  felt 
for  the  President,  so  embarrassed,  procured  his  re-election. 
1813. 
Military  operations  this  year  were,  in  part,  more  creditable  and  encour- 
aging    The  regular  force  amounted  to  about  55,000  men ;  an  act  had  been 
passed  authorizing  the  construction  of  four  74  gun  ships,  and  six  forty- 
fours  ;  and  for  an  increase  of  the  navy  on  the  lakes. 

Jan.  22— A  disastrous  enterprise  at  Frenchtown  (now  Monroe,  Mich.) 
results  in  the  loss  of  nearly  900  American  troops  under  Win- 
Chester.  The  wounded  were  left  by  Gen.  Proctor,  the  British 
commander,  to  be  massacred  by  the  Indians. 


€22  THE    WAR   OF    1812. 

"    23 — Geo.  Clymer,  of  Pa.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 

died.     • 
"    26 — An  act  of  Congress  authorizes  the  President  to  borrow  $16,000,000. 
"    27 — He   is  authorized  to  issue  Treasury  notes  to  the  amount  of 

$5,000,000. 
Feb.  24 — The  Hornet  captures  the  British  brig  Peacock,  on  the  coast  of 

South  America. 

Tlie  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays  are  blockaded  by  the  British 

about  this  time. 
Mar.  4 — Madison  is  inaugurated  for  his  second  term. 
"     8 — The  emperor  of  Russia  having  offered  his  services  as  mediator 

between  the  United  States  and  England,  the  President  appoints 

commissioners  to  treat  for  peace. 
Apr.  10 — The  British  attack  Lewiston,  Del.,  but  are  repulsed  after  having 

bombarded  it  several  days. 
"     27 — Americans  under  Gen.  Pike,  capture  York,  Upper  Canada,  with 

a  large  quantity  of  stores.    Gen.  Pike  is  killed. 
May  1 — ^The  British  Gen.  Proctor  besieges  Gen.  Harrison  in  Port  Meigs. 
"     5 — Gen.  Clay  coming  to  his  assistance  Proctor  retreats.     Col.  Dudley, 

making  a  sortie  from  Ft.  Meigs,  is  drawn  into  an  ambuscade  and 

loses  650  men.     He  is  himself  mortally  wounded. 

The  British  Admiral  Cockburn  barbarously  ravages  the  shores  of 

Chesapeake  b£.y. 
"   27 — Ft.  George,  at  Niagara,  surrenders  to  the  Americans,  and  Sir  Geo. 

Prevost  is  repulsed  from  Sacketts  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  by  Gen.  Brown. 
June  1 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Chesapeake  captured  by  the  British  frigate 

Shannon.    American  loss  133;  British  loss  about  half  as  many. 

Capt.  Lawrence  of  the  Chesapeake  is  mortally  wounded. 
"      6 — Gens.  Chandler  and  Winder  surprised  in  the  night  by  the  enemy 

they  were  going  to  attack.    The  two  generals  are  taken  prisoners, 

but  their  troops  repulse  the  enemy  and  retire. 
*'    23 — Col.  Boerstler,  in  command  of  an  American  force  of  600  men,  is 

surrounded  by  a  superior  force  at  Beaver  Dams  and  compelled  to 

surrender. 
"    25 — Admiral  Cockburn,  failing  in  his  attack  on  the  American  forces 

at  Craney  Island,  Va..  lands  at  Hampton  and  commits  many  out- 
rages. 
July  31 — American  Com.  Chauncy  lands  at  York,  U.   C,  captures  and 

destroys  stores,  and  the  British  do  the  same  at  Plattsburg,  on  lake 

Champlain. 
Aug.  2 — Gen.  Proctor  with  1,000  British  and  Indians  attacks  Col.  Croghan 

with  160  men,  at  Ft.  Stephenson,  Lower  Sandusky,  O.,  and  is 

repulsed  with  a  loss  of  150. 

About  this  time  the  American  frigate  Essex,  Capt.  Porter,  cruising 

in  the  Pacific  ocean,  captured  12  armed  British  whalers. 


THE  WAE  OF  1812.  628 

■"  13 — The  American  sloop-of-war  Argus,  cruising  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel, captured  21  British  merchantmen,  but  was  herself  captured 
by  the  Peacan  after  a  severe  engagement. 
"  80 — ^Tecumseh  had  stirred  up  the  Creek  Indians  to  war,  and  they 
attacked  Ft.  Miras,  which  they  set  on  fire  and  captured,  massa- 
creing  all  but  20  out  of  400  men,  women  and  cliildren. 

^ept.  3 — The  American  brig  Enterprise  captures  the  Boxer  on  the  coast  of 
Maine. 
"  10 — Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.      He  captures  the  whole  fleet  (6 
vessels)  of  the  enemy.    His  laconic  dispatch  to  Gen.  Harrison  was, 
"  We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours." 

Oct.  5 — Battle  of  the  Thames  (Upper  Canada).  Gen.  Harrison,  command- 
ing the  Americans,  defeated  the  British  and  Indians,  under  Gen. 
Proctor  and  Tecumseh.  The  latter  was  slain.  The  British  lost 
about  600  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners;  the  Americans  17 
killed  and  30  wounded. 
"      "    Commodore  Chauncy  captures  5  British  vessels  on  Lake  Ontario. 

Nov.  2 — Gen.  Coflfee  attacks  the  Creek  Indians  at  Tallushatches,  Ala.  200 
warriors  are  killed. 
9 — Gen.  Jackson  defeats  the  Indians  at  Talladega,  Ala.,  killing  290 
of  them.  Two  other  battles  with  the  Indians  occurred  this  month, 
and  one  in  Dec.  in  which  they  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter, 
and  little  loss  to  the  Americans.  Yet  so  spirited  and  resolute  were 
they  as  to  require  to  be  almost  exterminated  before  they  would 
make  peace. 
-  11 — 1,200  Americans,  under  Gen.  Boyd,  engage  2,000  British,  undei 
Lt.  Col.  Morrison,  and  are  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  339.  British 
loss  180. 

Dec.  10 — Ft.  George,  at  Niagara,  evacuated  and  the  town  of  Newark  burned 

by  the  Americans. 
"  19 — Ft.  Niagara  is  taken  by  the  British  and  Indians  who  massacre  the 
garrison.  Youngstown,  Lewistown,  the  Tuscarora  Indian  village, 
and  Manchester,  all  in  N.  Y.,  are  burned,  in  retaliation  of  the 
destruction  of  Newark. 
•  30— The  British  burn  Black  Rock,  Buffalo,  three  vessels  of  Perry's 
fleet,  and  large  quantities  of  provisions.  Gen.  Proctor  justifies  it 
as  a  proper  retaliation.  The  burnmg  ot  Newark  was  barbarous, 
but  was  avenged  tenfold.  Naturalized  Irishmen,  taken  by  the 
British  in  our  armies  this  year,  were  sent  to  England  to  be  tried 
for  treason.  An  equal  number  of  English  officers  were  impris- 
oned by  the  American  government  and  notice  given  to  the  gover- 
nor of  Canada  that  they  should  receive  the  same  treatment  and 
fate  as  our  Irish  soldiers.  This  had  its  eff"ect,  and  the  latter 
remained  simply  prisoners  of  war.  This  claim,  and  corresponding 
ikction  on  the  part  of  the  Enjrlish  government,.which  was  one  of 


6ii4  IHE  WAR  OF    1812. 

the  principal  causes  of  the  war,  was,  from  this  time,  practically 
relinquished.  In  December  an  embargo  was  laid  by  Congress  on 
American  goods  and  provisions,  to  prevent  their  being  employed 
to  supply  the  Britisli  blockading  force  and  armies.  It  produced 
gi'eat  discontent  in  New  England,  where  a  large  part  of  the  people 
were  dependent  on  commerce,  and  were  thrown  into  great  distress. 
There  was  much  factious,  and  even  seditious,  opposition  to  the 
government. 

1814. 
The  army  operations  had  been  unsuccessful  in  Canada  during  the  last 
of  the  campaign,  owing,  it  was  thought,  to  tlie  inefficiency  of  the  com- 
manders, and  perhaps  partly  to  the  want  of  experience  of  their  subalterns. 
Changes,  that  were  proved  much  toi  Jhe  better,  were  made,  and  the  cam- 
paign of  this  year,  in  this  quarter,  showed  a  more  honorable  record. 
Since  the  commencement  of  the  war  till  this  year,  the  English  government 
had  been  carrying  on  an  immense  European  war,  which  was  closed  by  the 
abdication  of  Bonaparte  and  his  banisliment  to  the  island  of  Elba. 
They  prepared  for  a  more  vigorous  effort  in  America,  by  sending  consider- 
able armies  of  the  veterans  of  Wellington,  who  had  conquered  in  Europe. 
They  had  received  the  impression  that  the  opposition  to  the  war  and  the 
republican  party,  would  cooperate  with  them,  and  that  they  might  re-estab- 
lish their  dominion  over  their  former  coi' — les. 

But  they  did  not  comprehend  American  character.  Party  politics  have 
always  been  conducted  in  a  bitter  and  hostile  spirit,  but  that  hostility  has 
not  been  directed  against  their  institutions.  Extreme  attacliment  to  these, 
and  jealous  care  to  preserve  all  rights  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution,  has 
always  led  the  opposition  to  a  close  and  sharp  criticism  of  all  measures  of 
the  party  in  power  difiering  from  their  own  interpretation  of  Constitutional 
rights.  When  these  institutions  are  really  in  danger  all  parties  unite  in  a 
defense,  the  obstinacy  and  vigor  of  which  carries  everything  before  it.  It 
stops  at  no  obstacles,  hesitates  before  no  sacrifices,  and  counts  no  odds. 
This  became  apparent  to  the  British  during  the  summer,  dispelled  forever 
their  dream  of  conquest,  and  led  to  a  peace  at  the  close  of  the  campaign. 
The  British  sent  14,000  troops  to  Canada  this  spring,  which  was  supported, 
in  July  and  August,  by  a  large  reinforcement.  A  strong  naval  force,  with 
a  large  body  of  troops,  was  sent  to  invade  the  heart  of  the  country  and  cap- 
ture Washington.  After  failing  in  maintaining  their  ground  here,  tney 
were  directed  against  the  gulf  coast  and  the  Mississippi  river,  ending  in 
their  decisive  defeat  by  Gen.  Jackson,  at  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8th,  1815,  nine 
days  before  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed  at  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  Dec.  24,  wai 
known  in  ^imerica. 

Mar.  24— A  loan  of  $25,000,000  authorized  by  Congress. 
"    27 — Gen.  Jackson's  defeat  of  the  Indians  at  Great  Horseshoe  Bend 
Ala.     This   battle    accomplished    the    subjection   of  the    Creek 
Indians.    Jackson  had  fought  them  on  the  21st,  24th  and  27th  of 


THE   WAR   OF   1812.  g24 

J  an.,  when  they  came  near  defeating  him,  but  notwithstanding 
their  fierce  and  obstinate  bravery,  he  conquered  each  time,  and 
finally,  nearly  exterminated  them. 

*♦  28 — ^The  brilliant  career  of  the  U.  S.  frigate  Essex,  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
is  terminated  by  its  capture,  at  Valparaiso,  Chili,  by  the  British 
frigate  Phebe  and  another  sloop  of  war. 

*•    30 — Gen.  Wilkinson  is  repulsed  in  an  advance  into  Canada,  at  La  Colle, 

and  is  afterwards  tried  by  court  martial.    Gen.  Brown  is  given  the 

command  of  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  Gen.  Izard  of  northern  N.  Y. 

April  31 — The  U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Frolic  captured  by  the  British  frigate 

Orpheus. 

"    27 — The  U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Peacock  captures  the  British  brig-of-war 

Epervier  with  $118,000  specie  on  board. 
Ifay  7 — A  British  force  captures  and  de'stroys  the  American  fort  at  Oswego, 
N.  Y.,  and  carries  off  several  guns. 

•*    29 — The  Americans  capture  a  British  force  at  Sandy  Creek,  N.  Y. 
June  9 — ^The  U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Rattlesnake  captured  by  a  British  50  gun 
ship. 

"    12 — The  U.  S.  sloop  Syren  captured  by  a  British  74. 

"    28 — The  U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Wasp  captures  the  British  sloop  of  war 
Reindeer,  in  the  British  Channel. 
July  3 — Gen.  Brown  captures  Ft.  Erie,  near  Niagara,  U.  C. 

"  5 — Battle  of  Chippewa,  Canada.  Gens.  Brown,  Scott,  and  Ripley,  with 
about  C,000  men,  were  opposed  by  the  British  Gen.  Riall  with  an 
equal  number  of  the  veterans  of  Waterloo.  Gen.  Scott  attacked 
them  with  such  prudence  and  valor  as  to  conquer  a  largely  superior 
force  before  Gen.  Ripley  could  come  up  to  his  aid.  It  was  a 
splendid  test  of  American  mettle.  Loss  of  the  British  514,  of  Scott 
328.    The  British  fall  back  to  Ft.  George. 

"    11 — The  British  make  a  descent  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 

"  35 — Gen.  Scott  engages  a  British  force  of  seven  times  his  number,  and 
holds  his  ground  for  some  hours  when  Gen.  Ripley  comes  to  his 
aid,  and  they  drive  the  British  from  the  field ;  but  having  only 
1,600  men  left,  while  the  British  have  5,000,  they  retire  next  day. 
The  British  lost  878,  the  Americans  860. 
k.ng.  4 — Americans  besieged  in  Ft.  Erie. 

"     8 — First  meeting  of  the  U.  S.  and  English  commissioners  to  treat  for 

peace,  who  arranged  the  terms  at  the  close  of  this  year.    The 

English  were  very  high  in  their  demands  till  the  failure  of  their 

much  vaunted  veteran  troops. 

9— The  British  make  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Stonington,  Conn. 

A  treaty  is  made  with  the  Creek  Indians. 
16— The  British  repulsed  from  Ft.  Erie  with  the  loss  of  963  men. 
The  Americans  lost  84. 

40 


626  THE   WAR   OF    1812. 

"  20 — A  British  force  landed  from  the  fleet  in  the  Chesappftkp,  marches 
on  Washington. 

•*  24 — The  battle  of  Bladensburg,  near  Washington.  The  Americans, 
much  inferior  in  numbers,  were  defeated.  The  British,  under 
Gen.  Ross,  entered  Washington  the  same  day.  They  destroyed 
much  private  property,  as  well  as  public  stores,  building«i  and 
documents. 

Not  deeming  it  prudent  to  remain,  the  British  retreated  from 
Washington  to  their  vessels,  leaving  the  people  greatly  exasper- 
ated at  conduct  unworthy  of  the  army  of  a  civilized  nation. 

•♦  27 — Alexandria,  Va.,  delivers  up  the  public  stores  and  shipping  there 
and  much  merchandise  as  a  ransom  from  plunder  and  burning. 
Bept  1 — The  U.  8.  sloop  of  war  Wasp  captures  the  British  sloop  Avon. 
After  taking  three  other  prizes  in  European  waters,  she  disappeared 
and  vas  never  again  heard  of— supposed  to  have  foundered  at  sea. 
The  British  Gen.  Prevost  advances  toward  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  with 
13,000  veteran  troops. 

*  11 — The  battle  of  Plattsburg.  Com.  McDonough,  American,  with.  4 
vessels,  10  gun  boats  and  850  men,  captures  the  British  Com. 
Downie's  fleet  of  4  vessels,  12  gun  boats  and  1,000  men.  A  simul- 
taneous  attack  by  Prevost  on  Plattsburg  miscarried  by  the  failure 
of  the  fleet  and  panic  of  the  soldiers.  They  return,  in  disorder, 
to  Canada. 

•*  12 — The  British  who  had  captured  Washington,  appear  near  Balti- 
more and  land  a  force  which  repulses  the  Baltimore  militia,  and, 
next  day  advances  toward  the  city;  but  the  attack  seems  so 
formidable  to  them  that  they  retreat  in  the  night  to  their  vessels 
and  depart.  The  British  admiral  could  not  reduce  Ft.  M'Henry 
so  as  to  co-operate  in  an  attack  on  the  city  by  water.  The  patri- 
otic song,  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  was  written  during  thifl 
bombardment  of  Fort  M'Henry.  Gen,  Ross,  the  British  com- 
mander, was  killed  soon  after  the  landing  of  the  troops. 
About  this  time  various  attacks  are  made  at  difierent  places  on 
the  coast  of  New  England,  and  the  British  pretend,  by  proclama- 
tion, to  take  possession  of  all  of  Maine  east  of  the  Penobscot 
river  and  annex  it  to  New  Brunswick. 

'  n — A  sortie  is  made  from  Ft.  Erie  and  the  works  of  the  enemy  sur 
prised  and  taken  with  a  loss  to  him  of  1,000  men  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners. 

Thus,  in  the  midst  of  ravages  and  alarms  on  the  coast,  the 
destruction  of  our  commerce,  the  stagnation  of  business,  the 
financial  difficulties  of  the  government  that  almost  amounted  to 
bankruptcy,  and  the  complaints  of  the  peace  party,  (which  pro- 
duced much  alarm  by  the  calling  of  a  convention  of  the  New 
England  States,  in  December  of  this  year,  at  Hartford,  Conn.J  the 


THE  WAB  OF  1812.  627 

lionor  of  the  United  States  was  preserved.  The  formidable  armies 
in  Canada  had  been  baffled  and  defeated,  the  capture  of  Washing- 
ton followed  immediately  byjthe  withdrawal  of  the  invaders,  and 
a  strong  point  made  which  had  its  effect  in  substantially  gaining 
the  cause  that  had  brought  on  the  war,  for  the  Americans,  in  the 
treaty  negotiations  in  progress.  The  British  now  turned  their 
attention  to  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico. 
ITov.  -iv^Gen.  Jackson  takes  Pensacola  from  the  British,  who  were  labor- 
ing to  raise  the  Indians  to  war  again. 
l)ec.  15 — A  British  fleet  captures  the  flotilla  on  Lake  Borgne,  La. 

"  32 — 12,000  British  troops  land  below  New  Orleans,  and  repulse  the 
Americans. 

"  24— The  treaty  of  peace  is  signed  at  Ghent,  but  is  not  known  in 
America  until  Feb.  following. 
1815. 
/an.  8— Qen.  Jackson,  with  only  6,000  men,  had  intrenched  himself 
in  front  of  the  British,  who  now  made  an  assault  on  his  p(,  *'on. 
They  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter,  losing  their  genei  1, 
Packingham,  and  near  2,000  men.  Jackson  lost  but  7  killed  and 
6  ■wounded.    The  British  retreated  to  their  vessels. 

"   15 — The  U.  S.  frigate  President  captured  by  four  English  vessels. 
Feb.  18 — Ft.  Bowyer,  near  Pensacola,  Fla.,  invested  by  the  British  fleet, 
It  surrenders  on  the  21st. 

"  17 — The  treaty  of  peace  which  arrived  at  New  York  on  the  11th  by 
the  B/itish  sloop  of  war  Favorite,  ratified  by  the  American  gov- 
ernment and  Peace  proclaimed. 

■"  24 — Congi-ess  authorizes  the  loan  of  $18,400,000,  and  the  issue  of 
treasuiy  notes  to  the  amount  of  $25,000,000. 

•"  28 — The  liaval  war  was  continued  some  time  longer.  The  U.  S. 
frigate  Constitution  captures  two  British  vessels  of  war,  the  frigate 
Cyane  and  the  sloop  Levant,  off  the  island  of  Madeira.  In  March 
the  U.  S.  frigate  Hornet  captured  the  British  brig  Penguin,  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil. 

The  Briiish  government,  elated  by  their  triumph  over  Bonaparte, 
their  large  army  accustomed  to  conquer  in  Europe,  and  the  fleets 
set  free  from  the  blockade  of  the  Continent,  thought  to  make  an 
easy  conquest  of  America.  But  all  their  attempts  were  defeated. 
Had  peace  been  made  a  little  later  the  Americans  might  have 
obtained  much  better  terms. 

This  war  had  been  waged  under  many  difficulties  by  the  Ameri- 
can administration.  The  country  and  its  institutions,  were  new, 
and  there  was  no  such  reserved  fund  of  wealth  and  credit,  as  is 
always  found  in  an  old  and  well  organized  state.  They  depended 
largely  on  commerce,  which  was  almost  destroyed  by  the  great 


628  THE   WAE   OF    1812.  * 

naval  force  of  Great  Britain,  and.  the  embargo  policy.  Our  navy 
was  gallant  and  successful ;  but  the  government  lacked  the  means, 
and  the  unanimous  support  of  the  people,  requisite  to  increase  it 
to  the  necessary  strength.  The  administration  did  not  act  with 
the  vigor  and  efficiency  calculated  to  bring  all  sections  and  classes- 
to  its  support,  and  the  people  had  not  yet  the  experience  and 
knowledge  of  the  value  and  strength  of  their  own  institution* 
needful  to  inspire  confidence,  so  that  they  were  critical  and  diffi- 
cult to  please,  and  this  spirit  impaired  the  efficiency  of  nearly  all 
government  measures.  What  they  undertook  could  be  only  imper- 
fectly done.  The  old  soldiers  of  the  Revolution  were  dead  or 
;  unfit  by  age  for  good  service,  and  time  was  necessary  to  train 

•  others  and  ascertain  who  had  the  necessary  military  capacity  for 

conducting  operations  with  success.  Yet,  under  all  these  great 
difficulties,  the  United  States  came  out  of  the  war  with  the  respect 
of  the  world,  such  as  it  had  never  before  enjoyed.  It  became 
formidable  to  Europe  as  a  great  and  vigorous  power  with  which 
it  was  not  safe  to  trifle. 

This  was  still  more  clear  when  the  government  declared  war  on 
the  Dey  of  Algiers,  one  of  the  pirate  princes  of  the  North  of 
Africa,  which,  for  hundreds  of  years,  had  made  war  on  the  com- 
merce of  all  nations  almost  with  impunity.      Having  violated 
their  treaty  with  us,  the  President  sent  out  an  adequate  naval  force 
Jxme  17-19 — which  captured  two  Algerine  vessels  of  war,  and   threat- 
ened    Algiers.       The     Dey,    intimidated,     immediately     made 
peace,  giving   liberty  to    all    prisoners    without    ransom,    and 
full  satisfaction  for  the  injuries  done  to  our  commerce.    No  Euro- 
pean nation  had  before  so  humbled  these  pirates,  and  it  at  once 
raised  the  credit  of  our  government,  and  gained  us  respect  and 
esteem. 
June  30 — The  last  hostile  act  at  sea  took  place  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda, 
in  the  East  Indies,  where  the  U.  8.  brig  of  war  Peacock  captured 
the  Nautilus,  a  British  sloop  of  war.    Thus  the  three  American 
vessels  at  sea  when  the  war  closed,  each    came   home  crowned 
with  laurels.    The  British  vessels  captured  during  the  war  num- 
bered 1,750 — the   American  1,683.     The  spirit  and  energy  of  the 
Americans,  under  all  their  embarrassments,  gave  an  unmistakable 
indication  of  the  future  greatness  and  power  of  the  United  States. 
1816. 
The  last  two  years'  experience  had  taught  the  government  and  the  people 
many  important  lessons  by  which  they  hastened  to  profit.    The  coast  was 
fortified,  the  navy  increased,  manufactures  and  commerce  encouraged,  and 
the  best  measures  that  the  wisdom  of  the  times  could  suggest,  employed  to 
restore  the  finances.    The  violently  factious  opposition  of   parties  was 
much  moderated  by  the  confidence  gained  to  our  government  and  institu- 


HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES.  g29 

tions,  and  the  evident  folly  of  excessive  fears.     The  Second  U.  S.  Bank 

•was  chartered  for  20  years,  with  a  capital  of  $35,000,000. 

Nov.  5 — Governeur  Morris,  an  eminent  and  excellent  American  statesman 

died. 
Dec.  11 — Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State.    James  Monroe  was, 

this  autumn,  elected  President. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  U.  S.  FROM  1817  TO  1846. 
Monkoe's  Administration. 

A  new  era  for  America  commenced  with  this  administration,  or  rather, 
reached  its  period  of  uninterrupted  development ;  for  the  whole  past  his- 
tory of  the  country  had  been  a  preparation  for  it,  but  especially  so  the  late 
war  and  its  results.  The  failure  of  the  French  revolution,  and,  finally, 
the  failure  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  old  mon- 
archy in  France,  as  a  result  of  the  excesses,  first  of  the  French  republic, 
and  then  of  the  military  interference  of  Bonaparte  with  the  existing  state 
of  things  in  Europe,  had  an  important  influence  in  modifying  the  politics 
of  the  republican  part}'  in  the  United  States;  so  that  they  came  partially 
in  Jefferson's  administration,  and  completely  by  the  close  of  Madison's, 
to  follow  the  wise  and  vigorous  policy  pursued  by  Washington  and  the 
federal  party ;  while  the  general  government  and  the  institutions  of  the 
country  became  deeply  imbued  with  the  regard  to  popular  rights,  and 
attention  to  the  interests  and  will  of  the  people  that  formed  the  leading  idea 
of  Jefferson  and  the  original  democrat,  or,  as  it  was  then  called,  the  repub- 
lican party.  Thus  the  two  points  of  supreme  importance,  vigor  in  the 
general  government,  and  security  to  the  people,  were  happily  mingled  and 
wrought  into  the  spirit  and  form  of  our  institutions. 

The  leading  events  of  Monroe's  two  administrations  were  the  attention 
given  to  internal  improvements — among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Erie 
canal  in  New  York,  and  the  encouragements  to  manufactures— the  acqui- 
sition of  Florida  from  Spain,  and  a  definite  settlement  of  the  slavery  ques- 
tion (for  the  next  thirty  years  only,  as  it  proved,)  by  the  Missouri  com- 
promise.  The  people  now  began  to  feel  and  act  together,  as  a  single  nation, 
and  material  progress  was  rapid. 

1817. 
Mar.  3 — The  observance  of  the  neutrality  laws  strictly  enjoined  on  citizens 

of  the  United  States  by  Congress. 
•"      4 — James  Monroe,  the  fifth  President,  inaugurate4.    With  his  admin- 
istration commences  "  the  era  of  good  feeling,"  as  it  was  called. 
The  bitterness  of  party  controversy  ceasecj. 


630  HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   SPATES. 

June  24 — ^Thos.  McKean,  of  Del.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, died. 

Dec.    — Mississippi  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  Alabama  erected  into  a 
territory. 
"        — A  war  broke  out  with  the  Seminole  Indians,  on  the  borders  of 
Florida.    It  came  near  involving  us  in  a  war  with  Spain.    Inter- 
nal taxes  are  abolished  by  Congress. 
1818. 

Mar.  18 — A  law  enacted  giving  pensions  to  indigent  officers  and  soldiers. 

April  4 — The  Flag  of  the  U.  S.  rearranged ;  the  stripes  to  represent  the  thir- 
teen original  States,  the  stars  the  present  number  of  States. 
"    18 — Illinois  is  authorized  to  form  a  state  constitution. 

May  24 — Gen.  Jackson  took  Pensacola,  Fla.,  from  the  Spaniards  on  account 
of  the  support  given  by  them  to  the  Indians. 

Oct.  20 — A  treaty  of  commerce  and  for  settling  boundaries  is  made  with 
England. 

1819. 

Feb.  23 — A  treaty  for  the  session  of  Florida  ratified  by  Congress,  but  not 
by  the  king  of  Spain  until  Oct.  20th,  1820. 

Mar.  2 — Arkansas  organized  into  a  territory. 

Dec.  14 — Alabama  admitted  into  the  Union. 

In  this  year  commenced  the  discussion  on  the  balance  between 
'  the  north  and  the  south  in  relation  to  slavery.  Missouri  and 
Maine  both  desire  admission  as  States.  The  discussion  resulted 
in  a  settlement  of  the  whole  question  Feb.  27th,  1821,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  "  Missouri  Compromise "  to  the  admission  of  that 
State. 

1820. 

Feb.  15 — Wm.  EUery,  of  R.  I.,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,, 
died. 

Mar.  15 — Maine  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Aug.  23 — Com.  Perry,  the  hero  of  Lake  Erie,  died  in  the  West  Indies.- 
The  4th  census  was  taken  in  this  year. 
1821. 

Mar.  4 — J'ames  Monroe  inaugurated  on  his  second  term. 
"    22 — Com.  Decatur  died  at  Washington. 

Aug.  2?~-Gen.  Jackson  takes  possession  of  Florida  as  its  Governor.  The  U. 
8.  government  paid  $5,000,000  for  Florida.  The  Spanish  oflScers 
were  reluctant  and  dilatory  in  giving  up  their  places,  and  Gen. 
Jackson  had  occasion  for  his  remarkably  decisive  action  in  deal- 
ing with  them.  The  governor,  Don  Cavalla,  refusing  to  give  up 
certain  papers  according  to  the  treaty,  he  sent  him  to  prison  until 
all  the  pa]»ers  were  produced,  and  banished  six  other  Spanish, 
officers  who  interfered  with  him. 


mSTOEY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.  631 

* 

1822. 

June  — ^A  commercial  treaty  is  negotiated  with  France.  Capt.  Allen,  of 
the  U.  S.  schooner  Alligator,  engages  a  band  of  pirates  in  the 
West  Indies,  captures  one  of  their  schooners,  aad  recaptures 
five  American  vessels.  Capt.  Allen  is  killed. 
The  ports  of  the  West  India  islands  are  opened  to  American  com- 
merce by  the  English  government. 

Com.  Truxton,  a  meritorious  naval  officer — Gen.  Stark,  the  hero 
of  Bennington,  Vt., — and  Wm.  Lowndes,  a  statesman  of  S.  C,  died 
this  year. 

A  new  arrangement  of  the  ratio  of  Representation  gives  one  mem> 
ber  of  Congress  to  40,000  inhabitants. 
1823. 
Com.  Porter  makes  a  successful  expedition  against  the  West  Indian 

pirates. 
This  year  our  government  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  South 

American  Republics,  and  ministers  were  appointed  to  Mexico,  Columbia, 

Buenos  Ayres,  and  Chili. 
A  treaty  for  the  mutual  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  was  made  by 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

1824. 

April  — American    and   Russian    commissioners    settle    the    boundaries 
between  the  two  countries. 

Aug.  15 — Lafayette  arrives  from  France.  He  was  everywhere  received  as 
the  guest  of  the  people  with  the  utmost  affection  and  reverence. 
He  spent  a  year  visiting  all  parts  of  the  Union. 
A  presidential  election  this  autumn  does  not  result  in  a  choice, 
and  the  House  of  Representatives  made  selection  of  John  Quincy 
Adams,  from  the  candidates,  according  to  a  provision  of  the  Con- 
stitution, anticipating  such  a  case.  A  protective  tariff  was  made 
this  year  to  encourage  cotton  manufactures- 

Administration  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 

1825. 
Mar.  4 — J.  Q.  Adams  inaugurated  sixth  President. 
"      " — An  act  of  Congress  establishes  a  navy  yard  at  Pensacola,  Pla. 
June  11 — Dan.  D.  Tompkins,  Vice-President  with  Monroe,  died. 
Nov.  10 — Com.  McDonough,  the  hero  of  Lake  Champlain,  died. 

1826. 
July  4 — John  Adams  and  Thos.  Jefferson,  whose  lives  were  identified  with 
the  foundation  and  development  of  our  institutions,  simultan- 
eously  died  on  this  day. 
Sept.  11 — Wm.  Morgan,  an  anti-mason,  mysteriously  disappears,  and  is 
never  again  heard  of. 


632  msTOKY  OF  the  united  states. 

1827. 
An  Anti-Mason  party  is  formed,  opposilig  secret  societies.   Much  "  polit- 
cal  capital "  is  made  of  it. 

Jan.    — Tlie  first  considerable  railroad  was  begun,  and  completed  in  May. 
It  was  nine  miles  long,  a  beginning  of  the  wonderful  transforma- 
tion that  was  to  be  produced  by  this  agent. 
1828. 
Feb,  11 — De  Witt  Clinton,  governor  of  N.  Y.  and  originator  of  the  Erie 
canal,  died. 

The  tariff  was  amended  and  enlarged  this  year.  This  tariff  waa 
violently  opposed  in  the  South  and  produced  the  "  Nullification 
Ordinances  "  of  S.  C,  some  time  later. 

In  the  fall  of  this  year  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  was  elected  President. 
1829. 
Feb.  29 — ^The  Virginia  Legislature  passes  a  resolution  denying  the  right 

of  Congress  to  pass  a  protective  tariff  law. 
Mar.  4 — Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated  as  President. 

Dan.  Webster  makes  his  great  speech  against  nullification. 
Jackson's  Administration. 

1829. 

May  19 — A  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  concluded  with  Brazil. 
"  "  — John  Jay,  ex-President  of  the  Continental  Congress,  Chief  Justice 
of  the  U.  S.,  Governor  of  N.  Y.,  etc.,  died.  In  purity  of  patriot, 
ism,  moderation,  and  soundness  of  judgment,  he  came  nearer  to 
Washington  than  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was  above  the 
reach  of  the  violent  party  spirit  that  prevailed  after  Washington's 
retirement  from  public  life. 

1830. 

May  7 — A  treaty  made  with  Turkey  gives  U.  S.  commerce  the  freedom  of 
the  Black  sea.  The  vigorous  dealing  of  our  government  with  the 
Barbary  States  secured  the  respect  and  friendship  of  Turkey. 
The  important  movement  and  interests  of  this  year  were  connected 
with  the  progress  of  railroads  (the  first  American  built  locomotive 
was  made  this  year,)  and  the  rapid  rise  of  that  great  interest,  and 
with  the  agitation  produced  by  the  nullification  proceedings  of 
South  Carolina.  That  State  claimed  the  right  to  pronounce  upon, 
and  disregard  the  enactments  of  Congress.  This  was  subversive 
of  the  Constitution.  It  drew  the  "  Key  Stone  "  from  the  arch,  and 
the  whole  structure  of  the  Union  would  have  fallen.  No  decisive 
action  was  reached  till  the  year  1832. 
1830. 

May  29 — The  oflSce  of  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury  created. 

1831. 

Jan.  10 — The  King  of  the  Netherlands,  being  accepted  as  arbitrator  of  the 


HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  633 

northern  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  Pos- 
sessions, by  the  two   governments,  decides  the  question  in  our 
favor. 
July  4 — James  Monroe,  ex-President  of  tlie  U.  8.,  died,  aged  73. 
Oct.  1 — A  free  trade  convention  meets  at  Philadelphia. 

"  2e — A  tariff  convention  meets  at  New  York.     There  were  over  500 
delegates.    It  was  the  absorbing  political  topic  of  the  time. 
1832. 
April  1 — The  Black  Hawk  war  breaks  out  by  the  attack  of  the  Winneba- 
goes.  Sacs,  and  Poxes  from  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  on 
the  settlers  in  Illinois,  under  the  Indian  chief,  Black  Hawk. 
"    2 — The  Creek  Indians  sell  all  their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi  river 
to  the  U.  S. 
May  5 — A  commercial  and  boundary  treaty  concluded  with  Mexico. 
"  27 — A  new  ratio  of  representation  based  on  the  5th  census  gives  one 
member  of  Congress  to  47,700  inhabitants. 
June  1 — Gen.  Sumter,  a  South  Carelina  hero  of  the  Revolution,  died. 
"    9 — ^The  cholera  breaks  out  at  Quebec,  Lower  Canada.      It  swept  over 
the  country,  following  the  lakes  and  rivers  and  routes  of  travel, 
with  fearful  violence. 
July — The  cholera  breaks  up  Gen.  Scott's  army,  on  the  way  to  meet  Black 
Hawk  while  in  vessels  on  the  lakes. 
"    9 — Congress  creates  the  office  of  Commissioner  of  Indian  affairs. 
"  10 — Naval  hospitals  established  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Brooklyn,  N. 

Y.,  and  Pensacola,  Fla. 
«  "  — The  President  vetoes  the  bill  rechartering  the  U.  S.  Bank. 
Aug.  27— Gen.   Atkinson  defeats  the   Indians    and  takes  Black    Hawk 

prisoner. 
Nov.  14 — Chas.  Carroll,  of  CarroUton,  Md.,  last  surviving  signer  of  Dec. 
of  Ind.,  dies. 
"  19 — An  anti-tariff  convention  in  S.  C.  issues  the  famous  "Nullifica- 
tion Ordinance." 
"    24 — The  Unionists  of  S.  C.  meet  and  protest  against  this  ordinance. 
Dec.  10 — President  Jackson  issues  a  proclamation  against  the  nuUifiers. 
He  followed  word  with  deed,  garrisoning  the  forts,  and  sending 
vessels  of  war  into  the  harbor  of  Charleston.      His  well  known 
vigor  left  the  nuUifiers  no  hope  of  success,  and  they  finally  sub- 
mitted. 
"  18 — A  commercial  treaty  concluded  with  Russia. 
^'  20 — Gov.  Hayne,  of  S.  C,  defies  the  President  in  a  counter  procla 

mation. 
**  28— J.  C.  Calhoun,  of  S.  C,  the  Vice-President,  resigns  his  office. 
I*resident  Jackson  is  reelected  this  fall.     His  anti-nullification 
measures  made  him  very  popular. 


634  HISTOEY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

1833. 

Feb.  12 — Henry  Clay  introduces  a  bill  on  the  tariff  comprr  ising  the 
points  at  issue  between  the  manufacturing  States  am  the  Soutli 

Mar.  3 — It  becomes  a  law,  and  gives  general  satisfaction. 
"    4 — President  Jackson  reinaugurated  on  his  second  term. 

May  20— The  death  of  La  Fayette,  in  France. 

June  1 — Oliver  Wolcott,  Sec.  of  the  Treasury  under  Washington,  dies. 

July  27 — Com.  Bainbridge,  a  famous  naval  commander,  dies. 

Sept.  80 — President  Jackson  removes  his  Sec.  of  Treas.  W.  J.  Duan^  ibr 
refusing  to  carry  out  his  policy  in  regard  to  the  U.  S.  Bank.  The 
presence  of  the  Indians  in  Mississippi,  Alabam*,  Georgia,  and 
Florida,  produces  so  much  conflict  and  so  frequejt  a  necessity  for 
chastising  them  that  they  are  in  danger  of  toial  extermination. 
Gen.  Jackson  persuades  Congress  and  the  Indians  to  arrange  for 
their  removal  to  lands  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Some  of  the  Indi- 
ans quietly  remove  this  year.  Many  resist,  but  all  are  finally 
persuaded  to  this  course  by  Gen.  Scott  and  others,  except  the. 
Seminoles  of  Fla. 

1834. 

Mar.  28 — Congress  formally  censures  the  President  for  his  course  in  regard 
to  the  U.  S.  Bank. 

Oct,  28 — A  conditional  treaty  made  with  the  Seminoles  at  Payne's  Landings 
May  9, 1832,  for  their  removal  to  the  Indian  Territory  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  chiefs  but  rejected 
by  the  people.  Gen.  Thompson  was  sent,  at  this  time,  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson  to  insist  on  their  carrying  out  the  treaty. 

Dec.  28 — ^A  council  of  the  Indians,  called  by  Gen.  Thompson,  seemingly 
accept  the  terms  of  the  President. 
1835. 

Mar.  3 — Congress  establishes  branch  mints  in  La.,  N.  C,  and  Ga. 

May  14 — A  treaty  with  the  Cherokees  purchases  all  their  lands  east  of  the 
Mississippi  for  $5,262,251,  and  ample  lands  in  exchange  in  the- 
Indian  Territory. 

June  3 — Osceola,  a  Seminole  chief,  imprisoned  by  Gen.  Thompson. 

July  6 — Chief  Justice  Marshall  dies,  aged  80. 

Dec.  16— A  destructive  fire  in  New  York.  $17,000,000  worth  of  property- 
consumed. 
"  28 — The  Seminoles  killed  their  chief,  Mathla,  who  had  been  promin- 
ent  in  making  the  obnoxious  treaty,  and  suddenly  attack  a  U.  S. 
force  under  Maj.  Dade.  But  one  man  out  of  110  escaped.  He  was- 
wounded  and  afterwards  died.  The  same  day  Gen.  Thompson 
and  others  were  surprised  and  massacred. 
"  81 — Gen.  Clinch  is  attacked  by  the  Indians  at  Withlacoochee.  He 
repulses  them  and  retires. 


HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  g35 

1836. 
Early  in  this  year  tlie  Indians  laid  waste  the  whole  country,  burning  the 

buildings  and  killing  all  who  had  not  taken  refuge  in  the  forts. 

Jan.  30 — ^A  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  concluded  with  the  republic 
of  Venezuela,  South  America. 

Feb.  — The  U.  S.  Bank  was  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Pa. 
"  11 — Gen.  Gaines  lands  an  army  at  Tampa  Bay.  He  is  surrounded  by 
the  Indians  on  his  march  toward  Fort  King.  He  repulsed  them, 
but  his  army  is  nearly  starved.  While  the  army  is  held  here  the 
tribe  remove  their  families  and  effects  into  the  impenetrable 
swamps  of  the  interior. 

Mar.  2 — The  Texans  proclaim  their  independence. 

Apr.  26 — Wisconsin  receives  a  territorial  government. 
"     31 — Battle  of  San  Jacinto.    Santa  Anna  taken  prisoner. 

June  15 — Michigan  erected  into  a  State,  conditionally. 
"    "  — Arkansas  admitted  into  the  Union. 

"    23 — A  surplus  revenue  having  accumulated  it  is  loaned  to  the  States. 
"    28 — James  Madison,  the  ex-President,  dies,  aged  86. 

July  4 — Office  of  Commissioner  of  Patents  created. 

Sept.  15 — Aaron  Burr,  an  able  but  dishonest  and  disloyal  statesman,  for- 
merly  Vice-President,  dies,  aged  81. 

The  Creek  Indians  commenced  hostilities  in  May  of  this  year,  in 
their  usual  fierce  and  barbarous  manner.    Gen.  Scott  and  the  State 
authorities  of  Geo.  subdue  them  early  in  the  summer. 
In  the  presidential  election  this  fall  Martin  Van  Burenwas  elected. 

Dec.  15 — The  General  Post  Office  and  Patent  Office,  with  many  record* 
and  articles  of  value,  are  destroyed  by  fire. 
1837. 

Jan.  16 — The  U.  S.  Senate  repealed  and  expunged  its  resolution  of  March 
24th,  1834,  censuring  President  Jackson,  as  having  exceeded  his 
Constitutional  powers  when  he  ordered  the  public  funds  to  be 
withdrawn  from  the  U.  S.  Bank. 

liar.  4 — ^Van  Buren  inaugurated  President. 

Speculation  having  been  carried  to  an  extreme  length  for  some 
time,  and  somewhat  arrested  by  the  "specie  circular "  requiring 
payments  for  public  lands  to  be  made  in  coin,  a  revulsion,  produc- 
ing great  distress,  and  suspension  of  payments  by  the  banks, 
occurred  this  spring. 

May  8 — The  merchants  of  New  York  present  a  memorial  to  the  President 
urging  him  to  remit  the  regulations  of  the  "specie  circular." 
The  President  declines,  but  calls  an  extra  session  of  Congress. 

Aug.  4— Texas  proposes  annexation  to  the  U.  S.    The  President  declines 
to  entertain  the  proposition. 
"    13 — The  banks  resume  specie  payments. 

8ept.  4 — Congress  assembled  in  extra  session.    A  portion  of  the  surplntr 


036  HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

revenue,  which,  by  law  of  June  23d,  183Q,  was  to  be  loaned  to  the 
States,  is  reclaimed  to  meet  the  current  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment. 
"    29 — A  treaty  made  with  the  Sioux  Indians  for  the  pui'chase  of  then 

lands,  5,000,000  acres,  for  $1,000,000. 
Oct.  1— The  Winnebagoes  sell  their  lands  for  $1,500,000. 
"    12— Congress  authorizes  the  issue  of  $10,000,000  in  Treasury  notes. 
"    21— Osceola,  the  Seminole  chief,  with  70  of  his  warriors,  visits  the 
camp  of  Gen.  Jessup.    They  are  detained,  and  Osceola  was  impris- 
oned in  Ft.  Moultrie,  S.  C,  where,  in  a  few  months,  he  died. 
Dec.  25— The  battle  of  Okee-cho-bee   fought  with  the  Seminoles  in  the 
swamps  of  Florida,  by  Col.  Zachary  Taylor.    The  Indians  are 
defeated. 

The  Magnetic  Telegraph  was  patented  in  this  year. 
1838. 
Jan.  5— The  President  issues  a  proclamation  enjoining  neutrality  on  Amer- 
ican citizens,  during  the  "  Patriot  war,"  or  insurrection  in  Canada. 
June  12 — Iowa  receives  a  Territorial  government. 

Aug.  19 — An  Arctic  exploring  expedition,  with  six  vessels,  sails  from  Hamp- 
ton Roads,  Va. 

The  Cherokee  Indians  completed  their  emigration  to  the  Indian 
Territory  this  year. 

1839. 
Gen.  Macomb  makes  a  treaty  early  in  this  year  with  the  Seminoles, 
which  they  very  imperfectly  kept. 

A  difficulty  with  England  in  regard  to  our  northeast  boundary  narrowly 
avoids  war,  but  is,  at  length,  peaceably  adjusted. 
Dec.  2 — Congress  assembles. 

"  4 — A  Whig  Convention  prepares  for  the  contest  of  the  coming  year 
by  the  nomination  of  Wm.  H.  Harrison  for  the  Presidency.  Great 
discontent  was  felt  with  the  financial  policy  of  Van  Buren's 
administration,  and  lively  interest  taken  in  the  coming  election, 
which  made  the  campaign  the  most  stirring  and  the  noisiest  ever 
experienced  in  this  country. 

1840. 
May  5 — The  Democrats  renominate  Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency. 

This  year  was  chiefly  memorable  for  the  "  Log  Cabin  and  Hard 
Cider  "  election  gatherings,  and  the  extreme  interest  of  the  people 
in  the  elections,  on  financial  grounds. 
June  30 — Congress  passes  the  sub-treasury  bill  recommended  by  President 

Van  Buren,  in  1837,  but  then  rejected. 
Nov.   ~W.  H.  Harrison  elected  President,  and  John  Tyler  Vice-President 

1841. 
Jan.  14 — Imprisonment  for  debts  due  the  U.  S.  abolished. 
Mar.  4 — Harrison  inaugurated  ninth  President. 


HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  637 

••    11— The  steamer  President  sails  from  New  York  but  is  never  agaia 

heard  of.    She  had  109  passengers. 
"    17 — The  President  calls  an  extra  session  of  Congress  to  consider  finan- 
cial questions. 
Apr.  4 — President  Harrison  died  and  John  Tyler  became  acting  President. 
May  31 — Congress  convenes. 
June  25 — Gen.  Macomb  died. 

July  6 — The  proceeds  of  the  public  lands  ordered  to  be  distributed  to  the 
States. 
"  21— Congress  orders  a  loan  of  $13,000,000. 
Aug.  9 — The  Sub  Treasury  act  repealed. 
"   16 — President  Tyler  vetoes  the  National  Bank  bill. 
"  18 — A  general  bankrupt  law  passed. 
Sept.  9 — A  Second  Banking  Bill  vetoed.    This  was  the  fourteenth  time  the 
veto  power  had  been  used ;  by  Washington  twice,  Madison  foui 
times,  Monroe  once,  Jackson  five  times. 
Oct.  11 — Failure  of  U.  S.  Bank  under  the  Pennsylvania  charter. 

1842. 
June  25— The  new  Ratio  of  Representation,  based  on  the  census  of  1840, 

gives  one  Member  of  Congress  for  every  70,600  inhabitants. 
July  23 — Bunker  Hill  Monument  finished  and  dedicated.     The  corner 

stone  was  laid  by  Lafayette  17  years  before. 
Aug.  20 — The  Ashburton  treaty  with  England,  settling  the  N.  E.  Boundary, 
ratified  by  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
"    28 — The  U.  S.  fiscal  year  ordered  to  commence  with  July  1st. 
Oct.  2 — The  U.  8.  sloop  of  war  Concord  wrecked  on  the  African  coast. 
"  14 — The  Ashburton-Webster  treaty  ratified  in  England. 

1843. 
Mar.  3 — Congress  appropriates  $30,000  for  building  Morse's  electric  tele- 
graph from  Washington  to  Baltimore.    It  was  the  beginning  of 
that  magnificent  enterprise. 

Com.  Porter,  minister  to  Turkey,  dies  in  Constantinople. 
Apr.  18 — Commences  "Dorr's  rebellion"  in  Rhode  Island. 
Aug.  26 — The  U.  S.  frigate  Missouri  burned,  at  Gibraltar,  Spain. 

1844. 
Feb.  28 — A  large  cannon  on  board  the  war  steamer  Princeton,  bursts  while 
the  President  and  others  are  visiting  the  vessel,  killing  Messrs. 
Upshur  and  Gilmer,  secretaries  of  war  and  navy,  and  others. 
May  6 — The  "  Know-nothing  "  or  American  excitement  produces  a  serious 

riot  in  Philadelphia. 
July  7— Jo.  Smith,  the  originator  of  the  Mormons,  killed  at  Carthage,  111. 
Nov.  —The  Democratic  party  elected  James  K.  Polk  for  President.  The 
chief  question  entering  into  the  election  was  on  the  annexation 
of  Texas.  It  had  been  sought  for  some  years  but  had  been 
declined  as  certain  to  bring  on  a  war  with  Mexico,  which,  as  a 


638  HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

sister  republic,  and  much  weaker  than  ourselves,  had  been  con- 
sidered to  be  an  unworthy  act.  The  Whigs,  with  Henry  Clay  as 
their  candidate  for  President,  opposed  it.  It  was  carried,  in  great 
part  as  a  pro-slavery  measure,  although  the  bitter  and  barbarous 
conduct  of  the  Mexicans  toward  Texans  and  American  citizens 
had  something  to  do  with  it. 

1845. 

Jan.  16 — A  treaty  made  with  China,  ratified  by  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
"    23 — An  act  of  Congress  orders  presidential  elections  to  be  held  in  all 
the  States  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November. 

Feb.  28 — Congress  annexes  Texas  to  the  Union,  by  a  joint  resolution  of 
both  Houses. 

Mar.  3 — Florida  admitted  into  the  Union.  ~ 

"     4 — Mr.  Polk  inaugurated  the  tenth  President. 

June  18 — Andrew  Jackson  died. 

The  Congress  of  Texas  accepted  the  conditions  of  the  U.  S.  and 
it  became  a  State  in  the  American  Union. 

July  30 — Gen.  Taylor  ordered  to  the  frontier  of  Texas. 

Sept.  10 — Judge  Joseph  Story,  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  died,  aged  66. 

Dec.  15 — A  misunderstanding  had  long  existed  between  the  U.  S.  and  Eng- 
land as  to  the  northern  boundary  of  Oregon.  Much  excitement 
is  now  produced  by  a  speech  and  resolution  of  Mr.  Cass,  which 
seemed  the  prelude  to  war  with  Great  Britain. 

1846. 
June  18 — A  treaty  was  negotiated  by  Mr.  Packenham  and  Mr.  Buchanan 
settling  the  northwest  boundary  satisfactorily. 


CHAPTEE    XXII. 
THE  MEXICAN  WAK. 

Texas  was  a  nearly  uninhabited  part  of  Mexico,  lying  between  Louisiana 
and  the  Rio  Grande  river.  It  was  a  fertile  region,  with  a  fine  climate. 
The  Spanish  possessors  of  Mexico,  in  the  bigoted  and  bitter  spirit  that  was 
traditional  with  the  Spaniards  toward  protestants,  and  deeply  hostile  in 
feeling  from  the  rather  high-handed  and  vigorous  proceedings  of  Gen. 
Jackson  before  and  after  the  cession  of  Florida,  did  not  encourage  the  set- 
tlement of  Texas;  preferring  to  be  separated  by  a  wilderness  from  the 
United  States.  In  1821  the  Mexicans  finally  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke 
and  established  an  independent  government. 

About  this  time  the  Americans,  and  especially  those  of  the  South,  fore- 
seeing the  probable  spread  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Republic  to  the 
Pacific,  began  to  look  with  covetous  eyes  on  the  fine  Savannas  of  Texas,  as 


THE   MEXICAN   WAR.  639 

an  excellent  field  for  land  speculations,  and  also  for  extending  the  South- 
ern area,  so  as  to  keep  its  balance  in  the  number  of  slave  States  equal  to 
the  free  States  of  the  North,  as  they  had  been  provided  for  by  the  Missouri 
Compromise.  It  was  believed  to  be  the  plan  of  Mr.  Calhoun,  an  able  and 
far-seeing  statesman,  thoroughly  in  earnest  in  the  maintenance  of  slavery, 
and  the  political  equality  of  the  slave  with  the  free  States.  A  settle- 
ment was  made  by  people  from  the  United  States.  In  a  few  years  they 
grew  to  be  numerous,  and  came  in  conflict  with  the  rigid  Spanish  Catholic 
laws,  still  maintained  by  tlie  Mexicans.  The  United  States  government 
made  advances  toward  purchasing  Texas,  but  the  Mexicans  were  resolute 
in  their  purpose  to  hold  it,  and  bring  its  people  under  the  dominion  of 
strict  Mexican  law.  The  Americans  resisted  this  with  the  settled  deter- 
mination of  ultimate  separation  from  Mexico,  and  probable  annexation  to 
the  United  States. 

The  Mexicans  undertook  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  The  Texans, 
supported  by  bold  and  fearless  adventurers  from  the  Southern  States, 
resisted.  The  war  commenced  Oct.  2d,  1835,  by  a  battle  at  Gonzalez,  fol- 
lowed by  various  others.  March  3d,  1836,  the  Texans  formally  declared 
Independence,  which  they  maintained  by  force  of  arms.  March  3d,  1837, 
the  United  States  government  recognized  the  Independence  of  Texas. 
England  did  the  same  in  1842.  Propositions  of  annexation  had  been  made 
to  Presidents  Jackson,  Van  Buren,  and  Tyler,  successively,  by  the  Texas 
government,  but  as  often  rejected  by  them  as  tending  necessarily  to  a  war 
with  Mexico;  that  power  having  distinctly  and  repeatedly  declared  that 
she  should  regard  such  a  step  as  a  declaration  of  war. 

The  Democratic  party  regaining  the  ascendency  in  the  election  of  1844, 
made  this  annexation  the  issue  of  the  presidential  campaigp.  A  majority 
of  the  people  were  in  favor  it. 

The  Southern  view,  however,  was  not  alone  in  its  influence  on  this  decis- 
ion. Indignities  and  injuries  had  been  inflicted  by  the  Mexicans  on  Amer- 
ican citizens  in  that  country;  its  haughty,  exclusive,  and  unfriendly  spirit 
awakened  strong  indignation;  and  the  Pacific  coast  of  California,  with  the 
mining  regions  of  the  northern  interior  of  Mexico,  both  nearly  uninhabited, 
were  objects  of  desire  to  the  American  people.  Thus  a  wish  to  extend  the 
Dounds  of  the  Republic,  and  to  chastise  an  insolent  neighbor,  combined 
with  the  ardent  wishes  of  the  pro-slavery  interest,  to  lead  the  nation  to  deter- 
mine on  a  war,  somewhat  ungenerously,  with  a  neighbor  notoriously  too 
weak  and  disorganized  for  eff"ectual  resistance  to  the  whole  strength  of  the 
United  States.  The  whole  plan,  as  afterward  carried  out,  was  arranged  in 
the  cabinet  at  Washington  almost  before  hostilities  had  actually  commenced. 

1846. 
Mar.  38— Gen.  Taylor  takes  position  with  a  small  army  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kio  Grande  opposite  Matamoras.    This  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment regard  as  a  declaration  of  war,  for  which  they  had  prepared 
and  were  waiting. 


640  THE   MEXICAN    WAK. 

Apr.  34 — Hostilities  commence  by  an  attack  on  Capt.  Thornton.    He  loses. 

16  men  out  of  63,  and  surrenders. 
May  8— The  battle  of  Palo  Alto.    Gen.  Taylor  with  2,300  men  defeat* 
6,000  Mexicans.   Mexican  loss  100  killed,  300  wounded ;  American 
4  killed  40  wounded. 
•'     9 — ^The  battle  of  Resaca  de  ia  Palma.    The  Mexicans  are  totally 
defeated  with  a  loss  of  about  600 ;  the  Americans  lose  about  160, 
Gen.  La  Vega,  (Mexican,)  taken  prisoner.    The  Mexicans  fled  in 
total  rout  across  the  Rio  Grande.    The  object  of  the  war,  so  far 
as  Texas  was  concerned,  was  gained ;  but  the  Mexicans  were  still 
^irited,  and  California,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico  were  not  gained. 
An  invasion  and  march  on  the  city  of  Mexico  were  the  next  steps. 
««   12— Congress  ordered  the  raising  of  50,000  men,  and  voted  $10,000,000 
to  carry  on  the  war. 
July  6 — Monterey,  on  the  California  coast  is  taken  by  the  American  navy 
under  Com.  Sloat. 
"     9 — Congress  re-cedes  the  Virginia  portion  of  the  District  of  Colum» 

bia  to  that  State. 
"  30 — The  tariff  on  imported  goods  is  reduced. 
Aug.  3 — President  Polk  vetoes  the  River  and  Harbor  Bill. 
"     8 — He  vetoes  the  French  Spoliation  Bill. 
"  18 — Gen.  Kearney  takes  possession  of  Santa  Pe,  New  Mexico,  and 

declared  the  U.  S.  authority  established  over  the  people. 
"  22 — California  is  at  this  time  entirely  in  the  possession  of  U.  8.  forces. 
Sept  5 — Gen.  Taylor,  with  6,000  men,  commences  his  march  on  Monterey. 
"   21 — Gen.  Worth,  with  650.men,  fights  the  Mexicans  near  Monterey. 
"   32 — ^The  "  Bishops  Palace,"  strongly  fortified,  is  stormed  and  taken. 
The  previous  attacks  were  directed  on  the  rear  of  Monterey.    An 
advance  is  now  made  in  front  with  success. 
"   23 — The  defenses  are  assaulted  in  front  and  rear.    The  city  surrenders. 
Gen.  Ampudia,  the  Mexican  commander,  had  about  10,000  men 
and  very  strong  fortifications.    A  truce  of  some  weeks  was  agreed 
upon.    Gen.  Santa  Anna  having  recently  come  into  power,  it  was 
thought  peace  would  be  made.    This  proved  delusive. 
Oct.  25 — Tobasco  bombarded  by  the  U.  S.  fleet,  and  the  Mexican  vessels  in 

the  port  taken  or  destroyed. 
Nov.  14 — Tampico  surrenders  to  Com.  Connor. 

Dec.  25 — Battle  of  Bracito.  Col.  Doniphan,  with  500  men,  defeats  a  Mexi- 
can force  of  1,200.  Mexican  loss  200,  American  but  7  wounded, 
none  killed. 

1847. 
Jan.  8 — The  Mexican  Congress  votes  $15,000,000  to  carry  on  the  war.  to  be 

raised  on  the  property  of  the  church. 
Feb.  23 — ^The  larger  part  of  Gen.  Taylor's  army  was  withdrawn  from  him 
to  support  Qen.  Scott  in  his  march  from  Vera  Cruz  on  the  city  of 


THE   MEXICAN   WAK.  641 

Mexico.    Gen.  Taylor,  with  onlj-  4,500  men,  is  attacked  by  Santa 
Anna  with  20,000  men.     Santa  Anna  is  completely  defeated  with  a 
loss  in  killed  and  wounded  of  2,000.    American  loss  264  killed, 
450  wounded,  26  missing. 
Mar.  1 — Gen.  Kearney  proclaims  California  annexed  to  the  United  States. 
"     3 — A  bill  admitting  Wisconsin  into  the  Union  passed. 
"     9— Gen.  Scott  landed  12,000  men  at  Vera  Cruz. 
"   18 — The  cannonade  of  Vera  Cruz  commences. 
"  26 — Vera  Cruz  capitulates  to  Gen.  Scott. 
Apr.  18 — The  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo.     Santa  Anna  is  defeated.     He  had 
^  12,000  men.     Gen.  Scott  8,500.    The  Mexicans  lost  1,100  in  killed 

and  wounded,  and  3,000  prisoners.     Gen.  Scott  lost  in  killed  and 
wounded,  430.    The  Mexicans  were  vigorously  pursued  April  19, 
and  the  city  of  Jalapa  taken  possession  of 
"    22 — Gen.  Worth  takes  possession  of  the  town  and  castle  of  Perote. 
May  15 — Puebla  is  entered.     It  is  the  second  city  in  Mexico. 

Offers  of  peace  were  now  made  by  the  Americans  but  rejected  by 
the  Mexicans. 
Aug.  11 — The  army  advances  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
"     19 — The  battle  of   Contreras.  Americans  successful   in   cutting  the 
enemy's  communications.    The  Americans  march  in  the  night  to 
attack  a  fortified  camp  which  is  carried  at  sunrise.    American 
force  4,500,  Mexican  7,000.     Mexican  loss  in  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners,  about  4,000 ;  American,  66. 
"    20 — Cherubusco,  a  fortified  hill,  stormed  and  taken  by  Gen.  Worth 
with  9,000  men.    An   armistice  is  now  agreed  on,   and    peace 
offered,  but  the  Mexicans  still  hold  to  their  first  terms,  and  refuse 
to  give  up  territory. 
Sept.  8 — The  Mexicans  determine  to  yield  only  to  absolute  force,  and  the 
American  army  again  advances.    Battles  of  Molinos  del  Rey,  and 
Casa  Mata.    The  Mexicans  are  largely  superior  in  numbers  and 
fight  with  determined  valor,  but  are  overcome.     American  loss  800. 
"    13 — Battle  of  Chapultepec.    This  fortress  was  the  last  exterior  defense 
to  the  City  of  Mexico.     It  was  once  the  site  of  the  "Palace  of  the 
Montezumas."    The  Mexican  force  within  and  outside  the  fortress 
20,000.     The  American   force  7,180.      Mexican    loss    in    killed, 
wounded,  prisoners  and  deserted,  about  14,000;  American,  900. 
A  part  of  the  army  gained  a  foothold  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 
"     14 — Gen.  Scott  enters  Mexico  in  triumph. 
Get.  9 — Battle  of  Huamantla.     Santa  Anna  again  defeated. 
'•     18 — Again  at  Attixco,  with  heavy  loss.    Santa  Anna  is  now  deserted 
by  his  troops,  and  resigns  his  oflBce. 
Nov.  11 — The  Mexican  Congress  assembles,  and  appoints  commissioners 
to  treat  for  peace. 

41 


642  HISTORY    OF    THE    U.    8. 

1848. 

Feb.  2 — ^A  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (a  town  four  miles 
from  Mexico). 
"   23 — John  Quincy  Adams  expires  at  Washington. 

MaySO — The  treaty  having  been  ratified  by  the  President  and  Senate  of 
the  U.  S.,  March  10,  it  was  followed  by  that  of  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment on  this  day. 
"   23 — Peace  was  proclaimed  in  the  American  camp. 

The  war  was  now  over.  The  Mexicans  relinquished  all  claim  to 
Texas,  and  ceded  Upper  California  and  New  Mexico  to  the  United 
States.  In  return  the  United  States  gave  them  $18,500,000,  of  which 
$3,500,000  was  due  by  a  former  treaty  to  citizens  of  this  country 
and  paid  them  by  our  government. 

It  will  not  be  easy  for  an  American  to  wholly  condemn  an  act 
that  gave  us  California  and  the  fertile  valleys  and  vast  mining 
territory  of  tlie  Pacific  slope  as  well  as  New  Mexico,  or  the  chas- 
tisement which  tlie  Mexicans  had  merited  for  their  barbarity; 
though  he  may  blame  the  eagerness  for  the  acquisition  of  territory 
and  the  support  of  slavery  tliat  led  us  to  invade  another  countrj"^ 
and  humble  her  pride.  The  ability  of  Americans  as  soldiers 
would  appear  by  this  war  to  be  unrivalled,  and,  in  that  view, 
arouses  our  pride.  The  moral  sense  of  the  world  must  ever  be 
shocked  by  war,  though  there  seem  many  cases  in  whicli  it  is  far 
the  least  of  two  evils.  Our  government  was  fairly  generous  so  far 
as  it  dared  be  in  dealing  with  the  vanquished,  as  soon  as  its 
demands  for  territory  were  satisfied.  It  is  also  evident  that  this 
territory  will  be  better  developed  and  governed  than  would  have 
been  the  case  under  Mexican  rule. 

Aug.  14 — Oregon  receives  a  Territorial  government. 

Nov.   — Gen.  Taylor  was  elected  President  this  month  and  Millard  Fill- 
more Vice-President. 

1849. 

Jan.  26 — ^Postal  treaty  with  England  concluded. 

Mar.  3 — Minnesota  receives  a  Territorial  government. 
"     4 — Gen.  Taylor  inaugurated  President. 

May  7 — Gen.  Worth,  a  very  gallant  ofl[icer  of  the  Mexican  war,  died. 

Sept.   — A  State  Constitution  is  formed  by  the  people  of  California,  which 
excludes  slavery. 

Dec.31— The  House  of  Kepresentatives  ballots  63  limes  for  a  speaker,  and 
now  elects  Howell  Cobb,  of  Geo. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  California,  in  Feb.  1848,  and  through 
1849  emigrants — gold  seekers — were  arriving  there  by  tens  of 
thousands.  By  the  end  of  this  year  it  was  a  populous  region. 
The  mass  of  American  immigrants  were  from  the  northern  States, 
and  disapproved  of  slavery,  while  the  special  end  of  the  Mexican 


HISTORY   OF   THE   U.    8.  643 

war  was  to  procure  more  territory  for  that  institution.    At  this 
time  a  violent  contest  was  waged  in  Congress  over  that  admission. 
It  was  not  ended  until  late  in  the  following  year. 
1850. 
Jan.     —Gen.  Twiggs  obtains  the  consent  of  the  Seminoles  of  Florida  to 

emigrate  to  tlie  Indian  Territory. 
Feo.  13— President  Taylor  sends  the  constitution  of  California  to  Congress. 
There  were  many  threats  of  secession  in  case  California  was 
admitted  free. 
Mar.  7 — Mr.  Webster's  great  speech  for  the  Union. 

"    31— John  C.  Calhoun,  the  most  eminent  of  Southern  Statesmen,  died. 
Ma;-  8— The  "  Omnibus  Bill  "  reported  by  Henry  Clay. 
"    i8 — A  private  expedition  from  the  south  under  command  of  Lopez 
invades  Cuba.     They  are  driven  off  with  a  loss  of  30  killed  and 
executed  as  pirates,  on  the  19th.    The  remainder  returned  to  Key 
West  on  the  22d  of  the  same  month. 

July  9— Death  of  President  Taylor.     Fillmore  becomes  acting  President. 

Sept.  9-20 — A  committee  of  thirteen,  of  which  Henry  Clay  was  chairman, 
had  been  appointed  Apr.  19th,  and  they  had  prepared  four  meas- 
ures forming  a  compromise  between  the  North  and  South  as  to 
slavery,  which  were  debated  and  passed  into  laws,  receiving  the 
concurrence  of  the  President :  First,  the  South  conceded  to  the 
North  the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  State,  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia ;  Second,  the 
North  conceded  to  the  South  a  stringent  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and 
the  organization  of  Territorial  Governments  in  New  Mexico  and 
Utah  without  mention  of  slavery,  but  in  the  understanding  that 
they  were  finally  to  form  slave  States.  Tlie  real  gain  was  to  the 
North,  as  anti-slavery  was  advanced  two  steps,  while  the  Fugitive 
Law  could  not  be  generally  enforced  in  the  North  from  the  invin- 
cible aversion  of  the  people  to  it,  and  the  Southern  people  were 
not  sufficiently  migratory  in  their  habits  to  introduce  slavery  into 
distant  regions  not  naturally  adapted  to  that  institution.  Still  the 
question  was  laid  aside  for  the  present. 

Nov.  19— Richard  M.  Johnson,  a  former  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.,  died. 

Dec.  16 — A  treaty  of  Amity  and  Commerce  ratified  with  Switzerland. 

1851. 

Mar.  3 — ^A  cheap  postage  law  passed  by  Congress. 

1852. 

June  28 — Henry  Clay,  orator  and  Statesman,  died. 

July  3 — A  branch  mint  established  at  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Oct.  24 — Daniel  Webster  died.  These  three  were  the  ablest  and  most 
esteemed  statesmen  of  their  day. 

Nov.  — The  seventeenth  presidential  election  occurred.  Franklin  Pierce 
was  elected.  He  was  the  Democratic  nominee.  Gen.  Scott,  Whig, 
was  defeated. 


^44  HISTOKY    OF    THK    L'.    S. 

1853. 

Mar.  4 — Pierce  inaugurated  President. 

Aug.  11 — Proclamation  of  President  Pierce  against  the  invasion  of  Cuba 
by  armed  Americans. 

1854. 

Mar.  23 — An  important  treaty  of  commerce  negotiated  with  the  empire  of 
Japan  by  Com.  Perry,  which  opened  a  new  era  in  llie  progress  of 
that  country,  and  of  United  States  commerce  and  influence  in  Asia. 

May  30 — Tlie  failure  of  tlie  compromise  measures  of  1850  to  realize  the 
hopes  of  the  South  from  the  rapid  development  of  anti-slavery 
views  in  the  North  caused  the  subject  to  be  again  agitated,  and  the 
Missouri  Compromise,  which  stopped  the  formation  of  slave  States 
north  of  its  south  boundary  line,  was  repealed ;  the  question  of  the 
admission  of  slavery  into  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  both  being  north 
of  that  line,  being  referred  by  tlie  famous  "  Kansas-Nebi'aska  Bill " 
to  the  "squatters,"  or  first  settlers.  This  was  called  "squatter 
sovereignty."  This  measure  gave  satisfaction  to  the  South,  but- 
was  strongly  reprobated  by  many  of  the  Northern  people.  Both 
sides  prepared  to  renew  the  contest  there,  and  civil  war  raged  in 
Kansas  for  near  three  years.  Each  side  sought  to  secure  its  end 
which  terminated  in  fkvor  of  the  North.  The  South  could  not 
compete  with  it  in  numbers  nor  drive  the  extra  numbers  away. 
This  was  the  last  hope  of  the  South  for  preserving  equilibrium  in 
the  general  government. 

The  Democratic  party  in  the  North,  anxious  to  soothe  and  concil- 
iate the  South,  and  not  holding  so  advanced  opinions  against 
slavery,  was  still  strong  enough  to  maintain  itself  in  power  in  the 
administration;  but  the  Republican  party,  formed  about  this 
time  by  the  dissolution  of  the  Whig  party,  constantly  grew  in 
numbers  and  influence,  and,  by  the  end  of  tlie  next  administration 
its  numbers  were  so  large  and  the  ultimate  result  so  certain  that 
the  South  resolved  on  secession  rather  than  give  up  their  favorite 
institution. 

1855. 

Feb,  24 — ^The  Court  of  Claims,  an  important  relief  to  Congress  and  to 
claimants  against  the  government,  was  established  in  Washington, 
by  Congress. 

1856. 

Mar.  4 — ^A  Free  State  Legislature  assembles  in  Kansas.  It  adoptea  a  con- 
stitution and  prepared  to  apply  for  admission  into  the  Union. 

Nov.  — The  eighteenth  presidential  election  took  place.  James  Buchanan 
was  elected  against  J.  C.  Fremont  and  Millard  Fillmore. 
Buchanan  was  the  Democratic  candidate ;  Fremont,  Republican, 
and  Fillmore,  American,  or  "  know  nothing  "  candidate. 


THE   CIVIL   WAS.  649 

"  29— John  B.  Floyd,  U.  S.  Sec.  of  War,  resigns.    Joseph  Holt,  of  Ky., 

appointed. 
"  81— South  Carolina  sends  Commissioners  to  Slave  States  to  arrange 
the  organization  of  a  Southern  Confederacy. 
1861. 
Jan.  2— Gov.  Ellis,  of  North  Carolina,  takes  possession  of  Ft.  Macon. 

Georgia  troops  seize  Fts.  Pulaski  and  Jackson,  and  U.  S.  Arsenal, 
at  Savannah. 
"     4— Gov.  Moore,  of  Ala.,  seizes  Ft.  Morgan,  and  U.  S.  Arsenal  at 
Mobile. 

Fast  Day  by  proclamation  of  President. 
"     7 — State  Conventions  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  and  State  Legisla- 
tures of  Virginia  and  Tennessee  assemble. 
"     8 — Jacob  Thompson,  U.  S.  Sec.  of  Interior,  resigns.    Fts.  Johnson 

and  Caswell,  North  Carolina,  seized  by  State  authorities. 
"     9 — U.  S.  steamer,  Star  of  the  West,  fired  on  in  Charleston  Harbor 
and  driven  away. 

Mississippi  Convention  adopt  Secession  Ordinance.  Vote  84  to  15. 
"  10 — Florida  Convention  secedes  by  vote  of  62  to  7.     Florida  authori- 
ties seize  Ft.  McRae. 
"   11 — Alabama  secedes  by  vote   in   Convention  of   61   to  39.    P.  F. 
Thomas,  U.  S.  Sec.  of  Treasury,  resigns.    John  A.  Dix  appointed. 
The  Governor  of  Mississippi  siezes  Forts  Philip  and  Jackson,  on 
the  Mississippi  river ;  Forts  Pike  and  Macomb,  on  Lake  Pontchar- 
train ;  and  U.  S.  Arsenal  at  Baton  Rouge. 
"    13 — Florida  takes  possession  of  Pensacola  Navy  Yard  and  Ft.  Barran- 
cas.    Lieut.  Slemmer,  in   command  of  Ft.  Pickens,  ordered  by 
Com.  Armstrong  to  deliver  the  Fort  to  Florida,  refuses,  and  pre- 
serves that  important  post  to  the  government  of  the  Union. 
"    16 — Legislature  of  Arkansas  calls  a  Convention.     Col.  Hayne,  of  South 
Carolina,  demands  of  the  President  the  surrender  of  Ft.  Sumter, 
and  is  refused.    Missouri  Legislature  order  a  convention  to  con- 
sider secession. 
"     18 — The  Legislature  of  Virginia  appropriate  $1,000,000  for  the  defense 

of  the  State. 
"    19 — Georgia  adopts  Secession  Ordinance  by  vote  of  208  to  89. 
"    21 — Members  of  Congress  from  Alabama  resign. 
"    "      Jefterson  Davis  resigns  his  seat  in  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
"    23 — Georgia  members  of  Congress  resign. 
"    24 — U.  S.  Arsenal,  Augusta,  Geo.,  seized. 

"    26 — Louisiana  Legislature  passes  Secession  Ordinance.     Vote  113  to  17. 
"    29— Kansas,  the  thirty-fourth  State,  admitted  into  the  Union. 
"    80 — North  Carolina  Legislature  submits  the  question  of  calling  a  Con- 
vention to  the  people. 


650  THE   CIVIL   WAK. 

"    "      Revenue  cutters  Cass,  at  Mobile,  and  McClelland,  at  New  Orleans, 

surrendered  to  Southern  authorities. 
Feb.  1 — Texas  Convention  passes  Secession  Ordinance,  to  be  submitted  to 

the  people.    Vote,  166  to  7.     Louisiana  government  seize  the  U.  S. 

Mint  and  Custom  House,  at  New  Orleans. 
««      4 — Peace  Convention  of  Delegates  from  eighteen  States,  assembles  at 

Washington ;  ex-President  Tyler  presides. 
"    "      Delegates  from  seceded   States    meet  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  to 

organize  a  Confederate  Government. 
«'    "      John  Slidell  and  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  U.  S.  Senators  from  Louis- 
iana, resign  their  seats. 
"      9 — Jefferson  Davis  and  Alexander  H.   Stevens  elected  provisional 

President  and  Vice-President  of  Confederate  States,  for  one  year. 
"    13 — Electoral  vote  counted.    Abraham  Lincoln  received  180  votes ;  S. 

A.  Douglas,  12;  J.  C.  Breckenridge,  73;  John  Bell,  39.     Majority 

required  to  elect,  157. 
"    18 — Ft.  Kearney,  Kansas,  seized  by  Southern  forces. 
"    23 — Gen.  Twiggs,  U.  S.  commander  in  Texas,  delivered  his  army  pris- 
oners of  war,  and  U.  S.  property  valued  at  $1,200,000  to  Confederate 

authorities. 
"    28 — Territorial  Government  organized  in  Colorado. 
Mar.  1 — Gen.  Twiggs  expelled  from  the  army.     Peace  Congress  adjourned. 
"      2 — Territorial  government  organized  in  Dacotah  and  Nevada. 
"  Revenue  cutter  Dodge  surrendered  to  the  South,  at  Galveston, 

Texas. 
"      4 — Abraham  Lincoln   inaugurated   14th   regular  President  of   the 

United  States. 
"    "      The  people  of  Texas  having  voted  for  the  Secession  Ordinance  by 

40,000  majority,  the  Convention  declared  the  State  out  of  the  Union. 
"  5 — Gen.  Beauregard  takes  command  of  Southern  forces,  at  Charleston, 
"      6 — ^Ft.  Brown,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  surrenders  to  Confederate  troops. 

Federal  troops  evacuated  the  fort  and  sailed  for  Key  West,  Florida. 
**  Confederate  Senate  confirm  nominations  of  President  Davis  to  his 

Cabinet,  viz. :  R.  Toombs,  of  Geo.,  Sec.  of  State ;  C.  S.  Memminger, 

of  South  Carolina,  Sec.  of  Treasury;  L.  P.  Walker,  of  Ala.,  Sec.  of 

War ;  S.  R.  Mallory,  of  Fla.,  Sec.  of  Navy ;  J.  H.  Reagan,  of  Texas, 

Postmaster  Gen.;  J.  P.  Benjamin,  of  La.,  Attorney  General. 
**    11 — ^The  Constitution  of  Confederate  States  adopted  in  convention  at 

Montgomery,  Ala. ;  afterwards  ratified  by  the  several  States. 
"    28 — ^Vote  of  Louisiana  on  secession — 20,448  for,  17,926  against — made 

public. 
"    30 — Mississippi  Convention  ratifies  the  Confederate  Constitution,  by 

78  to  70. 
Apr.  3 — South  Carolina  Convention  ratifies  Confederate  Constitution,  by 

114  to  6. 


FIRST   PHASE   OF  THE   WAB.  651 

A-pr.  4 — Virginia  Convention  refuse  to  present  a  Secession  Ordinance  to 
the  people,  by  a  vote  of  89  to  45. 
"      7 — Intercourse  between  Ft.  Sumter  and  Charleston  stopped  by  order 
of  Gen.  Beauregard. 


CHAPTEE    XXIV. 
FIRST  PHASE  OF  THE  WAR. 

Each  side  hesitated  to  strike  the  first  blow ;  but  the  South,  being  best 
prepared,  and  to  end  a  suspense  that  threatened  to  be  hurtful  to  their 
cause,  opened  the  conflict  by  the  bombardment  of  Ft.  Sumter.  Each 
now  hastened  preparations  with  vigor.  Yet  so  long  had  been  the  intimate, 
friendly  relations,  that  neither  could  believe  in  a  long,  deadly  struggle. 
More  than  three  months  passed,  during  which  frequent  skirmishes  oc- 
curred ;  but  the  leaders  avoided  bringing  on  a  general  battle.  The  Southern 
forces  advanced  toward  Washington,  but  stopped  short  of  an  attack, 
sending  out  small  bodies  to  make  trial  efforts,'and  get  possession  of  impor- 
tant points. 

The  battle  of  Bull  Run  was  the  first  great,  serious  combat.  The  brilliant 
bravery  of  Southern  troops  would  have  been  overcome  but  for  an  oppor- 
tune reinforcement  at  the  decisive  moment.  The  leaders  did  not  feel  it 
safe  to  pursue  the  vanquished  Federals  to  Washington.  There  was  a  large 
reserve  force  there.  Thus,  if  they  won  a  battle  they  lost  the  object  sought — 
the  capture  of  the  national  Capital — and  the  Union  forces,  though  defeated, 
gained  the  most  important  point — the  protection  of  Washington. 

Both  sides  now  recognized  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking;  thft 
indomitable  resolution  of  their  opponents ;  and  the  need  of  thoroughly 
disciplining  their  troops,  of  organizing  all  branches  of  the  military  and 
naval  service,  and  gathering  stores,  and  distributing  forces  in  accordance 
with  the  plan  proposed  by  each. 

This  period  continued  until  Feb.,  1862.  The  U.  S.  Navy  was  increased 
from  42  vessels  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  to  about  300  at  the  close  of  this 
preparatory  period.  These  blockaded  the  South  and  served  for  transport  and 
attack.  Two  series  of  operations  were  planned  by  the  U.  S.  government 
for  the  land  forces:  one  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  one  in  Virginia. 
In  the  meantime  the  Confederate  leaders  saw  that  it  was  impossible  to 
invade  the  North  as  they  had  proposed  without  long  preparation  and  large 
armies.    They  organized  with  speed  but  were  thrown  on  the  defensive. 

1861. 
Apr.  7 — Steamer  Atlantic,  with  troops  and  supplies  for  Ft.  Sumter,  sailed 
from  New  York. 

"     8 — The  Federal  Government  notified  South  Carolina  that  provisions 
would  be  sent  to  Maj.  Anderson,  by  force,  if  necessary. 


652  FIRST   PHASE   OF   THE   WAR. 

IJ.  S.  State  Department  refused  to  recognize  the  Commissioners 

from  the  Confederate  States. 
•*   11— Troops  are  gathered  in  Washington,  and  oath  of  allegiance  admin- 
istered.    Confederate  Commissioners  leave  Washington. 

Gen.  Beauregard  demands  the  surrender  of  Ft.  Sumter.     Maj. 

Anderson  refuses. 

Bombardment  of  Ft.  Sumter. 
••   12 — This  was  the  real  commencement  of  the  Civil  War.      Batteries 

were  constructed  on  Morris  and  Sullivan  islands,  and  Cumming's 

Point.  The  Confederate  forces  employ  Ft.  Moultrie,  and  a  floating 

battery,  in  addition,  against  Ft.  Sumter. 

The  South  Carolina  Legislature  appropriate  $500,000  to  arm  the 

State. 

Ft.  Pickens  is  reinforced  by  the  U.  S.  government. 
"   14 — Fort  Sumter  was  reduced  to  a  mass  of  ruins,  its  fire  silenced,  and 

Maj.  Anderson  capitulated  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  evacuated 

the  fort,  sailing  for  New  York. 

Gov.  Yates,  of  Illinois,  called  an  extra  session  of  Legislature  to 

meet  April  22. 
'•    15 — The  President  issues  a  proclamation  commanding  all  in  arms 

against  the  government  to  disperse  in  20  days ;  calling  also  for 

75,000  volunteers  to  defend  Washington ;  and  the  New  York  Leg- 
islature authorizes  the  raising  of  $3,000,000  for  their  equipment 

and  support. 

The  President  calls  an  extra  session  of  Congress,  for  July  4. 
"   16 — The  governors  of  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri 

refuse  to  furnish  troops,  under  the  President's  proclamation. 

The  Confederate  government  calls  for  32,000  men. 
'     17 — ^The  Virginia  Convention,  in  secret  session,  adopt  a   Secession 

Ordinance,  to  be  submitted  to  the  people  in  May.    The  vote  was 

60  to  53. 

Virginia  forces  sent  to  seize  U.  S.  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and 

Gosport  Navy  Yard,  at  Portsmouth. 

All  the  military  power  of  the  State  of  Virginia  placed  under  the 

control  of  President  Davis. 

Jeflerson  Davis  issues  a  proclamation  offering  Letters  of  Marque 

and  Reprisal  to  privateers  against  Federal  commerce. 
•*    18 — U.  S.  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  destroyed  by  Federal  troops,  to 

prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Col.  Coke,  with  400  of  25th  Penn.  regiment,  arrives  in  Washington 

for  its  defense. 
•'    19 — U.  S.  steamer  Star  of  the  West  seized  at  Indianola,  Texas. 

Massachusetts  troops  on  the  way  to  Washington,  attacked  by  a 

mob  in  Baltimore.    Troops  fired  on  the  mob.    Blood  shed  on  both 

sides. 


FIRST   PHASE   OF   THE   "WAR.  653 

President  issues  a  proclamation  declaring  the  coast  from  North 
Carolina  to  Texas  in  a  state  of  blockade. 

Military  department  of  Washington  covering  Maryland,  Delaware, 
and  Pennsylvania,  put  under  command  of  Gen.  Patterson. 
City  Council  of  Philadelphia  appropriate  $1,000,000  to  equip  vol- 
unteers, and  support  their  families. 

"  20 — Governor  of  North  Carolina  seizes  XJ.  S.  Branch  Mint,  at  Charlotte. 
Bridges  and  railroads  in  Maryland  destroyed  by  Secessionists,  to 
prevent  passage  of  troops  to  Washington. 

U.  S.  Navy  Yard,  at  Gosport,  and  property  worth  $25,000,000, 
destroyed  by  the  Federals  in  charge,  to  prevent  their  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Eight  vessels  of  war  were  destroyed,  and 
one,  the  Cumberland,  was  towed  out. 
Massachusetts  troops  arrive  at  Fortress  Monroe. 
Gov.  Curtiu  calls  special  meeting  of  Penn.  Legislature,  for 
April  30th. 

"    21 — Federal  government  takes  possession  of  Philadelphia  and  Balti- 
more railroad. 
Senator  Andrew  Johnson  mobbed  at  Lynchburg,  Va. 

"    22 — U.  S.  Ai'senals  in  North  Carolina  and  Arkansas  seized. 

"    24 — Fort  Smith  Arkansas,  seized.      Cairo,  111.,  occupied  by  Union 
troops. 
Maj.  Sibley  surrenders  450  U.  S.  troops  to  Col.  Van  Dorn,  in  Texas. 

"    26 — Gov.  Brown,  of  Geo.,  forbids  payment  of  debts  to  Northern  people. 

"    27 — A  steamer  at  Cairo,  loaded  with  military  stores  for  the  South, 
seized. 
Blockade  extended  to  ports  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

"    29 — The  Maryland  House  of  Delegates  votes  against  secession,  63  to  13. 
Governors  Harris  of  Tennessee  and  Moore  of  Louisiana  seize  gov- 
ernment property. 
May  1 — The  Legislature  of  N.  C.  and  Tenn.  prepare  for  formal  secession. 

"      3 — President  Lincoln  calls  for  82,714  additional  troops. 

Fourteen  companies  of  Kentucky  troops  offer  themselves  to  the 
government,  though  the  Governor  had  refused  a  levy. 

"      4 — Gen.  McClellan  takes  command  of  the  department  of  the  Ohio. 

"  6— Virginia  admitted  into  the  Confederacy.  Tennessee  and  Arkansas 
pass  Ordinances  of  Secession. 

"    10 — Gen.  R.  E.  Lee  takes  command  of  Southern  troops  in  Virginia. 

"     13 — Convention  called  at  Wheeling  to  organize  a  new  State. 

"     14 — Vessels  with  stores  and  property  for  the  South  seized  at  Baltimore. 

"     15— Massachsetts  offers  U.  S.  Government  $7,000,000  to  carry  on  ttie  war. 

"    16— Gen.  Scott  orders  the  fortification  of  Arlington  Heights. 

"    17— Confederates  commence  fortifying  Harpers  Ferry. 

«    18 — Gea.  Butler  takes  command  of  Department  of  Virgiola. 


654  FIRST    PHASE    OF   THE    WAR. 

"    19 — Sewalls  Pt.  attacked  by  U    S.  steamers.    Two    schooners    with 

Southern  troops,  captured. 
"    20 — North  Carolina  formally  secedes.     Kentucky  proclain.ed  neutral. 
"    21 — Southerners  blockade  the  Mississippi  at  Memphis. 
"    24 — Alexandria  and  Arlington  Heights  occupied  by  Union  troops. 
"    26 — ^Western  Virginia  voted  largely  in  favor  of  the  Union. 
"    27 — One  hundred  slaves  fled  to  Fortress  Monroe.    Gen.  Butler  declared 

them  "  contraband  "  of  war. 
"    — Two  steamers  engage  the  rebel  batteries  at  Acquia  Creek. 
June  1 — Various  skirmishes  between  parties  of  the  hostile  armies. 
"     3 — Senator  S.  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  died. 

Battle  of  Philippi,  Va.    Union  Col.  Kelly  wounded  but  victorious. 

Gen.  Beauregard  assumed   command   of   Confederate  forces  at 

Manassas  Junction.    Voluntary  contributions  of  northern  States 

in  aid  of  the  Government  over  $32,000,000. 
Battle  of  Big  Bethel. 
"   10 — ^Three  Federal  regiments  defeated.     16  killed,  41  wounded. 
"   II — Skirmish  at  Romney.     Wheeling  Convention  meets. 
"   14 — Harper's  Ferry  evacuated  and  burnt  by  Southern  forces. 
"   15 — Confederate  privateer.  Savannah,  brought,  a  prize,  to  New  York, 
"   17 — Wheeling  Convention  of  Unionists  determine  to  make  West  Vir- 
ginia an  independent  State. 
"   18 — Battle  of  Booneville,  Mo.    Gen.  Ljion  defeats  Confederate  Gen. 

Price. 
"  20 — At  Cole  Camp,  Mo.,  Union  men  defeated ;  at  Liberty,  Mo.,  South. 

erners  overcome. 
"  23 — Forty-eight  locomotives  of  Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R.  destroyed 

by  Southern  forces ;  value,  $400,000. 
"  26 — President  Lincoln  recognizes  the  Wheeling  government  as  that 

of  Virginia. 
"  29 — Southern  privateer,  Sumter,  escapes  through  blockade   at  New 

Orleans. 
July  2 — Battle  near  Martinsburg,  Va.,  Gen.  Patterson,  Union,  and  Qen. 

Jackson,  Confederate. 
"     4 — Southern  forces  seize  Louisville  and  Nashville  railroad. 
"     5~ Congress  assemble  at  Washington.  President  calls  for  400,000  vo4. 

unteers,  and  $400,000,000  to  put  down  the  rebellion. 

Battle  of   Carthage,   between   Sigel,  Union,  and   Gen.  Jackson, 

Southern.     Gen.  Sigel  retreated. 
"  11 — Nine  Southern  Senators  expelled  from  U.  S.  Congress. 
-    "   12— Battle  of  Rich  Mountain,  Va.     Col.  Rosecraus,  Union,  defeated 

Col.  Pegram,  taking  800  prisoners  and  his  camp  stores. 
*  13— Confederates  under  Gen.  Garnett,  defeated  at  Carrick's  Ford,  by 

Gen.  Morris.    Gen.  Garnett  killed. 


FIRST    PHASE   OF    THE   WAE.  655 

I'ulylS — Col.   Stuart,   commanding   Confederate   cavalry,   attacks  Union 
forces  at  Bunker  Hill,  Va.,  and  is  defeated. 
"    16 — Skirmishes  at  Millville,  Mo.,  and  Barboursville,  Va. 
"    18 — Outposts  of  the  two  armies  fight  at  Blackburn's  Ford,  on  Bull 
Run,  some  20  miles  from  Washington.     Southern  troops  withdraw. 

Battle  of  Bull  Run. 

"  21 — This  was  the  first  great  battle.  The  Confederate  government  aims 
at  the  capture  of  Washington.  Their  forces,  under  Gen.  Beaure- 
gard, about  22,000,  afterwards  strengthened  by  6,000,  are  attacked 
by  Union  army  under  Gen.  McDowell,  with  28,000  men.  It  turns 
in  favor  of  McDowell  until  arrival  of  Confederate  reinforcement 
of  6,000,  when  Union  army  was  totally  defeated,  the  fugitives  fly- 
ing in  great  disorder  to  the  defenses  of  Washington.  Yet  Con- 
federates  lost  more  in  wounded,  and  failed  to  take  the  National 
Capital,  the  preservation  of  which  was  the  supreme  point  to  the 
Union  forces.  The  South  gained  the  battle,  and  the  Union  gained 
the  muse. 

"   25 — Gen.  McClellan  takes  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
4.ug.  1 — Confederate  forces  at  Harper's  Ferry  retreat  to  Leesburg. 

'     2— Congress  authorized  the  raising  of  500,000  men  and  $500,000,000 
to  suppress  the  insurrection,  providing  for  the  last  by  tax  and 
tariff. 
Gen.  Lyon  repulses  the  Confederates  at  Dug  Spring,  Mo. 

"     5 — Commodore  Allen  bombarded  Galveston,  Texas. 

"     7 — Hampton,  Va.,  burned  by  Southern  forces. 

Bati'le  of  Wilson's  Ckeek,  Mo. 

"  to — Gen.  Lyon,  (Union,)  with  about  5,000  men,  attacked  Gen.  McCul- 
lough,  (Confederate,)  with  over  10,000.  Gen.  Lyon  killed.  Fed- 
eral losses  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  1,211;  Southern  losses 
over  1,600.  Union  forces  retreated  to  Springfield.  McCullough 
too  much  shattered  to  follow. 

"    12 — President  Lincoln  proclaimed  Sept.  30  u  Fast  Day. 

"    14 — Gen.  Fremont  declared  martial  law  in  St.  Louis. 

"  15 — President  Davis  ordered  all  northern  men  to  leave  the  South  in  40 
days. 

"   16 — President  Lincoln  forbids  commercial  intercourse  with  the  South. 

"   23 — Cherokee  Indians  take  part  with  the  South. 

"  28— Capture  of  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark,  N.  C,  by  Gen.  Butler  and 
Com.  Stringham. 

"  31— Gen.  Fremont  proclaims  freedom  of  slaves  and  confiscates  prop- 
erty   of  disunionists   in   Missouri.     President  Lincoln  counter- 
mands it. 
.^ept.  1 — Southerners  defeated  at  Boonville,  Va.,  and  town  destroyed 


656  FIROT   PHASE    OF   THE    WAR. 

4 — Confederate  Gen.  Polk  occupies  Columbus,  Ky.    Southern  forces, 

attempting  to  cross  Potomac  at  Great  Falls,  repulsed. 
••     10 — Gen.  Banks  attacks  Confederate  Gen.  Floyd,  in  intrenched  camp, 

at  Carnifex  Ferry.    Gen.  Floj'd  retreats  in  the  night. 
•'     13 — Battle  of  Cheat  Mountain,  a  Union  victory.     Col.  J.  A.  Washing- 
ton killed. 
"    18 — Secession  members  of  Maryland  Legislature  imprisoned. 
"     19 — Arrest  of  Gov.  Morehead  and  others  for  treason,  in  Louisville,  Ky. 
"    20— Col.  Mulligan,  Union,  besieged,  at  Lexington,  Mo.,  and  compelled 

to  surrender  with  over  2,000  men,  after  a  fight  of  four  days. 
Oct.  2 — Battle  of  Chapmanville,  Va.    Confederates  defeated. 
"      a — Battle  of  Greenbriar,  Va.    Federal  success. 
"      4 — Confederate  success  at  Chicamacomico,  Va.    Federals  retreated. 
"      5 — Steamer  Monticello  drives  Southern  forces  from  Chicamacomico. 
"      7 — Confederate  Iron  Clad  Merrimac  appears  at  Fortress  Monroe. 
"    11 — Confederate    Commissioners    Slidell    and    Mason    escape    from 

Charleston,  S.  C. 
"    16 — U.  S.  troops  recapture  Lexington,  Mo.    Battle  of  Pilot  Knob,  Mo 

Unionists  successful. 
"    21 — Battle  of  Balls  Bluff.    U.  S.  forces  under  Col.  Baker,  member  of 

Congress,  1,900  strong,  defeated  with  loss  of  918  men.    Col.  Baker 

killed. 

Gen.  Zollicoffer  defeated  by  U.  S.  troops  at  Camp  Wild  Cat,  Ky. 
"    25 — Gen.  Kelly  gains  a  battle  against  Confederates  at  Romney,  Va. 
"    29 — U.  S.  naval  and  military  force  of  27,000  men  and  75  vessels  leave 

Fortress  Monroe  for  the  South. 
Nov.  1 — Gen.   Scott  retires  from   command  of  the  Union   army.    Gen. 

McClellan  appointed  Gen.  in  Chief.    Gen.  Floyd  fails  in  his  attack 

on  Gen.  Rosencranz,  at  Gauley,  Va. 
"      2 — Gen.  Fremont  superceded  by  Gen.  Hunter  in  Mo. 
"      4 — Hou.ston,  Mo.,  taken  by  Union  troops. 
"      7 — Com.  Dupont  and  Gen.  Sherman  capture  Forts  Walker  and  Beau- 

regard,  S.  C,  and  occupy  Beaufort  and  Hilton  Island. 

Gen.  Grant  captured  Confederate  camp  at  Belmont,  Mo.,  opposite 

Columbus.    Reinforcements  arriving  he  retired. 
"      8 — Mason  and  Slidell,  Confederate  Commissioners  to  Europe,  were 

taken  from  British  steamer  Trent,  by  U.  S.  ship  San  Jacinto.     On 

subsequent  demand  of  the  English  government  they  were  given  up. 
"     10 — Union  soldiers  having  been  killed  by  inhabitants  of  Guyandotte, 

Va.,  the  town  was  burnt  in  retaliation. 
"    15 — The  San  Jacinto  arrived  at  Fortress  Monroe  with  Slidell  and 

Mason. 
"    23 — Bombardment  of  Pensacola,  Fla.,  by  Ft.  Pickens  and  U.  S.  war 

vessels. 
"    27 — Gen.  McClellan  orders  observance  of  the  Sabbath  in  the  army. 


FIRST   PIIASK    OF   THE    WAR.  657 

**    29 — Skirmish  at  Warsaw,  Mo.    Town  partly  destroyed. 
"    30 — Figlit  at  Salem,  Mo.     Southern  forces  defeated. 
Dec.  3 — Congress  met  at  Washington. 
^  "      4 — Two  Congressmen  and  Senator  Breckenridge  of  Ky.,  expelled  for 

treason. 
"      5 — Naval  engagement  at  Cape  Hatteras. 

Forces  of  U.  S.  army  and  navy  reported  very  near  700,000  men. 
"      9 — Confederate  Congress  declares  Kentucky  a  State  in  the  Southern 

Confederacy. 
"     13 — Gen.  Milroy  defeats  Confederate  Col.  Johnson,  at  Camp  Alleghany. 
"    16 — Platte  City,  Mo.,  burnt  by  Southern  forces. 
"    17 — More  than  20  vessels,  filled  with  stone,  sunk  at  the  entrance  of 

Charleston  and  Savannah  harbors. 
"    18 — Gen.  Pope  captured  1,300  Southerners  and  1,000  stand  of  arms  at 

Millford,  Mo. 
"    31 — U.  S.  navy  increased  from  42  vessels  at  beginning  of  the  war  to 

246,  of  all  kinds,  up  to  this  date. 

1862. 

Jan.  1 — Mason  and  Slidell  leave  Ft.  Wa-ren,  Boston  Harbor,  for  England. 

"      2 — Success  of  Unionists  on  Port  Royal  Island,  near  Charleston,  S.  C. 

"      4 — Gen.  Milroy  defeats  Confederates  at  Huntersville,  Va. 

"      7 — Confederate  defeat  at  Romney.    U.  S.  troops  capture  stores  in 

Tucker  Co.,  Va. 
"      8 — Union  victory  by  Gen.  Palmer  at  Silver  Creek,  Mo. 
"    10 — Humphrey  Marshall  defeated  by  Union  troops  in  Kentucky. 

Senators  Johnson  and  Polk  of  Mo.,  expelled  from  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
"    11 — Simon   Cameron,  U.  S.  Sec.  of  War,  resigned;    E.  M.  Stanton 

appointed. 

Naval  engagement  on  the  Mississippi  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio; 

Union  vessels  superior. 
"    12 — 125  vessels  and  15,000  troops,  under  Gen.  Bumside,  sail  for  the 

South. 
"    18— Ex-President  Tyler  dies. 
"    19 — Union  victory  at  Mill  Spring,  Ky.,  by  Gen.  Shoepf  over  Gen.  ZoUi- 

coffer  and  Gen.  Crittenden.    Much  spoil  taken;   Q«n.  Zollicoffer 

killed. 
**    37— Bishop  Ames  and  Gov.  Fish  of  New  York  appointed  to  visit  pris- 
ons in  the  South,  to  look  after  the  interests  of  Union  prisoners. 

Confederate  authorities  refuse  to  receive  them. 

42 


CHAPTER    XXY. 
THE  SECOND  PHASE   OF  THE  WAR 

The  previous  period,  tliougli  abounding  in  battles,  so-called,  were  really 
skirmishes  of  detached  bodies  without  any  well  defined  plan.  It  covered 
much  of  the  surface  of  all  the  Border  States,  but  especially  Virginia  and 
Missouri,  and  was  a  trial  of  bravery  and  strategy  in  which  both  parties 
learned  how  to  fight,  and  of  what  metal  their  opponents  were  made. 

The  Second  Period  covered  about  eleven  months  —  Irom  the  advance  of 
the  Federal  armies  on  the  South  in  West  and  East,  iu  Feb..  to  the  close  of 
the  year. 

This  period  is  defined  in  its  commencement,  by  the  surrounding  of  the 
southern  territory  on  nearly  all  sides  by  the  Union  forces,  both  naval  and 
military;  and  the  inauguration  of  aggressive  movements  both  by  sea  and 
land ;  and  in  its  close  by  the  failure  of  ihe  two  southern  Generals,  Bragg 
in  the  West,  and  Lee  in  the  East,  in  the  endeavor  to  break  through  this 
beleagering  line.     It  was  an  immense  and  desperate  conflict. 

In  the  West  it  began  by  the  ttack  of  Grant  on  Fts.  Henry  and  Donel- 
son,  followed  up  by  the  battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  and  various  other 
operations  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi;  the  advance  of  McClellan  on 
Richmond,  and  his  campaign  in  the  Peninsula,  his  failure  and  return  to 
Washington ;  the  strengthening  of  the  Southern  Army,  and  the  aavance 
of  Lee  northward  into  Maryland  and  his  defeat  there.  The  disasters  to 
the  Union  army  in  Virginia  served  to  check  the  successes  of  the  Western 
Army  under  Grant,  Sherman,  Buell,  Rosecranz  and  others;  the  Confed- 
erate forces  in  the  West  were  increased  under  Bragg,  who  checked  the 
advance  of  U.  S.  troops  eastward  at  Chattanooga,  and  he  himself  assumed 
the  offensive,  by  invading  Kentucky.  He  was  compelled  to  retreat  again 
to  Chattanooga.  Thus  there  was  an  alternation  of  great  successes  and 
great  reverses  on  both  sides. 

The  Union  Army  commenced  with  about  600,000  men,  and  the  Southern 
with  about  400,000.  They  both  largely  added  to  these  during  the  cam- 
paign. 

Meanwhile  the  navy  was  not  idle.  A  foothold  was  gained  in  South 
Carolina,  and  in  North  Carolina,  as  well  as  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  the 
mouth  of  the  Missisippi  was  opened  by  Admiral  Farragut,  and  New  Or- 
leans  captured.  The  compression  of  a  vast  naval  and  land  force  was 
applied  in  all  directions,  even  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Missouri  had  been 
quieted  by  driving  the  organized  forces  into  the  border  of  Arkansas,  and 
inflicting  on  them  a  heavy  blow  at  Pea  Ridge.  This,  however,  was  not 
followed  up ;  the  disasters  to  the  Union  cause  in  Virginia,  and  the  rebound 
of  the  Confederates  in  East  Tennessee,  requiring  concentration. 

The  South  had  shown  the  most  determined  bravery,  and  great  steadiness 
is  4isaster ;  and  activity,  and  ability  in  making  the  most  of  circumstances. 


SECOND   PHAST?   OF   THE   WAK. 


659 


The  speed  with  which  she  collected  other  levies  aad  armies  and  used  them 
within  the  campaign  greatly  impressed  the  authorities  and  people  of  the 
Federal  government.  They  were  convinced  that  the  blacks  left  at  home 
to  till  the  ground,  or  employed  in  the  fortifications  and  other  labor  of  the 
war,  contributed  much  to  the  strength  ot  the  South;  enabling  them  to 
■concentrate  all  their  resources  on  a  given  point  with  extreme  rapidity, 
and  to  use  all  their  best  fighting  material. ,  After  so  vast  an  outlay,  to  see 
their  immense  armies  defied  and  the  Northern  States  threatened  with  inva- 
sion was  discouraging.  Hitherto  slavery  had  not  been  interfered  with 
much,  in  deference  to  the  sentiment  in  the  Border  States,  and  the  views  of 
the  democratic  party.  The  Union  administration  determined  to  weaken 
the  South  by  abstracting  as  much  as  possible  of  the  slave  element  from  it 
and  to  use  it  themselves.  The  issue  of  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipa- 
tion marks  a  Third  Phase  of  the  War. 

1863. 
Feh.  3 — The  Federal  government  decides  to  treat  crews  of  privateers  taken 
in  arms,  not  as  pirates,  but  as  prisoners  of  war. 
"      5 — Jesse  D.  Bright,  of  Indiana,  expelled  from  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
"      6 — Com.  Foote,  acting  in  concert  with  Gen.  Grant,  advances  up  the 

Tennessee  river  in  Ky.,  and  captures  Fort  Henry. 
"      8 — Gen.  Burnside  and  Com.  Goldsborough  capture  forts,  forces  and 

war  material  on  Roanoke  Island,  in  Albemarle  Sound,  N.  C. 
•"    10 — Gunboats  of  Confederate  government  taken  or  destroyed. 
"    12 — Gen.  Grant  invests  Ft.  Donelson,    on  Cumberland  iriver,  Ky. 
■"     13 — Gen.  Curtis  advances  to  Springfield,  Mo. 

U.  S.  Congress  determine  to  construct  20  iron  clad  gunboats. 
"    15 — Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  evacuated  by  Southern  forces. 
^'    16 — Gen.  Grant  captures  Ft.  Donelson,  with  13,300  prisoners. 
*'    18 — Gen.  Curtis  drives  Confederates  out  of  Missouri  into  Ai'kansas. 

Confederate  Congress  assemble  at  Richmond  Va. 
"    19 — Jefferson  Davis  and  A.  H.  Stevens  elected  permanent  President 

and  Vice-President  of  Confederate  States  for  six  yeaifs. 
"    21 — Defeat  of  Union  forces  at  Clarksville,  New  Mexico. 
"    23 — Nashville,  Tenn.,  occupied  by  Union  forces. 
"    27 — Columbus,  on  the  Mississippi,  in  Ky.,  evacuated  by  Confederates. 
M&T.  2 — Severe  encounter  between  Union  gunboats  and  Confederate  bat- 
tery at  Pittsburg  Landing,  Tennessee.    Union  success. 
*•      8 — Gen.  Beauregard  assumes  command  of  Southern  army  in  Missis- 
sippi. 
"  6-8--Gen.  Curtis  defeats  Gen.  McCullough  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.    Curtis' 

army  22,000,  McCullough's  35,000.    McCullough  killed. 
■"      9 — First  trial  of  Monitors.    The  formidable  Merrimac,  a  Confederate 

iron  clad  vessel,  conquered  by  the  Monitor. 
"    11 — Gen.  McClellan's  command  confined  to  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
**    12 — Com.  Dupont  takes  possession  of  Jacksonville,  Florida. 


660  SECXDND   PHASE   OF   THE   WAR. 

Mar.13 — Confederates  evacuate  New  Madrid,  Mo.,  in  haste,  leaving  $1,000,000 
of  military  stores. 

"    14 — Newburn,  N.  C,  captured  by  Gen.  Burnside.   Immense  stores  taken. 

"     18 — Confederate  fortifications  at  Acquia  Creek,  Va.,  evacuated. 

"    28 — Battle  of  Winchester,  Va.     Southern  forces  defeated. 

"  28 — Fight  at  Union  Ranch,  New  Mexico.  Union  troops  3,000,  Texans 
1,100.  Result  undecided. 
Apr.  6-7 — Battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh.  First  day's  battle 
fought  by  Beauregard  and  Johnston,  Confederate  Generals,  with 
40,000  available  troops,  by  Gen.  Grant  with  33,000.  He  was  sup, 
ported  by  gunboats  in  the  Tennessee  river.  Attack  and  defense 
desperate,  and  the  slaughter  fearful.  The  second  day  Beauregard 
had  no  more  than  20,000  eflfective  men.  Grant  was  reinforced  by 
Buell,  and  his  effective  force  was  45,000.  It  was  great  honor  to 
Union  troops  not  to  recognize  defeat  on  the  6th,  and  highly  credit, 
able  to  Confederates  to  make  a  desperate  stand  and  inflict  an 
immense  loss  on  Federals  on  the  7th.  They  were  almost  annihi- 
lated but  retreated  without  immediate  pursuit. 

•'      8 — Island  No.  10,  Mississippi  river,  captured. 

"  11 — Ft.  Pulaski  captured  by  Gen.  Hunter,  commands  entrance  to 
Savannah,  Geo.     Gen.  Mitchell  occupies  Huntsville,  Ala. 

"  12 — Gen.  Mitchell  captures  2,000  prisoners  at  Chattanooga,  East  Ten- 
nessee. 

"    16— Slavery  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  by  U.  S.  Congress. 

"    18— Gen.  McClellan's  advance  attacked  on  the  Peninsula,  Va. 

*•    19 — Successes  of  Union  Gens.  Burnside  and  Reno,  in  North  Carolina. 

"    25 — Com.  Farragut,  passing  the  forts,  captures  New  Orleans. 

"  28— Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  at  mouth  of  Mississippi  below  New 
Orleans,  surrender. 

"    29 — Gen.  Mitchell  defeats  Confederates  at  Bridgport,  Ala. 
May  1 — Union  cavalry  captured  at  Pulaski,  Tenn. 

"      3 — Yorktown  evacuated  by  Southern  troops.    Occupied  by  McClellan. 

"      5— Battle  of  Williamsburg  Va.    Lasts  all  day.    Unionists  successful. 

••      7— Southern  Gen.  Lee  attacks  McClellan's  army  but  is  repulsed. 

•*  8— Union  Gen.  Miiroy  repulsed  at  McDowell's,  Va.,  after  a  five  hour's 
fight. 

"      9 — Pensacola  Fla.  evacuated  by  Southern  forces. 

■'  10— Norfolk,  Va.,  occupied  by  Union  forces.  The  Merrimac,  Gosport 
Navy  Yard,  and  vast  quantities  of  stores  destroyed  by  retreating 
Confederates. 

*'    15 — The  Agricultural  Department  created  by  Congress. 

12 — Natchez,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  surrendered  to  Farragut. 

"    17 — Union  forces  drive  Confederates  over  the  Chickahominy,  Va. 

•*    S4 — Southern  success  at  Front  Royal,  Va.,  over  Col.  Kenley. 


SECOND   PHASE    OF   THE   WAE.  661 

May  35 — Gen.  Banks,  defeated  at  Winchester,  Va.,  retreats  across  the  Po- 
tomac. 

"    27 — Confederates  defeated  at  Hanover,  Va. 

"    30 — Union  troops  occupy  Corinth,  Mississippi. 

"    31 — Battle  of  Fair  Oaks.     Union  troops  repulsed, 
/unel — Battle  of  Fair  Oaks  renewed.    Southern  forces  repulsed  with 
heavy  loss. 

"      6 — Gunboats  capture  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  Confederate  vessels. 

"      8 — Battle  of  Cross    Keys,  Va.     Gen.   Freemont  defeats  Stonewall 
Jackson. 

"    14 — Union  forces  defeated  on  James  Island,  near  Charleston,  S.  C. 

"    lb — Union  troops  occupy  Cumberland  Gap,  Tenn. 

"    19 — Congress  prohibits  slavery  in  the  Territories. 

"    26 — Six  days  fight  before  Richmond  commenced  at  Mechanicsville. 
Union  forces  repulsed. 

"    27 — Bombardment  of  Vicksburg.     Gen.   Fremont  relieved  of  com- 
mand.    Battle  before  Richmond  renewed. 

"    28 — Severe  battles  befoi'e  Richmond ;  enemy  repulsed  at  night.  Union- 
ists fall  back. 

"    29 — Battles  of  Peach  Orchard  and  Savage's  Station,  Va.    Federal  re- 
pulse. 

"    30 — Battle  of  White  Oak  Swamp.      McClellan  continues  to  retreat 

toward  James  river.     Confederates  repulsed  with  loss. 
July  1 — Battle  of  Malvern  Hill.   Southern  forces  repulsed.    End  of  6  days 
fight. 

President  Lincoln  calls  for  600,000  volunteers. 
Internal  Revenue  Bill  passed  Congress.    Polygamy  forbidden  in 
the  United  States. 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  chartered  by  Congress. 

«      7 — Fight  at  Bayou  Cache,  Ark.    Gen.  Curtis,  Union,  defeats  Gen. 
Pike,  Southern. 

"      9 — Hamilton,  N.  C,  captured  by  Federal  troops. 

"    11 — Southern  Gen.  Morgan  enters  Glasgow,  Ky.    Gen.  Halleck  ap- 
pointed Commander-in-Chief  of  the  U.  S.  armies. 

"    13 — Southern  forces  capture    Murfreesborough,  Tenn.     Stores  and 
prisoners  taken. 

"    17 — Cynthiana,  Kentucky,  captured. 

•'    18 — Southern  raid  into  Indiana.     Gen.  Twiggs  died. 

«    22— Siege  of  Vicksburg  abandoned  by  U.  S.  forces. 

This  month  is  generally  disastrous  to  eastern  and  western  Union 
armies.      Confederate  armies    become  strongly  aggressive,  and 
advance  north  into  Ky.,  and  toward  Maryland. 
Aug.  3— Gen.  Jeff.  Thompson,  Confederate,  defeated  near  Memphis,  Tenn. 

"      4— U.  S.  Sec.  of  War  ordered  a  draft  of  300,000  men  to  serve  for  nine 
months. 


662  SECOND   PHASE   OF    THE   WAR. 

Aug.  5 — ^Battle  of  Baton  Rouge,  La.    Gen.  Breckinridge  defeated. 
"    10 — Battle  of  Cedar  Mountain.     Gen.  Jackson  fails  to  drive  Qen. 

Banks. 
"    16 — Gen.  McClellan  evacuates  the  Peninsula. 
"    31 — Gen.  Sigel  obtains  an  important  and  bloody  advantage  on  the 

Rappahannock. 
"    26 — Confederate  Gen.  Ewell  drives  Unionists  from  Manassas,  Va. 

Union  expedition  up  the  Yazoo  river,  Mississippi,  is  successful. 
"    27 — Gen  Pope  defeats  Gen.  Ewell  at  Haymarket,  Va. 
"    28 — Battle  of  Centreville.     Gen.  Jackson  repulsed. 
"    29 — Battle  of  Groveton,  near  Bull  Run,  Va.     Confederates  repulsed,. 

but  renewed  the  fight  next  day  and  Gen.  Pope  withdrew. 
"    80 — Battle  near  Richmond,  Ky.    Union  Gen.  Nelson  defeated  with 

heavy  loss. 
"    31 — Battle  of  Weldon,  Va.,  a  Union  victory.    The  general  operation* 

of  this  month  by  the  main  armies  east  and  west  largely  in  favor 

of  the  South,  notwithstanding  heavy  losses  inflicted  and  successes 

gained  in  detached  engagements  by  the  U.  S.  troops.    The  armies 

under  Lee  and  Bragg  pressed  on  northward  with  incredible  vigor. 

No  repulses  or  defeats  could  stop  their  headlong  rush. 
Sept.  1 — The  last  of  Gen.  Pope's  battles  in  Va.,  near  Washington.    Two 

of  his  generals  were  killed,  Kearney  and  Stevens.     The  enemy 

retired,  leaving  their  dead  and  wounded.     In  6  days  Pope  had 

lost  near  10,000  in  killed  and  wounded. 

Battle  at  Britton's  Lane,  Tenn.     Confederates  fled. 

Union  Army  evacuate  Lexington,  Ky.    Fight  at  Jackson,  Tenn. 
"      2 — McClellan  put  in  command  of  army  for  the  defense  of  Wash- 
ington. 
"      5 — Confederate  army  cross  the  Potomac  to  Frederick,  Maryland. 

Attack  on  Union  troops  at  Washington,  N.  C.    It  is  repulsed. 
"      6 — Col.  Lowe  recaptured  Clarksville,  Tenn. 
"      8 — Gen.  Lee  issues  a  proclamation  to  the  Marylanders. 
"      9 — Col.  Grierson  overcomes  Southern  forces  at  Coldwater,  Miss. 

Union  forces  repel  the  enemy  at  Williamsburgh,  Va. 

Fredericksburg,  Va.,  evacuated  by  Southern  forces. 
"    10 — Great  fears  of  invasion  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.    Philadelphia 

and  Cincinnati  begin  to  prepare  for  an  attack. 
"    11— Ganby,  Va.,  Maysville,  Ky.,  and  Bloomfield,  Mo.,  taken  by  South- 

em  forces. 
"    12— Charleston,  S.  C,  bombarded  and  partially  burnt.    Fight  on  Elk 

river,  Va.,  and  at  Middletown,  Maryland. 
•*    13 — Harper's  Ferry,  Va.,  beseiged.    It  surrendered  on  the  15th  with 

11,500  men. 
•*    14 — McClellan  engages  Lee's  army  at  South  Mountain,  Md.    Lee 


SECOND    PHASE   OF   THE   WAR.  (5<'.3 

/ 

retired  toward   the   Potomac.    The  invasion  of  the  North  was 
stopped,  for  this  time,  in  the  East. 

Bep.l6 — Munfordsville,  Ky.,  captured  by  Confederates  and  4,000  prisoners 
taken. 

"  17 — Lee  unwilling  to  give  up  his  plan  of  invasion,  makes  another 
stand  at  Antietam  creek,  and  a  great  battle  was  fought.  Near 
100,000  men  on  each  side.  The  result  was  indecisive,  the  losses 
nearly  equal,  both  in  the  neighborhood  of  13,000.  Lee  retreated 
across  the  Potomac  in  the  night,  and  Harper's  Ferry  was  evacuated. 

"  20 — Gen.  Rosecrans  defeats  the  Southerners  with  great  loss  at  luka, 
Miss. 

"  22 — President  Lincoln  issues  an  Emancipation  Proclamation,  declar- 
ing all  the  slaves  free,  unless  the  Southern  States  discontinued  the 
war  within  100  days. 

"    27 — U.  S.  garrison  at  Augusta,  Ky.,  surrender  after  a  very  gallant  fight. 
Oct.  3 — Battle  of  Corinth,  Miss.     Confederates  defeated  with  great  loss. 

"  8-9 — Battle  of  Perryville,  Ky.  Southern  army  having  been  arrested  in 
its  advance  and  obliged  to  retreat  before  Gen.  Buell,  turned  on  his 
advance  and  inflicted  a  severe  blow,  but  are  forced  to  resume  their 
retreat. 

"  10 — Confederate  cavalry,  under  Stuart,  make  a  raid  on  Chambersburg, 
Penn.  They  capture  500  horses  and  many  stores  and  hastily 
return  to  Virginia. 

"  14 — One  hundred  thousand  dollars  sent  to  Sanitary  Commission  from 
San  Francisco. 

"    15 — Battle  near  Richmond,  Ky. 

"    19 — Gen.  Forrest  defeated  by  Union  forces,  near  Gallatin,  Texas. 

"    22— Southern  defeat  at  Maysville,  Ark.,  by  Gen.  Blunt. 

"  24 — An  English  steamer  bringing  military  stores  to  the  South,  cap- 
tured. 

"    28 — Confederates  defeated  by  Gen.  Herron,  at  Fayetteville,  Ark. 

"    80 — Gen.  Rosecrans  supersedes  Buell  in  Kentucky.    Gen.  Mitchell,  the 
astronomer,  died  in  S.  C. 
Nov.  5 — Gen.  McClellan  relieved  of  command  in  Va.  by  Gen.  Burnside. 
Attack  on  Nashville  by  Confederates.    They  are  repulsed. 

"    11 — Southern  defeat  at  Garrettsburg,  Ky.,  by  Gen.  Ransom. 
Exchange  of  prisoners  effected. 

"  16 — President  Lincoln  enjoins  on  soldiers  in  camp  and  garrison  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath. 

"    17 — Cavalry  fight  near  Kingston,  N.  C.    Southerners  beaten. 

•'    22 — All  political  State  prisoners  released  by  U.  S.  government. 

"    25— Newbern,  N.  C.  attacked  by  Southern  troops.    They  soon  retire. 

"    28— Battle  of  Cane  Hill,  Ark.    A  tfnioil  victory. 

Dec.  1— The  Pittsburg  Battery,  captured  on  the  Peninsula,  retaken  by  a 
Union  force  sent  from  Suffolk,  Va. 


664  CAMPAIGN    OF    1863. 

Dec.  5 — Battle  of  CofFeeville,  Miss.    Southern  loss  was  heavy.  • 

"      6 — Gen.  Banks'  expedition  for  tlie  South  sailed  for  New  Orleans. 

"      7 — At  Prairie  Grove,  Ark.,  Gens.  Blunt  and  Herron  defeated  Con- 
federates. 

Confederate  Gen.  Morgan  captured  several  regiments  of  Western 
troops. 

"      8 — Steamer  Lake  City  destroyed  by  Southerners. 

"      9 — U.  S.  troops  burn  Concordia,  on  the  Mississippi. 

"    13 — Battle  of  Fredricksburg.    A  severe  repulse  to  the  Union  army. 

Gen.  Foster  makes  a  cavalry  raid  into  the  interior  of  N.  C,  a 

success. 

Commodore  Parker  destroys  Confederate  salt  works,  five  schooners 

and  two  sloops. 

"    17 — Gen.  Banks  captures  Baton  Rouge,  the  capital  of  Louisiana. 

"    19 — Confederates  retake  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  and  large  stores  with 
4,000  bales  of  cotton. 

"    2p — Indians,  engaged  in  the  Minnesota  massacre,  hung — 38  in  number. 

"    27 — Vicksburg  attacked  by  Gen.  Sherman  and  gunboats,  unsuccessfully. 

"    31 — Battle  of  Murfreesboro,  or  Stone  River,  commenced  with  a  Federal 
repulse. 

The  Monitor  that  conquered  the  Merrimac,  foundered  at  sea. 
Act  of  Congress  admitting  West  Virginia  into  the  Union  as  a 
sovereign  State.    This  was  to  take  eflfect  60  days  after  the  Presi- 
dent's proclamation  making  this  announcement. 


CHAPTEE    XXVI. 
CAMPAIGN   OF   1863. 

The  preliminary  Proclamation  of  Emancipation,  issued  Sept.  22d,  18(52, 
was  not  to  take  effect  for  100  days,  or  until  Jan.  1st,  1863.  Meanwhile  the 
final  details  of  the  great  operations,  undertaken  on  both  sides  during  1862, 
were  wound  up.  The  bold  efforts  of  the  South,  in  the  East  and  West,  to 
transfer  the  war  into  the  North,  and  indemnify  themselves  for  the  strict 
blockade  of  the  coast  by  drawing  supplies  from  the  enemy,  had  resulted 
in  defeat  and  withdrawal ;  not  unaccompanied  with  booty,  especially  in 
the  west,  where  Bragg's  train  of  supplies  was  said  to  have  been  40  miles 
long.  Tlie  soutliern  people  had  failed  in  the  main  point,  yet  they  had 
gained  much.  Federal  reverses  in  the  east  had  stopped  the  victories  in 
the  west  in  mid  career,  botli  by  withdrawing  from  those  armies  to  the  east, 
and  adding  to  the  Confederates  from  the  same  region.  Grant  and  Sher- 
man failed  at  Vicksburg,  and  Buell  at  Chattanooga. 

Yet  these  reverses  to  the  Union  arms  served  to  stimulate  the  north,  and 
to  demonstrate  the  energy,  resources,  and  indomitable  resolution  of  the 


;■  CAMPAIGN  OF   1863.  665 

National  government,  and  to  undeceive  the  South  as  to  the  real  sentiments 
of  the  great  body  of  tlie  Democratic  party  from  whicli  they  liad  hoped  aid 
on  an  invasion  in  force.  Several  of  the  European  Powers,  who  would 
have  liked  to  support  the  South,  seeing  the  formidable  character  of  the 
General  Government,  drew  back  in  fear.  The  South  might  have  foreseen 
that  her  cause  was  really  hopeless ;  but  she  was  too  American  not  to  feel 
an  unconquerable  resolution  to  carry  her  point  or  perish.  She  strength- 
ened her  armies  and  prepared  for  another  invasion. 

The  Federal  armies  were  now  (Jan.  1863,)  about  800,000  strong;  her 
navy  consisted  of  near  450  vessels,  a  large  number  being  iron-clads. 
The  great  events  of  the  campaign  were  Lee's  invasion  of  Pennsylvania 
and  his  retreat  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  and  Grant's  success  at  Vicks- 
burg  and  Chattanooga.  The  resolution  of  the  South,  enveloped  in  the 
embrace  of  so  mighty  an  antagonist,  was  wonderful;  the  unfaltering 
spirit,  aud  readiness  of  the  northern  people  to  furnish  whatever  was 
required  for  success  was  still  more  so.  The  whole  South,  at  least  every 
State,  was  the  theater  of  many  contests  of  more  or  less  importance ;  but 
the  main  interest  centered  on  the  Mississippi  river,  at  Chattanooga  and  its 
vicinity,  and  on  Gen.  Lee's  army  in  Virginia  or  Pennsylvania.  It  was  a 
contest  of  giants ;  yet,  struggle  as  she  might,  the  South  was  doomed.  At 
the  end  of  this  yc .  r  she  was  still  strong,  her  armies  were  veterans,  her 
spirit  unbroken.  The  Federal  Government  had  gained  much,  but  it  was 
step  by  step,  inch  by  inch ;  and,  in  some  parts,  as  in  Virginia,  what  had 
been  gained  many  times  over,  in  territory,  had  been  as  often  lost. 
Her  general  gain  over  the  Confederate  States  lay  most  largely  in  the 
fatal  process  of  exhaustion  to  which  the  vast  operations  of  the  Federal 
government  forced  the  South.  Increase  of  numbers  made  the  battles  more 
bloody  and  wasteful  of  life.  The  three  leading  events  in  this  campaign — 
tlie  capture  Vicksburg,  (the  battle  of  Chickamauga  was  a  Confederate 
victory,  but  balanced  by  that  of  Chattanooga,)  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
and  the  battle  of  Chattanooga — were  all  decisive  against  the  Confederates, 
yet  leaving  her  strength  for  a  long  and  vigorous  contest  of  more  than  a 
year  and  a  half. 

1863. 
Jan.  1 — The  year  opened  with  a  Confederate  success  at  Galveston,  Texas. 

An  attack  by  sea  and  land  resulted  in  the  capture  of  300  troops, 

the   destruction    of  one  vessel    with    its  crew,  and  the  capture 

of  another,  the  Harriet  Lane.     Com.  Renshaw  was  blown  up  with 

his  vessel. 

Confederate  defeat  at  Lexington,  Tenn.,  after  an  obstinate  fight. 

Proclamation  of  Emancipation  issued  by  President  Lincoln. 

Long,  but  indecisive  battle  of  Stone  River.    Federal  killed  and 

wounded,  8,000. 
"      3— Union  army  withdraws  from  before  Vicksburg.    Southern  army 

retreats  at  Murfreesborough,  Tenn. 


666  OAMPAIUN  OF  1863. 

"      7 — Springfield,  Mo.,  successfully  defended  by  Unionists. 

"      9 — 20,000  prisoners  exchanged. 

•'    11 — A  combined  attack  on  Fts.  Hindman  and  Arkansas  Post  by  gxm- 

boats  and  land  forces,  resulted  in  Union    success — over  7,000 

prisoners. 
"    12 — Thre^  Federal  transports  and  a  gunboat  captured  on  Cumberland 

river. 
"    13 — The  Southern  steamer,  Florida,  escapes  from  Mobile. 
"    17 — $100,000,000  issued  by  the  U.  S.  government  in  notes  to  pay  the 

army. 
"    20 — Blockading  vessels  captured  by  Confederates,  at    Sabine  City» 

Texas. 
"    22 — ^Attack  on  Vicksburg  resumed.    Gren.  Porter  dismissed  from  U.  S. 

army. 
"    25 — A  regiment  of  colored  soldiers  organized  at  Port  Royal,  S.  C. 
"    26 — Gen.  Hooker  succeeds  Gen.  Burnside,  in  command  of  the  Union 

Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  Gens.  Sumner  and  Franklin  are  relieved 

from  duty. 

The  Confederate  war  steamer,  Alabama,  destroys  one  vessel  and 

captures  another. 
Feb.  1 — A  second  unsuccessful  gunboat  attack  on  Ft.  McAllister. 
"      5 — Destruction  of  transports  on  Red  River,  La.    Ft.  Donelson  repels 

Southern  troops. 
"    12 — The  Florida  captures  the  Union  merchant  vessel,  Jacob  Bell. 
"    13 — The  iron-clad,  Indianola,  runs  the  blockade  at  Vicksburg,  and  is 

captured. 
"    18 — Vicksburg  bombarded  by  gunboats — ineffectually. 
"    21 — The  Alabama,  a  Confederate  cruiser,  destroys  two  vessels  on  the 

African  coast. 
"    25 — The  Bureau  of  Currency  and  National  Banks  established  by  U.  S. 

Congress. 
"    26 — The  Cherokees  return  to  the  Union,  and  abolish  slavery. 

Twenty-eight  cars,  with  stores,  destroyed  by  Confederates,  in  Ken- 
tucky. 
"    28 — Confederate  iron-clad,  Nashville,  destroyed  in  Ogeechee  river,  G«o. 
Mar.  1 — Third  fruitless  Union  attack  on  Ft.  McAllister,  Geo. 
"      2 — U.  S.  Generals  increased  to  358. 

"      3 — Congress  authorizes  loan  of  $900,000,000.    These  are  called  ten- 
forty's. 

The  President  authorized  to  suspend  the  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus 

U.  S.  Assistant  Treasurer  provided  by  act  of  Congress. 

Territorial  government  organized  in  Idaho. 

Two  U.  S.  gunboats  destroyed. 
"      5 — Van  Dorn  (Confederate)  captures  Springfield,  Tenn.,  and  mamf 

prisoners. 


r  CAMPAIGN    OF    1863.  667 

Mar.  6 — Van  Dorn  captures  ;i  considerable  Union  force  at  Franklin,  Tenn. 
"      7 — Gen.  Minty  captures  a  Confederate  cavalry  force  at  Unionville, 

Tenn. 
"    10 — Colored  troops  captured  Jacksonville,  Florida. 
"    14 — Port  Hudson,  Mississippi  river,  attacked  by  the  Union  gunboat 

fleet  under  Com.  Farragut.    The  flag  ship  disabled  and  burnt. 
"    17 — Gallant  and  successful  exploit  of  Union  cavalry  at  Kelly's  Ford,  Va. 
"    19 — An   English   steamer  with    arms  for  the    South    destroyed  off 

Charleston. 
"    20 — Defeat  of  Morgan  (Confederate)  at  Milton,  Tenn. 
"    25 — Two  Union  vessels  lost  before  Vicksburg. 
"    28 — Confederate  steamer  Iris  captured  near  Charleston,  S.  C. 
Apr.  1 — ^Admiral  Farragut  passes  the  batteries  of  Grand  Gulf. 

Great  scarcity  of  many  things  in  the  Confederacy  from  the  strict- 
ness  of  the  blockade,  and  extreme  depreciation  of  Confederate 

money.     No  cotton  could  be  sold. 
"      7 — An  attack  on  Fort  Sumter  by  nine  Union  iron  clads.    They  are 

worsted. 

The  Alabama  Confederate  cruiser  captures  the  U.  S.  ship  Morning 

Star. 
•*    10 — Two  Union  gunboats  destroyed  on  Cumberland  river. 

Van  Dorn  repulsed  by  Union  General  Granger,  at  Franklin,  Tenn. 
"    16 — Com.  Porter  runs  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg  successfully. 
"    17 — Gen.  Banks  vanquished  Southern  troops  at  La  Teche  and  Grand 

Lake,  La. 
"    22 — The  Queen  of  the  West  captured  on  Grand  Lake.    Grigsby,  Con- 
federate,   surprised    at    McMinnville,    Tenn.      Banks    occupied 

Opelousas  and  Washington,  Miss. 
"    23 — Gen.  Hunter  informs  Confederate  authorities  that  colored  soldiers 

must  be  treated  as  other  prisoners  of  war,  on  pain  of  retaliation. 
"    24 — Union  defeat  at  Beverly,  Va.,  and  victories  at   Weber  Falls,  Ark., 

and  on  Iron  Mountain  Railroad,  Mo. 
May  1 — Gen.  Grant  defeated  the  Southern  troops  at  Port  Gibson. 

Gen.  Pegram,  Confederate,  defeated  at  Monticello,  Ky. 

A  third  defeat  of  Southern  troops,  at  South  Quay,  Va. 

Unionists  defeated  at  La  Grange,  Ark.    Battle  of  Chancellorsville, 

Va.,  begins. 
"      2-  Col.  Grierson,   of  U.  S.  army,  finished  a  daring  and  successful 

raid  through  the  interior  of  Miss.    Traveled  800  miles  in  16  days. 

Battle  of  Chancellorsville  continued.    It  was  a  Federal  repulse. 

Loss  each  side  15,000. 
*♦      3— Capture  of  Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  by  Admiral  Porter. 
**      2 — Vallandigham  arrested  in  Ohio  for  treason.     He  was  sent  South. 


CAMPAIGN    OF    1863. 

May  10— Stonewall  Jackson,  an  able  and  brilliant  Southern  general,  died 
of  wounds  received  in  battle. 

"  11 — Gen.  Logan,  Union,  defeats  Gen.  Grigg  at  Farnden's  Creek,  Miss. 
Each  had  about  5,000  men. 

"    12 — Gen.  McPherson  captured  Raymond,  Miss.,  from  Confederates. 

"  13 — Yazoo  City,  and  $2,000,000  property,  captured  by  Union  gunboats. 
Gen.  Grant  defeats  Confederate  army  and  captures  Jackson,  Miss. 

"  16 — Gen.  Grant  defeats  Pemberton  at  Baker's  Creek,  Miss.,  with  heavy 
loss.  Each  had  about  25,000  men.  Pemberton  lost  4,000  men  and 
next  day  2,000  more. 

"    18 — Grant  commences  seige  of  Vicksburg,  Miss. 

"    26 — Gen.  Breckenridge,  Confederate,  suffered  defeat  in  Tennessee. 

"    29 — ^An  immense  train  arrives  in  Gen.  Banks'  lines  near  Port  Hudson : 
600  wagons,  3,000  horses  and  mules,  1,500  cattle,  6,000  negroes. 
Gen.  Banks  fails  in  several  attacks  on  Port  Hudson. 
June  3 — A  brilliant  raid  by  a  colored  regiment  in  South  Carolina. 

"    11  —Forrest,  of  Confederate  cavalry,  defeated  at  Triune,  Tenn. 

"  15 — President  Lincoln  calls  for  120,000  militia,  to  repel  Lee's  invasion 
of  Penn. 

"    18 — About  100,000  Southern  forces  enter  Penn.,  near  Chambersburg. 

"  20 — West  Virginia  admitted  as  a  State  into  the  Union.  Missouri  Leg- 
islature abolishes  slavery. 

In  this  month  the  great  events  of  the  campaign,  the  taking  of 
Vicksburg  and  opening  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the  failure  of 
Gen.  Lee's  invasion  by  his  loss  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  are 
rapidlj^  approaching  the  grand  crisis. 
Jtily   — The  first  days  of  this  month  formed  the  crisis  of  the  war. 

**  3 — Gen.  Lee,  with  100,000  men,  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Meade  at  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  with  about  equal  numbers.  Lee  retreated  into  Virginia. 
The  Union  losses  at  Gettysburg  were  23,000.  Lee  had  lost  in  his 
17  days  in  the  Free  States  60,000  men  altogether. 

"      4 — Vicksburg  surrendered  to  Gen.  Grant,  after  a  seige  of  41  days.     In 
the  battles  immediately  preceding,  under  Grant,  and  in  this  seige 
and  capitulation,  the  South  lost  near  50,000  men.    Grant's  lossed 
were  about  9,000. 
Gen.  Prentice  defeated  a  greatly  superior  force  at  Helena,  Ark. 

*•      8 — Port  Hudson  surrenders  to  Gen.  Banks,  with  7,000  men. 

Morgan,  of  Confederate  cavalry,  invades  Indiana  and  Ohio  with 
5,000  men.    He  is  captured  before  he  can  return. 

"    13 — Great  riot  in  New  York  city. 

"     17 — Gen.  Slierman  defeats  Johnson,  and  occupies  Jackson,  Miss. 

"    20 — Two  successful  Union  cavalry  expeditions,  in  N.  C.  and  Va. 

"    23 — Battle  of  Manassas  Gap.    Unionists  defeat  a  superior  force. 
A  Confederate  victory  at  Richmond,  Ky. 

"    31 — Confederates  beaten  in  Kentucky. 


CAMPAIGN  OK  1863.  G09 

Aug.  1 — Two  cavalry  battles  in  Va. 

"      4 — Disastrous  loss  of  U.  S.  steamer  Ruth,  on  the  Mississippi,  by  fire. 

"  12—  Gen.  Gilmore  bombarded  Ft.  Sumter  and  Charleston  most  of  the 
month. 

"     17 — Successful  cavalry  raid  into  Mississippi  to  destroy  stores. 

"    20 — Lawrence,  Kansas,  attacked  and  destroyed  by  guerillas. 

A  guerilla  war  was  carried  on  very  largely  this  month,  both  east 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
Sept.  1 — Knoxville,  Tenn.,  captured  by  Gen.  Burnside. 

Gen.  Blunt  defeated  the  Confederates,  and  captured  Ft.  Smith,  Ark. 

"      6 — Fts.  Wagner  and  Gregg  captured  by  Gen.  Gilmore,  Charleston,  S.  C. 

"      8 — Cumberland  Gap  taken  by  Gen.  Burnside.    2,000  prisoners. 

"     10 — Little  Rock  occupied  by  Union  forces. 

"  19-20 — A  terrible  battle  is  fought  at  Chickamauga  (in  Indian  the  "River 
of  Death,")  in  which  Gen.  Rosecrans  with  some  50,000  to  60,000 
troops  is  severely  defeated  by  Bragg,  with  about  "45,000.  Federal 
losses  about  15,000.    Yet  Bragg  did  not  capture  Chattanooga. 

"    22 — Severe  battle  at  Madison  Court  House,  Va.     Union  victory. 

"    28 — Gen.  Burnside  repulses  Confederates  at  Knoxville,  Tenn. 
Oct.  3 — Union  troops  throw  Greek  fire  into  Charleston,  S.  C. 

"      5 — Chatanooga  bombarded  by  Bragg. 

"      9 — Defeat  of  Wheeler's  Confederate  cavalry,  in  Tenn. 

"     14 — Battle  at  Bristoe  Station,  Va.     Favorable  to  U.  S.  troops. 

"    16 — Gen.  Grant  takes  command  of  the  Western  armies. 

"     17— The  President  calls  for  300,000  more  troops. 

"    31 — A  battle  in  Alabama,  in  Mississippi,  and  in  Tennessee. 

"    27 — Battle  of  Brown's  Ferry,  near  Chattanooga.    Confederates  beaten. 

"    28 — Gen.  Hooker  takes  Lookout  Mountain. 

"    31 — Gen.  Hooker  gains  the  battle  of  Shell  Mound. 
Kov.    — The  main  interest  of  the  month  gathers  about  the  great  and  deci- 
sive battle  of  Chattanooga,  between  Gens.  Grant  and  Bragg.    All 
the  forces  to  be  spared  on  either  side  were  concentrated  here. 
Chattanooga  has  been  called,  "  The  back  door  of  the  Confederacy.'' 
Nov.  5 — Chattanooga  bombarded  by  the  Southern  forces. 

Gen.  Avery  gains  a  Union  victory  at  Lewisburg,  Va. 

"  6 — The  North  is  thrilled  with  indignation  at  barbarities  ascertained 
to  have  been  perpetrated  in  Southern  prisons. 

"      7— Gen.  Meade  drives  Southern  army  across  the  Rappahannock. 

•■'  11 — The  British  government  makes  known  an  intended  invasion  of 
the  North  from  Canada,  by  Confederates. 

"     15 — Gen.  Banks  takes  Corpus  Christi,  Texas. 

"     17 — Charleston  continues  to  be  shelled. 

Gen.  Longstreet  detached  from  Confederate  ai-my  at  Chattanooga, 
with  15,000  men,  to  attack  Burnside. 

*"    19 — National  Cemetery  consecrated,  at  Gettysburg. 


^70  CAMPAIGN    OF    1864. 

"  23-26 — Battles  of  Chattanooga  and  Lookout  Mountain.  Southern  forces 
about  60,000,  Grant's  about  80,000.  Confederate  losses  10,000, 
Union,  5,616.     It  was  a  blow  never  recovered  by  the  Confederacy. 

"    28 — Gen.  Longstreet  attacks  Knoxville  and  is  repulsed  with  loss. 


CHAPTEE    XXYII. 

CAMPAIGN  OF  1864. 

There  was  a  lull,  for  a  time,  in  the  tempest  of  war.  The  Confederate 
forces  had  lost  ground  that  they  could  hardly  hope  to  regain.  The  Missis- 
sippi river  and  Eastern  Tennessee,  both  of  supreme  importance  to  the 
Confederacy,  were  in  possession  of  the  Union  armies,  which  grew  ever 
stronger.  They  were  now  about  1,000,000  men,  and  the  navy  had  increased 
to  over  600  vessels.  This  force  was  soon  put  in  vigorous  hands,  that 
gripped  fast  what  they  once  held.  The  misfortune  of  many  commanders 
■and  continual  changes,  from  political  rather  than  military  considerations, 
began  Lo  be  well  understood.  Grant  had  gained  so  uniformly  when  others 
had  failed,  he  was  recognized  as  so  tenacious  and  unwearied,  that  he  received 
and  held  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  the  government.  This  was  a 
point  of  great  importance  for  shortening  the  war ;  for  the  Southern  people 
were  still  resolute,  had  still  a  vast  country,  were  on  the  defensive  in  a 
■smaller  region  than  before,  and  could  resist  more  effectively  with  a  smaller 
army.  It  still  made  a  most  gallant  and  determined  resistance  which  the 
vast  resources  of  the  national  government  did  not  enable  them  to  overcome 
for  a  year  and  a  half.  The  country  was  still  covered  with  detached  bodies 
of  troops.  A  desultory  war  was  maintained  where  strong  armies  failed  to 
hold  the  ground,  or  were  concentrated  at  a  few  points.  The  great  move- 
ments were  in  Virginia  and  Georgia.  The  secondary  in  Tennessee,  in  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Texas. 

It  took  a  year  to  break  the  will  of  the  Southern  people  after  they  were 
really  conquered.  This  period  covers  the  year  1864;  1865  furnishes  only 
the  dying  struggles  of  the  Confederacy,  already  mortally  wounded. 

1864. 
The  bombardment  of  Charleston  continued  during  the  preceding  month. 
Some  cavalry  movements  were  made,  the  President  of  the  U.  S.  offered 
amnesty  to  all  who  would  take  an  oath  of  allegiance,  and  Gen.  Butler 
announced  that  the  Confederate  government  refused  to  receive  any  more 
supplies  for  Union  prisoners  from  the  North. 
Jan.  7 — Three  blockade  runners  captured. 

"    11 — Two  more  were  destroyed,  making  22  in  a  few  months. 

"    25 — Mr.  Vanderbilt,  having  presented  a  steamer  worth  $800,000  to  the 
U.  S.  government,  received  the  thanks  of  Congress. 
J'eb.  1— The  President  of  the  U.  S.  ordered  a  draft  of  500,000  men. 


CAMPAIGN  OF  1864.  671 

Feb.  5 — Two  English  steamers,  with  supplies  for  the  South,  captured. 

"      9— Cotton  worth  $700,000  burned  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.  . 

"  20 — Negro  troops  cover  the  retreat  of  a  defeated  white  Union  force  at 
Olustee,  Fla. 

*'  28 — The  large  armies  being  broken  up  or  concentrated,  and  the  lines 
of  communication  very  much  interrupted,  many  Union  cavalrv 
raids,  aiming  to  break  the  lines  of  communication  by  railroad 
completely,  to  lay  waste  the  country,  and  to  free  the  negroes,  who 
were  raising  supplies  for  the  Southern  armies,  in  the  far  interior, 
were  undertaken.  That  of  Sherman  to  Meridian,  in  Miss.,  and  of 
Grierson  and  Smith,  and  many  smaller  ones,  were  executed  during 
this  month.  The  damage  to  railroads  and  the  supplies  destroyed 
were  incalculable.  18  blockade  runners  and  other  vessels  bringing 
supplies  to  the  South  were  destroyed  during  the  month. 
Mar.  2 — Gen.  Grant  made  Lt.  General ;  the  only  one  who  had  reached  that 
dignity  since  Gen.  Washington — Gen.  Scott  being  Lt.  Gen.  only 
by  brevet. 

"     12— Gen.  Grant  made  Commander-in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  armies. 

"     15— The  President  of  the  U.  S.  calls  for  200,000  more  men. 

"  25 — Confederate  Gen.  Forrest  makes  three  assaults  on  Paducah,  Ky., 
with  loss  of  1,500  men,  in  vain. 

"    28 — A  severe  defeat  inflicted  on  Southern  forces  at  Cane  River,  La. 
Apr.  4 — Gen.  Marmaduke  defeated  by  Gen.  Steele,  Unionist,  at  Little  Mis- 
souri.  Ark. 

"  8 — Gen.  Banks  suffers  reverses  on  the  Red  River,  and  retreats  with 
loss. 

"  12 — Gen.  Forrest  takes  Ft.  Pillow.  The  garrison  consisted  largely  of 
negroes. 

■"  21 — Salt  works  in  North  Carolina  destroyed — value  $100,000.  As  salt 
was  indispensable  to  army  operations,  the  utmost  effort  was  made 
to  ruin  as  many  as  possible. 

"    23 — Governors  of  Western  States  offer  the  U  .S.  government  85,000  men 
for  100  days.    President  accepts  them. 
May  2 — 400  Union  prisoners  are  brought  to  Annapolis 

"  4 — Gen.  Grant  crosses  the  Rapidan  in  Va.  and  commences  operations 
in  the  Wilderness.  He,  witk  140,000  men,  confronts  Lee,  who  has 
60,000. 

^'  5 — Fighting  in  the  Wilderness  for  two  days  without  decided  result 
C'ists  Grant  30,000  (5,000  were  prisoners)  and  Lee  10,000.  Lee  was 
intrenched  and  familiar  with  the  ground,  which  was  highly  unfa 
vorable  to  the  Union  army. 

■*'  6 — Gen.  Sherman  confronts  Gen.  Joe  Johnson  near  Chattanooga.  Sher- 
man  has  near  100,000;  Johnson  60,000. 

**  7 — Lee  retreats  toward  Spottsylvania  Court-House.  Union  anuj  fol- 
lows, fighting. 


672  CAMPAIGN  OF   1864. 

To  this  date  150,000  Southern  soldiers  had  been  made  prisoners 

during  the  course  of  the  war. 
May  8 — Battle  of  Spottsylvania ;  result  indecisive. 
"    10 — Battle  of  Spottsylvania  continued.     Still  indecisive.     Losses  to 

each  side  10,000  men. 
"    12 — Lee  and  Grant  fight  again,  without  victory  by  either. 
"    13 — Sheridan  destroyed  Lee's  depot  of  supplies  in  his  rear,  at  Beave» 

Dam. 
"    15 — Sherman  drives  Johnson  from  Resaca  after  two  days'  fighting. 
"    21 — Lee  is  flanked  at  Spottsylvania,  and  retires  to  the  North  Anna. 
"    23 — Morgan  (Confederate  cavalry)  enters  Ky.  with  4,000  men. 
"    25 — Sheridan  rejoins  Grant,  after  a  brilliant  series  of  daring  deeds  in 

the  rear  of  Lee.  Gen.  Stuart,  a  very  able  Confederate  cavalry  leader, 

is  killed  in  this  raid. 
"    27 — Grant  again  flanked  Lee,  crossing  the  Pamunky  to  Hanovertown. 
June  1 — Battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  north  of,  and  near,  Richmond.    It  was 

fought  with  the  utmost  bravery  and  obstinacy,  but  gained  no  more 

decisive  end  than  the  destruction  of  men  and  material  involved. 

This  was  very  severe  on  Lee,  from  the  smaller  number  he  had  to 

fall  back  on. 
"      7 — Abraham  Lincoln  renominated  for  the  presidency  of  the  U.  S. 
"    14 — Gen.  Polk  (a  Southern  bishop)  killed. 
"    15 — An  unsuccessful  assault  for  three  days  on  Petersburg.  Union  losses 

10,000  men. 
"    18— To  this  time  Grant  had  lost  64,000  men— Lee  38,000  during  thip 

campaign. 
*♦    19 — Steamer  Kearsarge  sinks  the  famous  Alabama,  off  the  coast  of 

Prance. 
**    20 — Petersburg  strongly  reinforced  by  Lee. 
"    27 — Sherman,  pushing  Johnson  at  Keneshaw,  meets  a  severe  repulse. 

In  one  month  he  had  driven  Johnson  100  miles,  fought  six  battles, 

and  killed,  wounded  or  taken  prisoner  17,000  men.    He  followed 

Grant's  principle,  and  "  flanked  "  him.    A  retreat  was  the  result. 
July  1— Public  debt  over  $1,740,000,000. 
"      9 — Gen.  Early,  with  20,000  Confederate  troops,  passes   into  Grant's 

rear,  and  makes  a  hasty  march  north  into  Maryland.   This  day  he 

gained  a  victory  over  Gen.  Wallace,  but  his  losses  were  so  great 

that  he  was  hindered  in  his  design  of  capturing  Washington, 

though  within  six  miles  of  it  at  one  time.    He  retreats,  but  soon 

turns  back. 
"    18 — President  Lincoln  calls  for  500,000  more  troops. 
"    19 — Gen.  Averill  (Union)  gives  Early  a  check,  but  finally  falls  back. 
"    20-22 — Severe  battles  in  the  neighborhood  of  Atlanta,  Geo.    Gen.  Sher- 

man  victorious.     Confederate  losses  in  all   over  15,000  ;  Union 

about  5,500.    Unioj  Gen.  McPherson  killed. 


CAMPAiofW  OF  1864.  673 

Jul.  22 — A  mine,  maUe  under  the  fortifications  of  Petersburg,  completed. 

It  was  charged  with  8,000  lbs.  of  powder. 
"    28 — Early  sent   i  detachment  into  Penn.,  which  burnt  Chambersburg. 
''    30 — Gen.  Stoneman  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Macon,  Geo.,  by 

Confedera'^es. 

The  mine  exploded  at  Petersburg,  blowing  up  a  fort  and  its  gar- 
rison; but,  from  unskillful  management,  proved  a  Union  disaster; 

4,000  me'i  were  lost  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.   A  constant 

artillery  attack  was  kept  up  on  Petersburg  through  this  month. 
Aug.  2 — Gen.  Banks  puts  all  the  negroes  in  his  region  in  the  army  (Grand 

Gulf,  La.). 
"      3 — Constant  fighting  at  Atlanta.     Hood  (Confederate)  repulsed. 
"      5 — Adrai  al  Farragut  enters  Mobile  bay  with  18  vessels,  and  captures 

or  de>ijtroys  the  vessels  and  forts.    It  was  the  last  seaport  of  the 

Conf  jderacy. 
"      7 — Uni(  >n  Gen.  Averill  gains  a  complete  victory  at  Moorfield,  West  Va. 
"      9 — Atlanta,  Geo.,  bombarded  by  Sherman's  army. 
**    11 — Th' ;  Confederate  vessel  Tallahassee  burns  5  vessels,  and  5  more  in 

the  course  of  Aug. 
"    13 — Mf  sby,  Confederate,  captures  an  immense  supply  train  at  Berry- 

vil  le,  Va. 
*'    19 — Success  of  Southern  forces  before  Petersburg.  Took  2,000  prisoners. 
"    21 — Le«  fails  to  dislodge  "Warner,  who  is  destroying  the  Weldon  R  R. 

In  three  days  Grant  lost  4,500  men  in  this  undertaking. 
"    31 — Gen.  Howard,  of  Sherman's  army,  gains  a  decided  victory  at  Jonea- 

borough,  Geo. 
Sept.  2 — Gen.  Hood  evacuates  Atlanta,  Geo.,  a  very  important  place,  which 

Sherman  at  once  occupies.     Sherman  had  lost  30,000  men  in  this 

campaign,  the  Confederates  42,000. 
"      Gen.  Morgan,  an  active  Southern  cavalry  officer,  is  killed  at  Green- 
ville, Tenn. 
*♦    12 — Sherman  sends  away  all  the  families  and  burns  a  good  part  of 

Atlanta, 
"    13 — General  Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  Va. 
"    16 — A  strong  force  of  Confederate   cavalry  drive  oflF  2,500  beeves 

belonging  to  the  Union  army  on  James  river. 
"    19— Sheridan  defeats  Early,  (at  Oquequan,  Shenandoah  valley,)  inflict 

ing  a  loss  of  8,000  men. 
"    22— Sheridan  again  inflicts  a  loss  of  near  4,000  on  Early,  at  Fisher's 

Hill,  Va. 
"    29 — Gen.  Grant  advances  to  within  ten  miles  of  Richmond,  on  the  north. 

Gen.  Price  again  invades  Missouri. 
«    80 — Tlie  blockading  force  captured  and  destroyed  50  vessels  this  month. 
Oct  5 — A  repulse  of  the  Southern  forces  at  Allatoona,  Geo. 

43 


07-1  CAMPAIGN   OF    1864. 

Oct  7 — The  Confederate  steamer  Florida  captured  by  the  Wachusett,  on 
the  coast  of  Brazil. 
Sheridan,  haying  laid  waste  the  Shenandoah  valley,  returns  South. 

"      8 — Sheridan  defeats  the  Confederates  again  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 

"    11 — Maryland  votes  for  a  constitution  abolishing  slavery. 

**    19 — Gen.  Early  is  still  again  disastrously  defeated  by  Sheridan,  at 
Cedar  Creek,  at  the  moment  of  apparent  triumph. 
Confederate  refugees  from  Canada  rob  a  bank  in  St.  Albans,  Vt. 

**    23 — Gen.  Price  defeated  at  Blue  river,  Missouri. 

"  27 — Gen.  Grant  closes  the  active  campaign  by  an  extensive  reconnoi- 
sance. 

"    28 — Gen.  Blunt  defeats  Price  and  drives  him  out  of  Missouri.    He 

returns  no  more. 
Nov.  — Gen.  Hood,  in  command  of  the  forces  in  Georgia,  withdrew  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Atlanta,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  Sher- 
man's base  of  supplies,  and  invading  Tennessee  and  Kentucky^ 
He  had  now  about  40,000  men.  Gen.  Thomas  was  sent  into  Ten- 
nessee, by  Sherman,  with  a  strong  force,  to  contend  with  him ;  and 
Sherman,  breaking  away  from  his  northern  connections,  com- 
mences his  celebrated  "  march  to  the  sea,"  in  which  he  is  lost  to 
his  friends  for  40  days,  but  reaches  Savannah  in  safety. 

"  4 — Johnsonville,  Tenn.,  bombarded.  3  gunboats  and  8  transports, 
with  $1,500,000  of  stores  destroyed. 

"  8 — President  Lincoln  re-elected.  Gen.  McClellan  resigns  his  com- 
mission. 

*  11 — A  gunboat,  the  Tulip,  blows  up  on  Potomac  river.  Her  boiler 
burst. 

"  13 — Gen.  Breckenridge  attacks  Gillem,  near  Morristown,  Tenn.,  captur- 
ing his  artillery,  and  several  hundred  prisoners. 

"    14 — Atlanta  complete     destroyed  by  Sherman,  before  his  march  South. 

"  16 — Gen.  Stoneman  g  ;,acks  Breckenridge,  at  Marion,  Tenn.,  and  cap- 
tures his  artillery  and  200  prisoners. 

-Gen.  Sherman  starts  for  Savannah  through  the  heart  of  the  Con- 
federacy, with  over  65,000  troops.  He  destroys  railroads  and  lays 
the  country  waste  wherever  he  is  treated  in  a  hostile  manner. 

"  22 — Sherman's  army  reach  Milledgeville,  the  capital  of  Georgia.  The 
Gov.  and  Legislature  hastily  retire.  The  soldiers  amuse  them- 
selves by  holding  a  mock  legislature,  passing  loyal  resolutions,  &c. 

"  24 — The  Union  army  in  Va.,  receive  nearly  100,000  pounds  of  turkeys, 
sent  from  the  North  to  supply  them  a  Thanksgiving  dinner. 

"    25 — An  attempt  to  fire  New  York  city  miscarries. 

•*  30— Gen.  Hood,  Confederate,  with  40,000  men,  attacks  Schofield,  18 
miles  from  Nashville.  Gen.  Schofield  had  only  17,000  men 
Hood  made  four  attacks,  and  was  each  time  repulsed.    He  lost 


CONCLUDING    CAMPAIGN.  675 

6,000  men.    At  midnight  Scliofield  retreated  to  Nashville,  and 

ioined  Thomas,  followed  by  Hood's  army. 
^)ec.  J— The  U.  S.  navy  has  671  vessels,  carrying  over  4,000  guns,  and 

51,000  men.    It  has  captured  324  vessels  during  the  year — during 

the  war,  1,379 — 267  being  steamers. 
"      5 — 65  blockade  runners,  ships  and  cargoes  worth  $12,000,000,  have  been 

captured  or  destroyed  by  the  U.  S.  navy,  at  "W  iLi^Jngton,  N.  C. 
**      6 — Mr.  Chase,  ex-Sec.  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury,  appointed  Chief  Justice 

of  the  Supreme  Court. 
"    12 — Gen.  Sherman's  army  reaches  the  rear  of  Savannah,  Geo.,  which 

is  occupied  by  the  Confederate  Gen.  Hardee,  with  15,000  men. 
*'    13 — Gen.  Hazen,  of  Sherman's  command,  captures  Ft.  McAllister,  near 

Savannah.     It  had  been  frequently  attacked  by  gunboats,  in  vain. 
■"    15 — Gen.  Rousseau  defeats  the  Southern  forces  under  Forrest  at  Mur- 

freesborough,  Tenn.,  with  great  loss. 
■"    15-16 — Battle  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  which  Gen.  Hood  is  completely 

defeated  by  Gen.  Thomas,  Federal  commander.    Hood's  flying 

troops  pursued  200  miles.    It  was  one  of  the  most  fatal  blows  of 

the  war  for  the  South. 
"    19 — President  Lincoln  calls  for  300,000  volunteers  to  finish  the  war. 
**    20 — Gen.  Stoneman,  Unionist,  captures  forts  and  destroys  salt  works, 

lead  mines,  and  railway  bridges  at  Saltville,  East  Tennessee. 

Gen.  Sherman  summons  Savannah   to  surrender.    Gen.  Hardee 

retreated  in  the  night.    Gen.  Sherman  takes  possession  next  day. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 
CONCLUDING  CAMPAIGN. 

The  year  1864  closed  in  general  disaster  to  the  Confederacy.  Sherman 
had  broken  the  Confederate  power  in  Georgia,  destroyed  its  communica. 
tions  with  the  Mississippi  States,  and  taken  Savannah.  Gen.  Thomas  had 
broken  up  Hood's  army,  in  Tennessee,  and  Grant  had  closely  beleagured 
the  Southern  army  in  Virginia  within  Richmond  and  its  defenses;  while 
jSheridan  had  dealt  blow  after  blow  on  Early,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
and  quite  ruined  his  army. 

The  future  operations  required  the  subjugation  of  the  interiors  of  North 
»nd  South  Carolina,  the  taking  of  a  few  forts  on  the  coast,  and  the  capture 
of  Lee's  army  in  Richmond.  The  only  other  army  of  strength,  the  remnant 
of  Hood's  forces,  was  in  the  Southern  interior.  The  Federal  government 
was  stronger  than  ever,  both  by  sea  and  land.  The  Southern  people  were 
much  discouraged;  their  finances  ruined;  their  fighting  men  mostly  dis- 
abled, scattered,  forced  into  submission,  or,  hopeless  of  ultimate  success. 


676  CONCLUDING    CAMPAIGN. 

had  voluntarily  withdrawn  from  the  contest  in  so  large  numbers  that  the 
Confederate  forces  were  everj'where  inferior,  and  only  upheld  by  the  indom- 
itable pride  and  bravery  inherent  in  the  Anglo-American.  They  would 
submit  only  when  necessity  absolutely  compelled  them ;  and  thus  saved 
their  honor,  in  their  own  eyes.  They  had  made  a  fatal  mistake,  and  they 
reaped  tlie  full  harvest  of  ruin.  Yet,  their  prolonged  resistance  served  to 
utterly  annihilate  slavery;  raised  the  negroes  to  the  honorable  position  of 
Defenders  of  the  Union;  and,  the  last  of  Jan.,  1865,  an  amendment  to  the 
U.  S.  Constitution  was  prepared  forever  abolishing  slavery  in  the  country. 
In  the  end  the  blacks  became  citizens.  We  liave  now  but  a  short  record 
to  complete  our  View  of  the  Civil  War.  The  South  had  still  over  100,000' 
men  in  arms,  but  they  were  surrounded,  cut  off  from  supplies,  outnum- 
bered, and  pressed  with  relentless  vigor. 

1865. 
Jan.  14 — Vessels  are  sent  from  Boston  and  New  York  with  large  supplies; 
from  the  charitable,  for  Southern  sufferers,  in  Savannah,  Geo. 
"     15 — Ft.  Fisher,  on  the  coast  of  N.  C,  captured  by  Gen.  Terry,  in  con- 
junction with  the  TJ.  S.  fleet.   It  is  the  last  stronghold  of  the  South, 
on  the  sea. 

Edward  Everett  died,  at  Boston,  Mass. 
"    16 — The  magazine  at  Ft.  Fisher  exploded,  killing  and  wounding  30O 

Union  men. 
**    17 — A  Federal  monitor  blown  up  by  torpedoes,  in  Charleston  Harbor^ 

S.  C. 
*'    20 — Corinth,  Miss.,  evacuated  by  Southern  troops. 
"    23 — Gen.  Hood  surrenders  his  command  in  the  Southern  army  to  Gen- 
Taylor. 
"    28 — Gen.  Breckenridge  becomes  Confederate  Sec.  of  War. 
"    29 — Southern  Commissioners  seek  an  interview  with  President  Lincoln 
at  Fortress  Monroe,  in  the  interest  of  Peace.    They  failed  to  make- 
any  satisfactorj'^  terms. 
"    31 — Joint  resolution  of  Congress  to  amend  tlie  U.  S.  Constitution  abol- 
ishing slavery  (14th  Amendment). 
Feb.    — Nine  States  ratify  tlie  Constitutional  Amendment  in  this  month. 
"      5 — Grant  suffers  a  repulse  at  Hatcher's  Run.    Loss  2,000  men. 
"    17 — Columbia,  S.  C,  burned. 

"  18 — Union  troops  take  possiession  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  as  a  result  of 
Sherman's  march  from  Savannah  north-eastward  toward  Rich- 
mond. Many  buildings  in  Charleston  burned  in  the  destruction 
of  Confederate  stores  by  the  retiring  army. 

Gen.  Lee  in  favor  of  arming  the  negroes  for  the  defense  of  the 
South.  It  is  declined  by  tlie  Confederate  government,  uptil  too 
late. 


CONCLUDING   CAMPAIGN.  677 

Feb.SS — 800  Southern  soldiers  desert,  and  come  into  Union  lines. 
Mar.  2 — Sheridan  completely  routs  Gen.  Early  again,  taking  1,700  troops 
prisoners. 

"      4 — President  Lincoln  inaugurated  for  his  second  term. 

"    10 — Gen.  Bragg  defeated,  at  Kingston,  N.  C. 

"    15 — Gen.  Hardee  (Confederate)  defeated  by  Sherman's  army. 

**     18 — The  Confederate  Congress  adjourned.     It  never  met  again. 

Battle  of  part  of  Sherman's  army  with  Johnston,  Confederate, 
24,000  strong.  Southern  forces  made  six  assaults  which  were  with- 
stood. After  fighting  and  manouvering  3  days,  Johnston  retreated 
having  lost  3,000  men.     Sherman  lost  1 ,646. 

•*  25 — Ft.  Steadman,  near  Petersburg,  Va.,  captured  by  Confederates,  but 
was  immediately  retaken,  with  2,000  prisoners.  This  attack  was 
made  by  Lee,  preparatory  to  evacuating  Richmond.  Grant  had 
about  120,000  troops,  Lee  70,000. 

**  29 — Sheridan  commences  an  expedition  to  the  rear  of  Richmond  to  cut 
off  Lee's  retreat  South. 

•"  31 — Sheridan  attacked  and  hard  pushed  by  Lee's  forces,  but  at  night 
they  fall  back. 

A.pr.  1 — Sheridan,  in  turn,  follows  the  Confederates,  and  drives  them  toward 
Richmond.  He  takes  more  than  5,000  prisoners.  This  was  the 
battle  of  Five  Forks.     It  was  fatal  to  Lee's  retreat. 

**  2 — Grant's  forces  make  a  grand  assault.  It  is  successful,  and  Lee 
prepares  to  evacuate  Richmond.  President  Davis  leaves  his  capi- 
tal in  haste,  for  Danville,  N.  C.  Gen.  Lee  commences  his  retreat 
in  the  night. 

**  8 — Richmond  occupied  by  colored  Federal  troops.  They  find  the 
city  in  flames. 

**  4 — President  Davis  endeavors  to  make  a  stand  against  disa.ster.  He 
issues  a  proclamation  from  Danville. 

^      9 — Terms  of  surrender  arranged  by  Gens.  Grant  and  Lee. 

^    10 — Gen.  Lee  issues  his  farewell  address  to  his  army. 
.  *•    12 — Confederate  army  yielded  prisoners  of  war  at  Appomattox  Court 
House,  Virginia.    27,805  Confederate  soldiers  paroled. 
Gen.  Stoneman  defeats  a  Confederate  force,  at  Salisbury,  N.  C. 
Gen.  Canby,  Union,  occupies  Mobile,  Ala. 

_"    14 — President  Lincoln  assassinated  in  Washington,  by  J.  Wilkes  Booth. 

Mr.  Seward  stabbed  in  bed,  but  not  killed. 
[_**    15 — Abraham  Lincoln   died  at  7  a.  m.    The  whole  country   is  in 
mourning. 
Andrew  Johnson  assumes  the  oflice  of  President  of  the  U.  S. 

*    18 — Paine,  or  Powell,  who   endeavored  to  assassinate  Sec.  Seward, 
arrested   at  Mrs.  Surratt's  house  in  Washington.     Mrs.  Surratt 
arrested. 
Qen.  Sherman  arranges  preliminaries  for  the  surrender  of  all  the 


678  CONCLUDING   CAMPAIGN. 

remaining  Confederate  forces,  with  Gen.  Johnston,  commanding 
Southern  army  in  N.  C,  with  consent  of  Confederate  Sec.  of  War 
andPres.  Davis.  It  includes  the  basis  of  a  general  peace,  and  a 
policy  of  reconstruction.  It  is  sent  to  tlie  Federal  government  for 
their  approval  or  rejection. 

Apr.l9 — Funeral  ceremonies  of  President  Lincoln,  at  Washington.  Funeral 
services  are  held  all  over  the  North.  The  body  is  carried  in  state- 
to  Springfield,  111.,  stopping  at  prominent  places  on  the  route; 
and  visited  by  great  numbers  of  the  people.  700,000  were  said  to- 
have  been  in  the  procession  at  New  York. 

"  21 — Gen.  Sherman's  arrangement  with  Johnston  disapproved  by  the 
government,  and  he  is  ordered  to  resume  hostilities.  Steamboat 
Sultana  blows  up  on  the  Mississippi,  and  about  1,300  U.  S.  soldiers 
returning  home  were  killed. 

"    34 — Gen.  Grant  visits  Sherman. 

"  25 — J.  W.  Booth,  the  assassin  of  the  President,  taken  prisoner  near 
Port  Royal,  Va.  Refusing  to  surrender,  a  soldier  shot  him,  con- 
trary  to  orders.  He  died  in  4  hours.  No  assassin  ever  met  with, 
more  universal  execration  than  Booth.  Its  necessary  effect  was  to 
render  the  Reconstruction  policy  much  more  stern  and  painful  to- 
the  South. 

"  26— -Johnston  surrenders  to  Gen.  Slierman  all  the  Confederate  troops- 
in  his  command,  on  the  terms  granted  Gen.  Lee. 

"    29 — Arms  and  stores  of  Gen.  Johnston's  army  delivered  to  U.  S.  author- 
ities, at  Greensboro,  N.  C. 
May  2 — Reward  offered  for  capture  of  Jeff.  Davis,  of  $100,000.    He  was 
understood  to  be  flying  toward  Texas. 

"      3 — President  Lincoln's  remains  arrive  at  Springfield,  111. 

"  4-9 — All  the  Confederate  forces  disbanded,  or  surrendered  to  U.  S- 
oflScers,  east  and  west  of  Mississippi  river. 

"    10 — Jeff.  Davis  captured  in  Geo., 

GENERAL    DATA. 

The  number  of  volunteer  troops  to  be  mustered  out  of  the  Union  army. 
May  1st,  1865,  was  1,034,064.  They  were  mostly  discharged  and  paid  in 
the  next  three  months.  The  entire  enlistments  in  the  Federal  army,  during 
the  whole  war,  were  2,688,523.  Many  were  re-enlistments.  It  is  believed 
that  the  whole  number  of  individuals  forming  the  armies  was  only  1,500,000. 
75  per  cent,  were  native  Americans,  9  per  cent.  Germans,  and  7  per  centJ. 
Irish.    Various  nationalities  made  up  the  remaining  9  per  cent. 

Of  this  million  and  a  half  56,000  were  killed  in  battle,  35,000  died  in> 
hospitals  of  their  wounds  received  in  battle,  and  184,000  died  in  hospitals 
of  disease.  Many  afterwards  died,  and  others  were  ruined  in  health  for 
life. 

It  has  been  stated  by  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Confederate  army,  since 
the  close  of  the  war,  that  the  available  Confederate  force  during  the  entire 


CONCLUDING  CAMPAIGN.  Q^Q 

war  was  600,000,  and  that  they  never  had  more  than  200,000  in  the  field  at 
an}  one  time.  This  would  seem  likely  to  be  an  underestimate,  but  is  the 
nearest  to  official  data  that  we  have.  He  states  the  entire  force  opposing 
the  1,000,000  men  in  the  closing  campaign  to  have  been  100,000.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Confederates  killed,  and  the  wounded  and  sick 
who  died  in  hospital,  was  about  300,000. 

The  entire  amount  expended  by  the  National  government,  by  States, 
counties  and  towns,  and  contributed  in  other  ways  to  the  comfort  or  sus- 
tenance of  the  army,  is  computed  at  $4,000,000,000.  The  support  of  the 
Southern  army  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  it  is  thought  that  those  expenses 
and  the  destruction  of  property  inflicted  about  an  equal  loss  on  them. 

These  losses  in  life  and  property  are  fearful;  but  they  are  the  price  of 
Freedom  and  of  Nationality.  The  general  prosperity  of  the  country  has 
made  it  richer  than  before,  while  natural  increase  and  immigration  have 
filled  the  places  vacant  by  death. 

The  South  was  hopeless  and  exhausted  at  the  close  of  the  war.  It  had 
been  feared  that  a  guerrilla  war,  the  most  desolating  and  bloody  of  all 
wars,  would  follow  the  defeat  of  the  great  armies.  It  could  result  only  in 
destruction  of  what  remained  to  the  Southern  people,  and  they  submitted 
quietly  to  their  fate.  Various  excesses  and  deeds  of  blood  were  indeed 
committed,  but  they  were  not  sympathized  with  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
It  was  only  the  desperate  and  lawless  class  that  came  to  the  surface  natu- 
rally in  war. 

Many  of  the  influential  Southern  leaders  counseled  submission  to  inev- 
itable necessity,  and  themselves  set  the  example.  The  policy  of  reconstruc- 
tion adopted  by  the  National  government,  excluded,  at  first,  all  who  had 
taken  a  part  in  the  rebellion  from  political  influence.  The  loyal  element, 
small  as  it  was,  was  alone  to  restore  the  Southern  States  to  their  place  in 
Jhe  Union.  It  was,  however,  proposed  to  admit  others,  both  individuals 
And  classes,  to  participation  in  political  action  as  they  proved  themselves 
mistworthy  and  loyal  to  the  new  order  of  things.  After  some  years,  and 
when  it  was  felt  to  be  quite  safe,  these  disabilities  were  nearly  all  removed. 

Ihe  most  distasteful  act  of  the  General  Government,  to  the  people  of  the 
^outh,  was  clothing  the  blacks  with  the  rights  of  citizens.  They  received 
the  eifcctive  franchise,  and  assisted  to  rule  over  their  former  masters.  It 
was  considered  necessary,  since  they  had  now  no  masters  to  be  interested  in 
them,  to  give  them  the  power  to  protect  themselves,  and  to  elevate  them  to 
something  of  influence  and  respectability  by  force  of  the  ballot.  That 
advantage  given  them,  they  must  take  their  chances  with  others,  and  win 
their  own  way.  They  had  been  loyal  to  the  Union,  which  strongly  recom- 
mended this  policy  to  the  government.  The  Northern  people  who  now 
settled  in  the  South  and  the  blacks  mainly  reorganized  the  State  govern- 
ments. This  was  the  chief  punishment  inflicted  on  the  Southern  people 
in  retaliation  ror  the  war  they  had  waged  with  such  fearful  energy.  It  was 
a  clemency  qaite  unexampled  in  history.    No  blood  was  shed  after  tiey 


C^SO  fflSTORT   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

laid  down  their  arms.  The  assassination  of  the  beloved  President  Lincoln 
made  the  North  thoroughly  angry,  but  no  vengeance  was  taken  except  on 
those  believed  to  be  immediately  connected  with  tlie  atrocious  deed.  The 
most  lively  indignation  had  long  been  felt  at  the  dreadful  treatment  expe- 
rienced by  prisoners  of  war  in  some  of  the  prisons  of  the  South ;  but  the 
government  and  the  people  contented  themselves  with  the  punishment  of 
the  governor  of  Andersonville  prison,  on  due  civil  trial  and  conviction. 

On  the  whole,  the  conduct  of  the  Northern  people  was  extremely  mag- 
nanimous. The  dissolution  of  the  Union  would  have  been  an  irreparable 
loss  to  them;  thev  resolved  not  to  sutler  it;  and,  with  extraordinary  energy, 
they  put  in  the  field  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  of  men,  and  near  700 
vesssls,  to  subdue  it,  and  suffered  no  reverses  to  discourage  them  until  this 
was  done.  When  resistance  ceased  and  the  Union  was  secure,  they  exacted 
only  the  pledges  necessary  to  keep  it  safe.  Appreciating  the  unfortunate 
condition  to  which  nearly  all  the  before  prosperous  classes  of  the  South 
were  reduced,  they  aided  them  in  their  distress,  ceased  at  once  all  hostile 
action,  and  left  them  to  recover  from  their  disasters  under  as  favorable  cir- 
cumstances as  their  own  conduct  warranted.  The  South  naturally  felt  an 
affection  for  her  Lost  Cause,  proportionate  to  the  sacrifices  she  had  made 
and  the  suffering  she  had  endured  for  it.  Time,  and  busy  care  to  devel- 
op the  vast  resources  that  slavery  had,  in  great  part,  neglected,  would 
gradually  restore  them  to  right  feeling,  and  the  state  of  mind  fitting  them 
for  citizenship.  This,  in  part,  has  already  taken  place,  and,  by  and  by,  the 
Bonds  of  the  "Whole  Union  will  be  more  firmly  cemented  than  ever  before. 
May  it  be  soon. 


CHAPTEE    XXIX. 
HISTOKY  OF  THE  U.  S.  FKOM  1865  TO  1877. 

May  13 — During  the  week  ending  with  this  day  there  was  subscribed  to 
the  U.  S.  seven-thirty  loan  $98,000,000.  It  was  an  expression  of  the 
enthusiastic  confidence  of  the  people  in  the  government  and  its 
resources. 

"    22-23 — Grand  review  of  Gen.  Sherman's  army  at  Washington.    There 
were  200,000  men. 

"    23 — Kirby  Smith,  the  last  leader  of  a  Southern  military  organization, 
surrendered  his  command. 

"    30 — The  great  Sanitary  Fair  opened  at  Chicago. 

"    31 — Gen.  Hood  an^  his  staff  surrendered  prisoners  of  war. 
June  1 — A  day  of  fasting  and  national  humiliation  for  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln. 


HISTORY    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  681 


July5— The  four  confederates  of  Booth,  the  assassin  of  President  Lincoln, 
■were  found  guilty.    They  were  hanged  on  the  6th  and  7th.    These 
were  Harold,  Atzerott,  Powell  and  Mrs.  Surratt. 
"     11— Gen.  R.  E.  Lee  appointed  president  of  the  "Washington  College, 
Va.     It  was  done  by  Southern  people  as  a  mark  of  respect,  and  to 
furnish  him  a  support;  he  having  lost  his  property  in  the  war. 
Sept.  20— The  marking  of  the  graves  of  12,000  of  the  unfortunate  Anderson, 
ville  prisoners  completed. 
"    29 — Cession  of  1,000,000  acres  of  land  to  the  government  by  the  Osage 
Indians,  for  $300,000. 
Oct.  20 — Champ  Ferguson,  noted  for  his  crimes  in  guerilla  warfare,  hung 

at  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Nov.  10 — Henry  Wirz,  the    former    keeper  of  Andersonville  prison,  hung, 

after  trial  and  condemation. 
Dec.  18 — Secretary  Seward  officially  announces  that  the  13th  Amendment 
to  the  Constitution,  abolishing  slavery  in  the  United  States,  has 
been  adopted  by  three-fourths  of  the  States,  and  it  is  now  the  law 
of  the  land. 

1866. 
Jan.  1 — Third  anniversary  of  Emancipation  celebrated  by  the  colored 
people. 
"      2 — Funeral  of  Hon.  Henry  Winter  Davis,    M.  C,  at  Baltimore. 
■"    12 — The  Kentucky  University  purchases  the  homestead  of  Henry  Clay. 
""    23 — The  13tli  Constitutional  Amendment  reconsidered  by  the  Legisla- 
ture of  New  Jersey  and  passed.     It  had  been  rejected  in  the  pre- 
vious year. 
*'    25 — Kentucky  refused  to  pass  the  13th  Amendment. 
"    31 — Commissary  and  quartermaster  warehouses  burned,  at  Ft.  Riley, 

Kansas.     $1,000,000  lost. 
Feb.  2 — The  Civil  Rights  bill  passed  the  Senate. 
"    11 — The  U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission  closed  with  an  anniversary  meet- 
ing at  Washington. 
*'     13 — Memorial  services  in  honor  of  President  Lincoln  held  in  the  cap- 
itol,  at  Washington ;  address  delivered  by  the  Hon.  Geo.  Bancroft, 
statesman  and  historian. 
"    19 — President  Johnson  vetoed  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  bill. 
"    22— The  134th  anniversary  of  Washington's  birthday  celebrated. 
"    26 — Meeting  held  at  Richmond  to  ratify  President  Johnson's  policy. 
Mar.  10 — North  Carolina  passes  a  Negro  Rights  bill. 
"     12 — North  Carolina  passes  a  Negro  Testimony  bill. 

Texas  Convention  declares  their  Secession  ordinance  null  and  »w»W. 
«    13— The  Civil  Rights  bill  passed  the  House  of  Representatives. 
"    19 — ^The  Reciprocity  Treaty  with  Canada  expires. 


Cb2  HISTORY   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

'•    27 — The  Civil  Rights  bill  vetoed  by  President  Johnson. 
April  2 — Gen.  Hawley  elected  republican  governor  of  Connecticul. 

"      4 — Gen.  Burnside  elected  governor  of  Rliodfe  Island. 

"      6-7 — Civil  Rights  bill  passed  Congress  over  the  veto. 

"    30 — Two  churches  of  colored  people  burned  by  incendiaries  in  Rich, 
mond,  Va. 
May  IS^The  President  vetoes  the  bill  admitting  Colorado  as  a  State. 

"    29— Gen.  Scott  died  at  West  Point,  N.  Y. 
June  3 — Gen.  Meade  goes  to  Bujffalo  to  prevent  the  Fenians  (Irish  Patriots^ 
from  invading  Canada. 

"  6 — President  Johnson  issues  a  proclamation  forbidding  belligerent 
operations  against  Canada  from  the  United  States. 

"      8-13 — The  14th  Constitutional  Amendment  passed  by  Congress. 
July  4— Great  fire  at  Portland,  Me.    Loss,  |15,000,000.    The  U.  S.  govern- 
ment a  heavy  loser  by  this  fire. 

"  23 — Tennessee  readmitted  as  a  State  in  the  Union,  by  joint  resolutioa 
of  Congress.    This  was  the  first  State  readmitted  after  the  war. 

"    25 — Lieut.  Gen.  Grant  nominated  General — the  highest  grade  knowi> 
in  our  military  organization — never  before  occupied. 
Vice  Admiral  Farragut  nominated  Admiral. 

"  27 — Hon.  J.  H.  Harlan,  Sec.  of  the  Interior,  resigns.  O.  H.  Browning; 
appointed. 

"  28 — The  Great  Eastern  reaches  Hearts  Content,  Newfoundland,  with 
the  Atlantic  Telegraphic  Cable,  which  proved  successful.  It  had 
failed  in  the  previous  year.  Great  rejoicings.  It  was  one  of  flie 
most  important  events  of  this  century. 

"    80 — Great  riot  at  New  Orleans,  in  which  many  were  killed.     It  was 
thought  the  result  of  President  Johnson's  policy  of  reconstruc- 
tion, which  was  not  in  harmony  with  the  system  adopted  by 
Congress. 
Aug.  1 — Gen.  Sherman  commissioned  as  Lieut.  General. 

"  8 — Queen  Emma,  wife  of  the  late  King  of  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
arrives  at  New  York,  and  is  received  as  a  National  Guest. 

"  12 — ^Telegraphic  communication  between  New  York  and  Europe  com- 
plete, by  the  Atlantic  Cable. 

"  31 — American  and  English  naval  forces  unite  to  break  up  piracy  by 
Chinese  junks  in  the  East  Indies. 
Sept.  6 — ^The  monument  to  S.  A.  Douglas,  at  Chicago,  inaugurated.  I*res- 
ident  Johnson  made  many  speeches  on  his  journey  to  attend  this 
celebration,  which  were  indiscreet,  and  disrespectful  to  Congress. 
It  was  called  his  "  Swinging  around  the  Cirgle/Mn  derision ;  a 
figure  employed  in  one  of  his  speeches. —  ^ 

Oct.  9 — Gen.  Geary  elected  governor  of  Pennsylvania. 

"    23 — Dedication  of  The  Stonewall  Jackson  Cemetery,  at  Winchester,  Va. 
Nov.  6 — State  elections  in  12  States  are  held  to-day. 


HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  683 

"    20— The  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  formed  of  the  present  and  pre- 
vious officers  of  the  U.  S.  Army  serving  in  the  late  war,  hold  & 
convention  at  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
''    22 — Raphael    Semmes,  former  Commander  of  the  Confederate  war 
steamer  Alabama,  appointed  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the 
Louisiana  State  Seminary. 
Dec.  7 — The  Louisiana  Legislature  rejects  the  14th  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution. 
"    13 — Territorial  Legislature  of  Colorado  organized. 
"    26 — The  U.  S.  frigate  New  Ironsides  burned  at  League  Island. 
"    22 — Massacre  of  nearly  a  hundred  soldiers  near  Ft.  Kearney. 
"    24 — U.  S.  Minister  John  A.  Dix  enters  on  his  duties  in  France. 

1867. 
Jan.  7 — A  suffrage  bill  for  the  Dist.  of  Columbia  vetoed  by  President  John- 
son, but  passed  over  the  veto  by  Congress.  Congress  was  laboring 
to  harmonize  the  laws  of  the  country  with  the  changes  produced 
by  the  war.  President  Johnson  did  his  utmost  to  prevent  the  suc- 
cess of  this  policy.  Congress,  however,  succeeded  in  carrying  its 
point.  This  is  an  important  and  interesting  history,  since  it  shows 
how  the  Representatives  of  the  People  may  check  and  neutralize 
the  power  of  a  President  when  his  designs  conflict  with  the  inter- 
ests of  the  country  and  the  purposes  of  the  people. 
"  8-10 — 14th  Amendment  ratified  by  two  States  (Missouri  and  New  York) 

and  rejected  by  another  (Virginia). 
"    28 — Nebraska  bill  vetoed,  but  passed  over  the  veto. 

Most  of  the  Northern  States  ratified  the  14th  Amendment  in  this 
month. 
Feb.  20 — Military  government  bill  passed  Congress. 
Mar.  1 — Nebraska  proclaimed  a  State  by  the  President. 
"      2 — The  President  vetoes  the  Military  Government  and  Civil  Tenure 

of  Office  Bills.    They  are  passed  over  his  veto. 
"      4 — The  39th  Congress  ends,  and  the  40th  is  organized. 
"    11 — Military  governors  assigned  to  various  districts  in  the  South. 
"    80 — ^The  President  announces  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  Russia, 
by  which  the  United  States  bought  all  her  North  American  Pos- 
sessions for  $7,200,000. 
Apr.  3 — Gen.  Burnside  re-elected  governor  of  Rhode  Island. 
May  13— Jeff.  Davis  admitted  to  bail  in  $100,000;   Horace  Greeley  and 

others  furnish  the  bonds. 
June  19— The  Arch  Duke  Maximilian,  Titular  Emperor  of  Mexico,  shot  by 
order  of  the  Mexican  Republican  government.  The  remonstrances 
of  the  U.  S.  government  obliged  the  French  to  withdraw  their 
support  from  Maximilian. 
July  13— The  steamer  Dunderberg,  bought  by  France,  sailed  for  Cherbourg. 
Aug.  1 — Gov.  Brownlow  re-elected  governor  of  Tennessee. 


^84  HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

"  5— The  President  requires  Mr.  Stanton,  Sec.  of  War,  to  resign.  He 
refuses,  when  the  President  susjjends  him  and  appoints  Gen.  Grant 

"    23 — Grand  ovation  to  Admiral  Farragut,  by  Russian  officers  at  Croa- 
stadt. 
Sept.  17 — The  National  Cemetery  at  Antietam  dedicated. 
Dec.  4 — The  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  or  Farmers'  Grange,  organized,  in 
Washington. 

"  7 — A  resolution  in  the  House  of  Representatives  to  impeacli  President 
Johnson  fails  by  three  votes. 

1868. 
Jan.   1 — Fifth  Emancipation  Anniversary  celebrated  by  the  colored  people 
in  various  places. 

"      6 — Censure  of  the  President  by  Congress  for  removing  Gen.  Sheridan 
from  command  of  the  5tli  Military  District. 
Feb.  7 — Tlie  resignation  of  U.  S.  Minister  to  England,  Hon.  C.  F.  Adams, 
announced. 

"  19 — Senate  refuse  his  seat  to  P.  F.  Thomas,  of  Maryland,  on  account 
of  disloyalty. 

"  20 — ^The  Legislature  of  New  Jersey  withdraws  its  ratification  of  the 
14th  Amendment.  Ohio  and  Oregon  did  the  same.  This  action, 
considered  as  absurd  as  Secession,  was  not  recognized. 

"  21 — President  Johnson  expels  Mr.  Stanton,  Sec.  of  War,  and  appoints 
Gen.  Thomas.  This  is  done  ixi  defiance  of  the  Senate,  by  whose 
"  advice  and  consent "  the  Constitution  requires  it  to  be  supported. 

•'    24 — ^The  House  of  Representatives  adopt  articles  of  impeachment  of 
the  President  presented  by  Thaddeus  Stephens,  of  Pa.,  by  a  vote 
of  136  to  57,    This  was  12  more  than  the  requisite  two-thirds. 
Mar.  5 — Tlie  Senate  is  organized  as  a  Court  of  Impeachment,  Chief  Justice 

Chase  presiding. 
May  16 — The  impeachment  trial  terminated  by  a  vote  in  the  Senate  of  35 
for,  to  19  against.  As  a  two-thirds  vote  was  necessary  the  impeach- 
ment failed  by  three  votes.    A  few  Republican  Senators  incurred 
great  odium  by  voting  for  the  President's  acquittal. 

*•  20 — Gen.  Grant  nominated  for  President  by  the  Republican  Conventioa 
at  Chicago. 

"  22 — A  Chinese  embassy,  headed  by  Hon.  Anson  Burlingame,  who  had 
been  U.  S.  Minister  to  China  and  acquired  the  confidence  of  the 
government  of  China  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  chosen  by  them 
as  the  leader  of  their  embassy  to  this  country  and  the  governments 
of  Europe,  arrived  at  New  York. 

"    29— Gen.  Schofield  appointed  Sec.  of  War. 
June  5 — Mr.  Burlingame  and  the  Chinese  embassy  presented  to  the  Presi- 
dent. 

*'      6 — A  Bill  for  the  re-admission  of  Arkansas  passes  Congress. 


HISTOKX-   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  685 

*'  9— Bills  for  the  re-admission  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Alabama  and  Florida  are  passed. 

"    12 — Hon.  Reverdy  Johnson  appointed  Minister  to  England. 

"  20 — Bill  for  re-admission  of  Ark.  vetoed  by  the  President,  but  passeo. 
over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote. 

"    24 — The  Bill  for  the  admission  of  the  other  States  being  vetoed  by 

the  President  was  likewise  passed  over  his  veto. 
July  4 — Horatio  Seymour  of  N.  Y.  and  F.  P.  Blair  of  Mo.  nominated  for 
President  and  Vice-President  by  the  Democrats. 
A  political  amnesty  proclamation  issued  by  the  President. 

"  16 — ^Admiral  Farragut  received  with  distinguished  honor  by  the  Queen 
of  England. 

"  20 — A  Bill  to  exclude  the  electoral  votes  of  the  Southern  States  not 
re-admitted  vetoed  by  the  President  and  passed  by  Congress  over 
the  veto. 

"  21 — The  14th  Amendment  declared  ratified,  and  a  part  of  the  Consti- 
tution. 

"    28 — Military  government  ceases  in  Arkansas,  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, Louisiana,  Georgia,  Florida  and  Alabama. 
Aug.  6 — Jefferson  Davis  lands  in  Liverpool,  England. 

"    13 — U.  8.  steamers  Wateree  and  Fredonia  destroyed  during  an  earth, 
quake  at  Lima,  Peru ;  40,000  lives  were  lost  in  this  dreadful  catas- 
trophe. 
8ept.  7 — Negro  members  of  the  Georgia  Legislature  expelled 

"  18— Battle  with  the  Indians  on  Republican  River.  Lt.  Beecher  and 
others  killed. 

"  19— Riot  at  Camilla,  Geo.,  caused  by  hostility  of  Southern  people  to 
the  political  privileges  of  the  blacks.     Many  negroes  killed. 

"    29— Gen.  Reynolds,  military  governor  of  Texas,  forbids  the  election 

in  that  State  for  President,  Texas  not  havmg  been  re-admitted 

This  was  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  Congress  passed  the  20th 

of  July. 

Oct.  17— The  Legislature  of  Oregon  withdraws  its  assent  once  given  to  the 

14th  Amendment. 
Nov.  3— U.  S.  Grant  and  Schuyler  Colfax  elected  President  and  Vice. 
President.  Popular  majority  309,722.  Electoral  votes  for  Grant 
and  Colfax,  214;  for  Seymour  and  Blair,  80.  Virginia,  Missis- 
sippi and  Texas  did  not  vote,  and  Nevada  was  not  counted  in. 
The  whole  popular  vote  was  5,722,984.  In  Florida  the  electors 
were  chosen  by  the  Legislature. 

"    27— The  Indians  defeated  by  Gen.  Custar,  on  the  Washita  river.    Black 

Kettle,  the  chief,  and  more  than  a  hundred  warriors  killed. 
Dec.  1— Ft.  Lafayette,  N.  Y.,  destroyed  by  fire. 


<]86  HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

<'      3— Political  troubles  in  Arkansas,  in  which  many  murders  are  com- 
mitted. 
<'      7 — Third  session  of  the  40th  Congress  begins. 
"     15— A  social  gathering  of  the  Union  soldiers  at  Chicago. 

1869. 

Jan.  7 — John  Minor  Botts,  a  statesman  of  Va.,  imprisoned  by  the  Confed- 
erate  government  during  the  war  for  his  Union  sentiments,  died. 

Feb.  27 — A  joint  resolution  of  Congress  recommends  to  the  States  the 
adoption  of  the  15th  Amendment  to  the  Constitution. 

3Iar.  4 — Gen.  Grant  inaugurated  eighteenth  President. 
"      " — First  session  of  the  41st  Congress  commenced. 
"    13 — James  Guthrie,  a  statesman  of  Ky.,  died. 
"    25 — Hon.  E.  Bates,  of  Mo.,  Att'y  Gen'l  under  Lincoln,  died. 

May  15 — The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed  by  joinijg  the  two 
ends  at  Ogden,  Utah.  Distance  from  Omaha  to  San  Francisco 
1904  miles.  This  completed  the  line  of  railroad  joining  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific.  The  greatest  triumph  of  engineering  yet 
known  was  accomplished  in  the  Nevada  Mts.,  by  carrying  the 
road  to  a  height  of  over  7000  feet  in  105  miles. 

July  30 — Hon.  I.  Toucey,  of  Conn.,  who  had  filled  many  offices  in  the 
State  and  United  States  government,  died. 

Sept.  8 — William  B.  Fessenden,  of  Me.,  a  statesman  of  reputation,  died. 
"    10 — John  Bell,  of  Tenn.,  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1860,  died. 
"      6 — Gen.  J.  A.  Rawlins,  Sec.  of  War,  died.    He  had  been  Gen.  Quant's 
Chief  of  Staff  during  the  war. 

Oct.  8 — Franklin  Pierce,  of  N.  H.,  ex-President,  died. 

l^ov.  7 — Rear  Admiral  Stewart,  of  U.  S.  Navy,  died. 

Deo.  24— Edwin  M.  Stanton,  of  Pa.,  Sec.  of  War  during  most  of  the  civil 
war,  died. 

This  year  closes  a  most  important  era  in  the  history  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  world.  The  account  with  the  civil  war  was 
definitely  closed,  and  the  final  seal  set  on  the  policy  of  reconstruc- 
tion by  the  inauguration  of  Gen.  Grant,  and  the  continuance  of 
the  Republican  party  in  power  by  the  people,  together  with  the 
readmission  of  most  of  the  Southern  States  and  the  p(jssibility  of 
the  reversal  of  the  decision  in  regard  to  slavery  done  away  by  the 
adoption  of  the  fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  giving 
the  elective  franchise  to  the  colored  population.  Much  emphasis 
was  given  to  all  these  things  by  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and 
the  rapid  reduction  of  the  debt,  by  the  generally  wise  conduct  of 
the  Southern  people,  and  the  slowly  increasing  prosperity  of  that 
section.  These  results  reacted  in  other  countries  to  strengthen 
the  tendency  to  freer  and  more  popular  governments,  and  seem,  in 
some  respects  to  have  introduced  the  Era  of   Republicanism. 


HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  QS7 

However  slow  may  be  the  changes  in  this  direction,  they  are  sure 
to  be  made. 

1870. 
Jaa  1 — Ten  years  ago  the  cloud  of  civil  war  settled  densely  over  the 
country,  and  threatened  its  destruction.  To-day  that  tornado  has 
been  passed  by  nearly  six  years,  and  its  ruins  are  almost  buried 
under  the  new  and  more  thrifty  growth  of  all  interests  and  indus- 
tries even  in  the  South. 
*'    30 — H.  R.  Revels,  of  Miss.,  is  chosen  the  first  colored  Senator  who 

ever  represented  a  State  in  Congress. 
*'    23 — ^The  U.  S.  steamer  Oneida  sunk  by  collision  with  another  vessel  on 
the  coast  of  Japan.    176  lives  lost. 
Feb.  22 — Hon.  Anson  Burlingame,  head  of  the  Chinese  embassy  to  the 

powers  of  Christendom,  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 
Mar.  28 — Gen.  G.  H.  Thomas  dies  in  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
"    30 — ^The  Sec.  of  State  proclaims  the  ratification  of  the  15th  Amend- 
ment to  the  U.  S.  Constitution  by  three-fourths  of  the  States. 
June  15 — Death  of  Jerome  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  at  Baltimore,  Md. 
July  12 — Death  of  Admiral  Dahlgren,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

"    20 — Death  of  M.  Provost  Paradol,  French  Minister  at  Washington. 
Aug.  14 — Death  of  Admiral  Farragut,  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 
Sept.  7 — Recognition  of  the  French  Republic  by  the  U.  S.  government. 
Oct.  12 — Death  of  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee,  formerly  of  the  Confederate  army. 

1871. 
Great  changes  have  been  taking  place  in  Europe.    The  Emperor,  Napo- 
leon III.  taken  prisoner  by  the  Germans,  his  government  was  set  aside  by 
the  people  of  France  who  founded  a  Republic. 

Jan.  1 — At  this  time  the  German  army,  under  the  lead  of  the  King  of 
Prussia  (about  this  time  made  Emperor  of  Germany),  is  besieging 
Paris,  the  capital  of  France. 
"    17 — The  San  Domingo  Commission  sail  from  New  York. 
«    28 — Paris  capitulates  to  the  Germans,  which  ends  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  terms  of  peace  being  soon  arranged. 
Feb.  12 — Alice  Carey,  the  authoress,  died  at  New  York. 
"     16— An  important  Japanese  mission  to  the  U.  S.  and  other  governments 
arrives  at  San  Francisco. 
Mar.  1 — The  Germans  make  a  triumphal  entry  into  Paris. 

"    20— British  House  of  Commons  votes  $265,000  for  the  relief  of  Paris. 
Apr.  20— A  Bill  again.'^t  the  Kuklux,  a  secret  organization  of  the  South,  was 

passed  in  Congress. 
May  1— The  Legal  Tender  Act  declared  Constitutional  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court. 
**  31— The  French  government  does  not  imitate  our  clemency  to  prison- 
ers taken  in  rebellion.  The  soldiers  of  the  Commune  are  slaugh- 
tered by  thousands,  by  order  of  the  Court  Martial  of  the  govern- 
ment  armv. 


688 


HISTORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


June  18 — An  earthquake  on  Long  and  Staten  Islands,  N.  T. 
"    20 — The  first  Atlantic  Cable  of  1865,  which  soon  broke  a,\     becanu 

useless,  is  recovered  and  worked, 
July  5— Earthquake  at  Visalia,  Cal. 

"    12~Irish  Catholic  riot  in  Kew  York ;  51  killed,  30  wounded. 
"    30— Steamer  Westfield  explodes,  killing  near  100  people. 
Sept.  17 — The  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  opening  a  passage  for  a  railroad  7  3-5th9 
miles  long  through  the  Alps  from  France  to  Italy,  inaugurated.  It 
had  been  many  years  buildmg. 
Oct.  2 — Brigham  Young,  the  head  of  the  Mormons  in  Utah,  arrested  for 

bigamy. 
"      8 — A  fire    nearly  consumes    Chicago,    destroying    property  worth 
$200,000,000  and  many  lives.    Fires  rage  in  the  forests  of  Wiscon 
sin  and  Michigan.    Much  property,  some  towns,  and  many  persont 
are  burned. 
"     17 — South  Carolina  placed  under  martial  law. 

$2,050,000  received  in  aid  of  the  people  of  Chicago. 
Nov.  15 — Cliolera  appears  on  vessels  at  New  York. 

"    18 — The  Grand  Duke  Alexis,  of  Russia,  arrives  at  New  York.    H« 

travels  through  the  country  for  some  months. 

Dec.  9 — Commissioners  of  the  English  and  U.  S.  governments  meet  in 

"Washington  to  settle  the  difficulties  between  the  two  governmenis 

arising  from  the  spoliations  of  the  Alabama. 

"    16 — Catacazy,  the  Russian  Minister,  called  home  at  the  request  of  oxv 

government. 
"    29 — Investigation  of  abuses  in  the  New  York  city  government  con> 
mences.    W.  M.  Tweed  surrenders  to  the  sheriff. 
1872. 
Jan.  2 — Brigham  Young  arrested  on  a  charge  of  murder. 
Mar.  7 — Trial  and  conviction  of  Kuklux  prisoners  in  Ala. ;  8  sentenced  to 

imprisonment  for  20  years. 
Apr.  1 — The  colored  people  celebrate  the  adoption  of  15th  Amendment. 
May  3 — Horace  Greeley  nominated  for  President  by  a  convention  at  Cin- 
cinnati, O. 
"    22 — The  General  Amnesty  Bill  signed  by  the  President. 
"    30 — Graves  of  the  Union  soldiers  decorated  throughout  the  cotintry. 
June  6 — Grant  and  Wilson  nominated  for  President  and  Vice-President. 
"    26 — Trial  of  Stokes  for  the  murder  of  Fisk  begun.    After  sevei-al  triala 
he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  murder. 
July  24 — Spotted-Taii  and  other  western  Indians  visit  Washingtoia. 
Aug.  16 — Yellow  Fever  appears  at  New  York. 

Sept.  2- -Father  Hyacinthe,  a  liberal  French  Cavholic  priest,  marries  an 
American  lady. 
"    14 — The  arbitrators  of  the  Alabama  Claims,  to  whom  the  case  had  been 
submitted,  and  who  had  been  two  months  sitting  at  Geneva,  Swit- 


HISTOKT   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  689 

zerland,  announced  their  award.  The  United  States  was  to  receive 
$15,500,000  in  gold. 
Cot.  14 — ^Wm.  H.  Seward,  one  of  our  most  distinguished  statesmen,  is  this 
day  buried  at  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

"    25 — About  tills  time  the  Horse  disease  commences,  and  spreads  rapidly 

over  the  whole  country. 
Nov.  5 — In  the  presidential  election  on  this  day  President  Graut  is  re- 
elected. 

"      9 — A  great  fire  in  Boston,  Mass.    Loss  $75,000,000  in  buildings  and 
merchandise.     Insurance  $50,000,000. 

In  this  month  and  December  following  storms  of  extreme  severity 
caused  great  loss  of  life  and  property.  An  overflow  of  the  river 
Po,  in  Italy,  rendered  40,000  persons  homeless.  In  the  Baltic  Sea 
80  vessels  were  wrecked,  some  islands  were  inundated,  and  all 
their  inhabitants  drowned.  It  was  not  less  severe  on  the  coasts  of 
England  and  Ireland. 

"    29 — Horace  Greeley,  recent  candidate  for  President  of  the  U.  S.,  died, 

aged  62  years. 
Dec.  11 — ^The  King  of  the  Sandwich    Islands,    Kamehameha   V.,   died, 
leaving  no  heir. 

"    12—- The  actor,  Edwin  Forrest,  dies,  at  Philadelphia. 

*'    17 — ^Edward  A.  Pollard,  editor  and  author,  died. 

Important  investigations  of  abuses  in  New  York  city  and  in  the 
conduct  of  the  Pacific  Railway  are  made  this  winter,  and  man  v' 
healthy  reforms  inaugurated.  The  order  of  Patrons  of  Husbandry 
becomes  popular  among  agriculturists,  and  spreads  rapidly, 
through  the  coming  year. 

1873. 
Jan.  7, 8, 9 — A  dreadful  snow  storm  occurs  in  Minnesota,  by  which  70  lives 
are  lost. 

"      9    The  ex-Emperor  Napoleon  III.  dies  at  Chiselhurst,  in  England, 
aged  64  years. 

"    31— At  Chicago,  111.,  Joel  A.  Matteson,  ex-governor  of  Illinois,  died. 
Feb.  1— M.  F.  Maury,  formerly  distinguished  in  the  U.  S.  Naval  service, 
dies  at  Lexington,  Va. 

«'      9_j.  w.  Geary,  ex-Governor  of  Penn.,  died  at  Harrisburg. 

"    15— Steamer  Henry  A.  Jones  burned  in  Galveston  Bay,  Texas.    21 

lives  lost. 
Mar.  3— Congress  enacted  a  law  increasing  their  pay,  that  of  the  President, 
and  various  officers  of  the  government.    It  extended  over  the 
whole  previous  term  of  the  42d  Congress,  commencing  March  4th, 
1871.    This  law  was  very  offensive  to  the  mass  of  the  people. 

•*      4— The  wreck  of  the  Alaska  mail  steamer,  Geo.  S.  Wright,  is  reported 
at  Portland,  Oregon.    All  on  board,  23  persons,  perished. 

«*    16— The  Boston  steamer,  Grace  Irving,  foundered.    8  lives  lost 
44 


690  HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

"    11-   Great  fire  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ky. 

"    15f-  -San  Salvador,   Central  America,  destroyed  by  an    earthquake. 

Property  destroyed  estimated  at  from  $12,000,000  to  $20,000,000; 

and  500  lives  lost. 
A-pr.  1-  Steamer  Atlantic  wrecked  near  Halifax,  N.  S.    535  lives  lost. 
May  5^  James  Orr,  American  Minister  to  Russia,  died,  at  St.  Petersburg, 

aged  51. 
"      4^  An  iron  bridge  at  Dixon,  111.,  crowded  with  people  witnessing  a 

baptism,  fell,  killing  and  drowning  100  persons. 
"      7 — Salmon  P.  Chase,  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.,  died  in  New  York, 

aged  65. 
"      8^-Hon.  Oakes  Ames,  M.  C,  died  at  North  Easton,  Mass.,  aged  69. 

John  Stuart  Mill,  a  celebrated  English  philosopher  and  author, 

died  at  Avignon,  France. 
"    30 — ^A  second  great  Are  in  Boston,  Mass. 
June  28 — Hon.  Horace  F.  Clark,  prominent  in  railway  enterprises,  died  in 

New  York. 
"    37-v -Hiram  Powers,  the  distinguished  American  sculptor,  died  in 

Florence,  Italy. 
"    29 — Jesse  R.  Grant,  father  of  the  President,  died. 
July  4 — Severe  storm,  very  destructive  to  crops  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Wiscon- 
sin and  Missouri.    20  persons  drowned  in  Green  Lake,  Wisconsin. 
Aug.  2 — Great  fire  at  Portland,  Oregon.     Loss  $1,500,000. 
"    24 — ^A  storm  of  unprecedented  severity  raged  on  the  coast  of  British 

America,  and,  at  the  same  time,  on  the  coast  of  Mexico.    More 

than  100  vessels  were  destroyed  in  and  near  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence.   Some  populous  islands  were  quite  laid  waste.     176  sailing 

vessels  and  12  steamers  were  lost  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Sept.  15 — ^The  propeller  Ironsides  foundered  in  Lake  Michigan.  31  lives  lost. 

The  Patrons  of  Husbandry  organize  about  this  time  at  the  rate  of 

near  1,000  granges  a  month. 

In  this  month  commenced  a  most  serious  financial  panic  at  New 

York,  that  spread  over  the  whole  country. 
Oct.  26 — J.  C.  Heenan,  the  prize  fighter,  died  on  the  Union  Pacific  R.  R. 
Nov.  6 — Gen.  Sickles,  U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain,  telegraphs  to  WashingtoQ 

the  capture  of  the  Virginius  by  the  Cubans. 
"      8 — Stephen  R.  Mallory,  former  Sec.  of  the  Confederate  Navy,  died, 

aged  63. 
"     19 — John  P.  Hale,  of  N.  H.,  a  statesman  of  some  celebrity,  died. 
"    23 — The  steamship  Ville  du  Havre  run  into  and  sunk  by  the  Loch 

Earn  in  mid  ocean.    226  lives  lost. 
"    'Zl — Richard  Yates,  ex-U.  S.  Senator  and  ex-Governor  of  Illinois,  died 

at  St.  Louis,  aged  55. 
Oec.  1 — ^The  43rd  Congress  assembles  for  its  first  session. 
"    14 — Louis  Agassiz,  a  distinguished  naturalist  and  man  of  science,  died 

«t  jjambridge,  Mass. 


HISTORY   OP  THE  UNITED  OTATES.  691 

1874. 
Jan.  —The  U.  S.  government  narrowly  escaped  a  war  with  Spain  on 
account  of  the  taking  of  the  Virginius  by  Cuban  authorities.  That 
vessel  was  sailing  under  the  American  flag  which  was  violated  by 
its  capture.  54  men  were  shot  as  pirates,  some  of  them  American 
citizens.  The  Spanish  government  disavowed  the  act,  and  gave 
up  the  vessel,  Dec.  16th,  1873.  It  was  so  much  damaged  as  to 
sink  while  on  the  way  to  the  United  States. 
"      2 — A  Revolution   in  Spain  overthroM^s  the   government  of   Seflor 

Castelar. 
"      5 — ^The  President  sends  a  message  to  Congress  concerning  the  Span- 
ish difllculty,  now  substantially  settled. 
**      8 — ^U.  S.  Senate  repeals  the  bill  of  March  3rd,  1873,  increasing  the  pay 

of  members  of  Congress. 
"      9 — Hon.  Caleb  Gushing  nominated  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  8.  Supreme 

Court. 
"     14 — Nomination  of  Caleb  Gushing  recalled. 
"    17 — Death  of  the  Siamese  twins. 
"    19 — Morrison  R.  Waite,  of  Ohio,  was  nominated  by  the  President  as 

Chief  Justice  and  confirmed  afterward  by  the  Senate. 
"    27 — Reliable  intelligence  of  the  death  of  David  Livingstone,  the  African 
explorer,  reaches  England. 
Feb.  4 — The  seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Grange  of  the  Patrons 
of  Husbandry  occurs  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.    8,000  subordinate  granges 
have  been  added  during  the  year.    The  Executive  Committee  state 
that  farmers  had  saved  $8,000,000  during  the  year  by  their  co-oper- 
ative system. 
Mar.  8— Ex-President  Fillmore  died,  in  BuflTalo,  N.  Y. 
*-    11 — Death  of  Hon.  Charles  Sumner,  a  distinguished  statesman  and 
Senator  from  Mass.,  in  Washington.     He  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  6th,  1811,  and  was  68  years  old.    He  was  of  a  patriotic 
race  which  originated   in  the  county  of  Kent,  England.     His 
grandfather  was  a  Major  distinguished  for  valor  in  the  Revolu- 
I  tionary  army     Charles  Sumner  graduated  from  Harvard  College 

in  1830,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  became  highly  dis- 
tinguished as  a  lawyer.  He  succeeded  Daniel  "Webster  in  the  U. 
S.  Senate  in  1851,  in  which  he  remained  till  his  death,  being 
always  conspicuous  as  one  of  the  foremost  leaders  in  public  affairs. 
"    24 — ^A  bill  increasing  the  currency  to  $400,000,000  passed  in  the  U.  S. 

House  of  Representatives  by  168  to  77. 
ipr.  1— The  U.  S.  debt  officially  stated  to  be  $2,152,690,728.62.    Decrease 

of  debt  during  March,  1874,  $2,189,338.46. 
*    14 — ^The  Senate  bill  increasing  the  currency  passes  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives.     Many  protests  from  different  parts  of  the  counfay 
are  presented  against  it  as  injurious  to  the  credit  and  interests  Qf 


692  msTORY  OF  the  united  states. 

the  country.    The  discussion  of  tliis  measure  has  occupied  mucb 

of  the  time  of  Congress  for  some  months. 
Apr.18 — ^The  funeral  of  Livingstone,  the  lamented  African  explorer,  iake» 

place  in  London,  England,  where  his  remains  had  arrived.     He 

was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey,  as  a  mark  of  distinguished 

honor. 
"     17 — Gov.  Wm.  B.  Washburn  is  elected   by  the  Mass.  Legislature  to 

represent  the  State  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  made  vacant  by  the  death 

of  Charles  Sumner. 
"    22 — President  Grant  vetoes  the  Currency  Bill  increasing  the  issues  of 

paper  money,  wliich  defeats  the  measure,  its  friends  in  Congress 

not  being  numerous  enough  to  pass  it  over  the  veto. 
"    24 — The  Congressional  committee  on  Transportation,  after  long  and 

careful   investigation,  advised  government  oversight  of  Railroads, 

but  against  government  ownersfup. 
"    28 — Congress  voted  $90,000  in  aid  of  sufferers  by  the  inundation  of 

the  lower  Mississippi. 
May  7 — $100,000  were  added  to  the  above  sum  for  the  same  purpose. 
"    19 — The  system  of  payments  to  infoi-mers  in  customs  revenue  cases, 

repealed.    That  system  appeared  to  have  been  very  grossly  abused. 
"     "     The  conflict  in  Arkansas  ended  in  the  retreat  of  Brooks  and  the 

reinstatement  of  Gov.  Baxter. 
"     "     The  New  York  Legislature  passed  a  Compulsory  Educati'on  Bill, 

which  became  a  law  in  that  state. 
June  1 — Mr.  Richardson,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  resigned.     Gen.  Benj. 

H.  Bristow  of  Ky.,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 
"     "     The  number  of  subordinate  Granges  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry 

is  19,492.    The  number  of  Patrons  who  are  voters  is  estimated  at 
.     1,000,000. 
"    23 — Congress  adjourned.    The  sums  appropriated  at  this  session  for 

carrying  on  the  government  amounted  to  $189,784,346.25.    The 

largest  item  was  for  the  Post  Office  Department  —  over  $41,000,000. 
"    24 — Postmaster-General,  John  A.  J.  Creswell  resigned,  and  Hon.  Mar- 
shall Jewell  was  appointed  in  his  place 
"    25 — Telegraphic  comrauuicution  between  the  United  States  and  Brazil 

introduced  by  congratulatory  messages  between  the  Emperor  of 

Brazil  and  the  President  of  the  U.  S. 
July  8 — Message  of  Gov.  Davis  of  Minnesota  to  the  Sec.  of  War,  announ- 
cing the  entire  destruction  of  crops  in  many  counties  of  that  state 

by  grasshoppers. 
"    14 — Another  great  fire  in  Chicago.    Loss  over  $4,000,000. 

Gen  Custer,  commanding  an  exploring  expedition  in  the  Black 

Hills  of  Dacotah,  reported  discoveries  of  rich  gold  mines  there. 
*'    37 — ^An  International  Congi-ess  for  mitigating  the  sufferings  of  war 


HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.  693 

by  means  of  an  International  Code  of  Laws,  convened  at  Brussels, 
in  Belgium. 

Aug.l9-A  riot  between  whites  and  blacks  in  Kentucky,  resulted  in  several 
murders  of  blacks.  The  Gov.  called  out  the  militia  to  restore 
order. 

Sept.  2 — 400  Mormons  sail  from  England  for  this  country  en  route  to  Utah. 
"      5— Gen.  Sherman  orders  Military  head  quarters  of  the  U.  S.  Army 

removed  from  Washington  to  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
"      5 — ^The  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  first  meeting  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  Philadelphia,  celebrated. 
*'      7 — Great  fire  at  Meiningen,  Germany.     Loss  in  buildings  alone, 

$3,000,000. 
•'    13 — Guizot,  a  celebrated  French  author  and  statesman,  died,  aged  87. 
*    14 — The  white  League,  a  secret  organization  opposed  to  the  enfran- 
chisement of  the  colored  people,  produced  a  conflict  in  New  Or- 
leans.    17  were  killed  and  32  wounded  in  a  street  fight,  and  the 
State  government  completely  overthrown. 
"    16— President  Grant  interfered  by  proclamation  and  the  government 
"     18 — was  surrendered  to  the  regular  authorities,  under  protest. 

Oct.  13 — Elections  held  in  6  states  returned  12  democratic  Congressmen 
more  than  the  previous  number. 

Nov.  3 — Elections  in  23  states  give  a  strong  democratic  gain,  indicating 
a  reaction  against  the  government.  A  sense  of  the  necessity  of 
reform  in  various  ways,  and  of  greater  purity  and  integrity  of 
administration  was  wide  spread.  It  had  caused,  in  part,  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  and  was  again  expressed  by 
political  reaction.  It  was  a  significant  rebuke  to  those  in  power. 
A  typhoon,  or  hurricane  at  Hong  Kong,  China,  Sept.  22-23,  de- 
stroyed 30,000  lives  and  $50,000,000  of  property. 
Europe  is  making  great  political  improvements.  In  France,  dur- 
ing the  last  three  years,  out  of  184  elections  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  National  Assembly,  152  have  been  republican  —  only  32  mon- 
archists, and  in  Russia  the  government  has  decided  to  enforce 
compulsory  education. 

Dec.  1 — The  number  of  Granges  in  the  United  States  is  21,472. 
»«      7 — The  last  session  of  the  jforty-third  Congress  commenced.     The 
President's  Message  strongly  recommends  early  resumption  of 
specie  payments. 

«  12 — Kalakaua,  King  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  reached  Washington 
on  a  visit.  He  was  received  by  the  President  on  the  15th  and  by 
Congress  on  the  18th. 

"  21— Disturbances  at  Vicksburg,  Miss,,  called  out  a  proclamation  from 
the  President. 

♦'  28 — Gerrit  Smith,  a  distinguished  abolitionist  and  philanthropist, 
died  in  New  York,  aged  78- 


0d4  HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

1875. 
Jan.  1 — Monarchy  was  restored  in  Spain.    Alphonso  XII,  son  of  the  ex. 
queen  Isabella,  was  proclaimed  King,  and  received  the  support 
of  the  army  and  navy.     It  was  only  a  few  months  before  that  most 
of  the  European  governments  recognized  the  Spanish  Republic. 

"  4 — Gen.  Sheridan  took  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf,  at 
New  Orleans.  On  that  day  the  Legislature  of  Louisiana  was  or- 
ganized, and  United  States  troops,  acting  under  the  orders  of  the 
speaker  and  of  Gov.  Kellogg,  ejected  several  members  who,  it  was 
alleged,  were  not  entitled  to  seats.  It  produced  much  excitement 
throughout  the  country,  the  opposition  denouncing  it  as  an  unex- 
ampled interference  of  the  Federal  Executive  with  State  govern- 
ment. Congress  sustained  the  action  of  the  President,  but  exerted 
its  influence  to  quiet  the  excitement  in  Louisiana,  and  a  compro- 
mise was  effected  under  which  it  gradually  ebbed  away. 

"    12 — Toung-tchi,  Emperor  of  China,  died,  aged  19  years. 

The  emigrants  arriving  at  the  port  of  New  York  during  the  year 
1874,  numbered  149,762;  a  decided  falling  off,  the  arrivals  having 
for  some  years,  amounted  to  250,000.  The  governments  of  Ger- 
many are  endeavoring  to  remove  the  causes  of  emigration  which 
threatens  to  affect  their  resources  seriously. 
Feb.  3 — A  proposed  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada,  was  rejected  by  the 
Senate. 

"  5 — The  civil  rights  Bill,  adopted  by  the  Senate  during  the  last  session, 
was  amended  by  an  omission  relating  to  schools  and  adopted  by 
the  House.  It  was  accepted  by  the  Senate  Feb.  27th,  and  signed 
by  the  President,  March  1st. 

"    25 — A  Republic  was  definitely  recognized  in  France. 
Mar.  2 — A  Bill  increasing  the  Tariff  was  passed  by  the  Senate. 
Gen.  Lorenzo  Thomas  of  the  U.  S.  army  died,  aged  71. 

"      3 — A  law  admitting  Colorado  as  a  state  was  passed. 

"  4 — A  law,  passed  in  haste  in  the  last  hours  of  *he  session,  restored 
the  Franking  Privilege  to  members  of  Congress  until  Dec.  1,  and 
increased  the  postage  on  newspapers  and  packages  for  the  people. 
The  forty-third  Congress  came  to  a  close. 

"  5 — The  Senate  convened  in  extra  session  in  accordance  witli  a  call 
previously  made  by  the  President.  G.  S.  Orth  was  confirmed  U. 
S.  Minister  to  Austria,  and  Horace  Maynard  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Turkey. 

*'    10 — A  new  treaty  with  Belgium  was  ratified. 

"  18 — The  Senate  jatified  the  treaty  with  Hawaii,  which  renders  the 
interests  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  substantially  identical  with 
those  of  the  United  States. 

**  20 — A  destructive  tornado  in  Georgia  caused  great  loss  of  life  and 
property. 


HIOTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  696 

Mar.84— The  Senate,  after  oflacially  approving  the  action  of  the  Pre&ident 
in  Louisana,  closed  its  special  session. 

F.  E.  Spinner,  United  States  Treasurer,  resigned,  and  John]C.  New, 
of  Ind.  was  appointed  his  successor. 
Apr.l9 — The  centennial  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Lexington  was  cele- 
brated  with  great  interest.  This  battle  was  the  first  decisive  step 
in  the  War  of  Independence.  Its  scenes  and  their  consequences 
were  dwelt  on  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished  literary  Ameri 
cans,  and  honored  by  the  presence  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  many  of  its  most  eminent  authorities. 

"  23 — Three  Steamers  burned  at  New  Orleans,  in  which  fifty  lives  were 
lost. 

"    28— A  fire  at  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  destroyed  a  square  mile  of  the  city.    Loss 

in  property  over  $2,000,000. 
May  7 — A  Bill  for  suppressing  religious  orders  introduced  into  the  Ger- 
man Parliament.    It  subsequently  became  a  law. 
The  Steamship  Schiller  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain. 
Three  hundred  and  eleven  lives  were  lost. 

"  10 — Centennial  anniversary  of  the  capture  of  Fort  Ticonderoga  by 
Ethan  Allen. 

**    15 — Attorney  General  Williams  resigned  and  Judge  Edwards  Pierre- 
pont  was  appointed  his  successor. 
17 — John  C.  Breckenridge,  formerly  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  general  in  the  Confederate  army  during  the  Civil 
War,  died,  aged  54. 

**  18 — A  fearful  earthquake  in  New  Granada,  South  America,.  The  city 
of  Cucuta  was  completely  destroyed;  between  two  and  three 
thousand  lives  were  lost  and  more  than  $8,000,000  of  property 
destroyed. 

«  20— Celebration  of  the  Mecklenburg,  N.  C,  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, with  great  enthusiasm. 

"  30— The  Steamer  Vicksburg,  on  a  voyage  from  Canada  to  England, 
was  wrecked  in  a  field  of  ice.  80  lives  were  lost. 
Jime  17— Centennial  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  cele- 
brated with  great  eclat.  Its  most  interesting  feature  was  the  fra- 
ternal  spirit  manifested  by  the  North  and  South  toward  each  other. 
Several  Southern  States  were  represented  by  bodies  of  soldiers. 

•»    30— Business  failures  since  Jan.  1,  of  this  year  reported  at  3,377,  with 
liabilities  amounting  in  all  to  $74,940,869. 
July  8— Gen.  Frank  P.  Blair,  Jun.,  died  in  St.  Louis,  aged  54. 

"  18— Lady  Franklin,  widow  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  the  unfortunate 
Arctic  Explorer,  died  in  England,  aged  70. 

Great  loss  of  life  and  property  has  been  caused  in  France  by 
floods.    In  two  cities  alone  the  damage  is  estimated  at  $20,000,000, 


696  HISTORY    OF   THE    UNriED    STATES. 

and  in  the  south  of  France  at  $75,000,000.  Other  parts  of  Europe 
have  suffered  heavily  from  the  same  cause. 

"    23 — Isaac  Merrit  Singer,  inventor  of  the  Sewing  Machine  of  that  name, 
died  in  London,  England,  aged  64. 

The  most  prominent  political  issue  of  the  time  is  hard  money 
and  currency.  A  Democratic  convention  in  Md.,  and  a  Republi- 
can convention  in  Minn.,  each,  yesterday  and  to-day,  adopted  a 
hard  monej'^  platform.  Ohio  and  Pa.  democratic  conventions 
afterwards  declared  for  paper  money. 

"    31 — Ex-President  Andrew  Johnson  died  in  Tenn.,  aged  67.     He  was 
recently  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee. 
Aug.    — The  Gov.  of  Tenn.  appointed  Hon.  D.  M.  Key,  to  fill  the  vacancy 
in  the  Senate  caused  by  Andrew  Johnson's  death. 

"      4 — Republican  government  in  France  was  strengthened  by  the  pas- 
sage of  a  Bill  constituting  a  Senate. 

The  census  of  population  in  Louisania,  gives  850,390,  an  increase 
of  over  15  per  cent,  since  1870.  The  excess  of  increase  of  colored 
over  white  population  has  been  45,668. 

The  census  in  Wisconsin  gives  a  population  of  1,236,090,  being 
an  increase  of  173ij  psr  cent,  since  1870. 

"    26 — The  Bank  of  California  suspended  payment.     It  has  long  been 
the  leading  bank  in  the  Pacific  States. 

"    27 — W.  C.  Ralston,  president  of  the  Bank  of  California,  was  drowned 

while  bathing. 
Sept.  1 — Violent  disturbances  in  Mississippi  between  whites  and  blacks 
result  in  many  deaths. 

"      7 — The  Grovernor  of  Miss,  called  on  the  President  for  federal  aid  to 
protect  citizens  and  restore  order. 

"     14 — The  President  declined  to  interfere  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  Mis- 
sissippi. 

"    16 — A  destructive  cyclone  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  threatened  to  sub- 
merge Galveston. 

Most  of  the  State  conventions  and  elections  of  this  month  urged 
a  speedy  return  to  specie  payment. 

"    30 — The  President  makes  a  speech  at  the  reunion  of  the  Army  of  the 

Tennessee,  in  Desmoines,  la.,  in  favor  of  unsectarian  free  schools. 

Hon.  Zachariah  Chandler,  appointed  Sec.  of  the  Interior  in  place 

of  Delano,  resigned. 

Oct.  30 — A  great  fire  at  Virginia  City  destroys  the  business  part  of  the 

place.    Estimated  loss  $4,000,000. 
Nov.  2 — Elections  were  held  in  9  states  resulting  in  republican  majorities 
in  many  and  republican  gains  in  those  giving  democratic  major- 
ities. 


HISTORY   OF  THE  TTNTrED    STATES.  697 

Nov.  I — T^ie  Steamship  Pacific  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  California.    Near 
?D0  lives  lost. 
"    %%-  3enry  Wilson,  Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  aged  63. 

Dec.  f  -The  fortj^-fourth  Congress  commenced  its  first  session.    Republi- 
can  majority  in  tlie  Senate  11— democratic  majority  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  63. 
*'      7 — ^The  President's  Message  urged  the  taxation,  to  some  extent,  of 
church  property — now  valued  at  1 1,000,000,000.    The  revenue  of 
the  last  fiscal  year  was  $288,000,051— the  expenses  $274,623,392. 
The  army  is  reduced  to  25,000  men.    In  the  navy  there  are  26 
iron-clads,  95  steam,  and  26  sailing  vessels. 
15 — ^The  House  adopted  a  resolution  against  a  third  Presidential  term 
of  office.    The  close  of  the  99th  year  of  the  American  Republic, 
under  circumstances  so  satisfactory  in  most  respects,  renders  the 
coming  year  one  of  great  interest. 
1876. 

Jan.  5 — Congress  reassembled  after  the  holidays. 
"     10 — A  bill  for  universal  amnesty  failed  to  pass  the  House,  lacking  a 

two-thirds  majority. 
"     14    The  Pension  Bill,  appropriating  $29,533,500,  was  passed. 
"    25 — The  Centennial  Bill  passed  by  the  House  appropriating  $1,500,000. 

Feb.  11 — The  Centennial  Bill  passed  the  Senate,  and  was  signed  on  the 
16th  by  the  President  with  a  quill  from  the  wing  of  an  American 
Eagle.  A  postal  treaty  between  the  U.  S.  and  Japan  has  been 
signed,  reducmg  letter  postage  to  5  cents.  The  death  penalty  has 
been  abolished  by  the  Legislature  of  Maine. 

Mar.  1 — ^A  Bill  recommends  all  the  counties  and  towns  in  the  country  tc 
have  their  histories  prepared  for  July  4th  and  filed  with  the  county 
clerks  and  tlie  Librarian  of  Congress. 

"     10 — The  Senate  passed  a  Bill  for  the  admission  of  New  Mexico  as  a 
State. 

Apr.  13 — The  President  signed  the  Bill  for  the  substitution  of  coin  foi 
fractional  currency.  All  efforts  for  the  repeal  of  the  Resumption 
Acts  of  last  year  have  failed. 

May  10 — The  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  was  opened 
by  President  Grant  in  a  very  appropriate  address.  The  Emperor 
of  Brazil  was  present  and  assisted  in  some  of  the  ceremonies. 
Most  of  the  high  officers  of  the  U.  S.  Government,  the  Represen- 
tatives  of  foreign  Governments,  the  members  of  the  U.  S.  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy  and 
officials  of  various  State  governments  took  part  in  the  opening 
exercises.  All  the  various  nations  of  the  civilized  world  had 
been  invited  by  our  Government  to  a  friendly  competition  with  us 
in  a  display  of  the  best  results  of  industrial,  commercial  and 


698  HISTORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

artistic  skill,  in  this  way  associating  all  other  people  in  our 
celebration  of  the  one  hundredth  birthday  of  the  Republic.  Very 
few,  out  of  the  large  family  of  nations,  failed  to  respond,  and  this 
was  the  opening  of  the  International  Exposition,  or  World's  Fair. 
We  can  compare  our  progress  in  a  single  century  with  the 
achievements  of  older  countries. 

The  time  and  thought  of  Congress  have  been  largely  occupied 
through  the  month  by  the  preparations  for  the  impeachment  of 
the  late  Secretary  of  War,  Belknap,  accused  of  selling  lucrative 
appointments.  The  Government,  Congress  and  the  Press,  have 
vied  with  each  other  in  searching  investigations  into  all  cases  of 
alleged  misconduct  in  office.  Althougli  sometimes  unreasonable, 
the  general  effect  has  been  to  improve  the  efficiency  and  purity 
of  administration.  The  Treasury  Department,  in  answer  to  a 
call  from  the  U.  S.  Senate,  recently  presented  a  statement  showing 
the  losses  to  the  government  by  theft,  fraud  and  defalcation  in 
each  administration  for  the  last  fortj'  years.  The  number  of 
dollars  so  lost  on  each  thousand  of  public  treasure  in  President 
Jackson's  last  term,  were  $11.18;  in  President  Van  Buren's  term, 
were  $26.19;  in  President  Harrison  and  Tyler's  term,  were  $14.49; 
in  President  Polk's  term,  were  $10.35;  in  President  Taylor  and 
Fillmore's  term,  were  $8.96;  in  President  Pierce's  term,  were 
6.94;  in  President  Buchanan's  term,  were  $8.77;  in  President 
Lincoln's  first  term,  were  $2.07 ;  in  President  Lincoln  and  John- 
son's term,  were  $1.86;  in  President  Grant's  first  term,  were  $1.59; 
in  President  Grant's  second  term  to  the  present,  were  $1.01.  The 
income  of  the  Government  in  1836  was  $33,000,000,  in  1876 
$288,000,000.  A  much  larger  number  of  persons  must  be  em- 
ployed in  handling  it,  and  much  larger  sums  are  handled  in  each 
branch  of  the  service.  While  the  revenue  has  increased  more 
than  5  times  the  losses  on  equal  sums  have  diminished  more  than 
10  times.  We  have,  then,  a  more  perfect  organization  and  more 
trusty  officials.  It  is  a  cheering  and  hopeful  sign  for  the  future. 
May  80 — Abdul-Aziz,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew, 

Murad  Effendi,  was  proclaimed  Sultan. 
June  4 — The  dethroned  Sultan  committed  suicide. 

"  16 — The  National  Republican  Convention,  assembled  at  Cincinnati,  O., 
nominated  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  as  its  candidate  for 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  Wm.  A.  Wheeler,  of  N.  T., 
for  Vice-President. 

"  17 — B.  H.  Bristow  resigned  his  seat  in  the  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 

•^20 — The  President  announced,  by  special  message  to  Congress,  the 
termination  of  the  Extradition  Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  by  the 
refusal  of  that  Government  to  give  up  certain  criminals  claimed 
under  it  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 


HISTOKY   OF    THE   UNITED   STATES.  699 

"  35 — Gen.  Custer  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Sioux  Indians  on  the 
Little  Big  Horn  river,  Idaho,  together  with  his  whole  command 
of  U.  S.  Troops,  nearly  300  in  number. 

"  27 — ^The  National  Democratic  Convention  assembled  in  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

"  28— Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  N.  Y.,  was  nominated  as  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  President  of  the  United  States. 

"  29 — Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana,  was  nominated  as  the  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  Vice-President. 

The  Centennial  year  was  greeted  at  midnight,  Jan.  1st,  with 
unusual  rejoicing  and  display  in  most  of  the  cities,  and  particu- 
larly at  Philadelphia,  in  and  near  Independence  Hall,  where 
was  assembled  the  Congress  of  1776.  Local  celebrations  of 
important  events  of  that  year  were  held  from  time  to  time ;  but 
the  great  event  of  the  year  was  the  celebration  of  the  Declaration 
July  4— of  Independence,  July  4th. 

All  part  of  the  country  celebrated  the  memory  of  the  day  on 
which  its  liberties  were  officially  proclaimed  with  extreme  enthu- 
siasm. In  many  cases  several  days  were  devoted  to  these 
rejoicings.  It  was  designed  to  be  the  Great  Day  of  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition,  where  the  progress  of  the  country  during  its 
century  of  existence  was  shown  by  the  best  specimens  of  its 
various  industries  and  arts,  made  more  interesting  by  correspond- 
ing exhibitions  of  the  skill  of  other,  and,  in  most  cases,  older 
lands.  It  was  a  fine  picture  of  great  achievement.  Illuminations, 
processions,  orations  and  poems  vied  with  each  other  in  the  effort 
to  give  full  and  fitting  expression  to  the  exulting  pride  and  patri- 
otism of  the  people. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence,  proclaiming  the  freedom  and 
political  equality  of  all  men,  was  made  by  a  people  worthy 
of  freedom.  It  was  then  an  abstract  truth,  and  was  to  be 
an  experiment.  In  no  great  nation  had  all  its  citizens  ever  been 
free  and  politically  equal.  The  Independence  was  secured  by  a 
long  and  bloody  war,  the  Freedom  was  expressed  in  the  Constitu- 
tion and  Laws  of  the  Land,  and  has  been  gradually  embodied  in 
the  Institutions  and  habits  of  the  people  as  the  century  rolled 
away.  The  Idea  has  been  constantly  assuming  Form  and  controll- 
ing Law  and  Administration  ever  more  perfectly. 
To  be  perfectly  free  men  must  be  completely  wise  in  tliought  and 
conduct;  but  a  very  high  degree  of  relative  freedom  has  been 
reached,  and  it  will  be  comparatively  easy  to  advance.  Freedom 
has  advanced  during  the  century  by  successive  steps.  The  War 
of  the  Revolution  secured  the  freedom  of  the  country ;  the  second 
war  with  Great  Britain  and  the  war  with  Algiers,  the  freedom  of 
the  seas ;  acquisitions  of  territory  have  secured  an  unembarrassed 
development  of  the  whole  country;   educationa*  f-cilities  *re 


Too  HISTORY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATEa 

1876.  begining  to  be  equal  to  the  proper  instruction  of  all  the  people-, 
and  the  civil  war  has,  let  us  hope,  improved  the  chances  of  true 
national  harmony.  It  may  now  be  said  truly  that  we  can  grow, 
naturally,  out  of  the  wrong  into  the  right  in  all  directions.  We  have 
good  reason  to  be  cheerfully  and  proudly  patriotic,  and  what  is  yet 
wanting  will  come  without  destructive  commotion.  At  least  we 
have  fair  reason  for  believing  so. 

The  material  progress  of  the  country  has  been  very  great.  Steam, 
electricity,  the  invention  of  labor  saving  machinery,  the  prosperity 
of  other  nations  (giving  us  profitable  markets),  the  immigration 
of  nearly  8  millions  from  the  Old  World  (many  of  them  with 
means,  to  aid  in  the  development  of  our  wild  lands,  mines  and 
industries),  the  rapid  progress  of  science  and  the  improvement  of 
educational  facilities  for  rendering  labor  intelligent  and  fruitful — 
all  these  and  many  other  favorable  circumstances  have  crowned 
with  a  grand  success  the  First  Century  of  the  experimental 
Republic,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Declaration  is  beginning  to 
be  the  Faith  of  the  World. 

July  5 — ^The  U.  S.  Senate  unanimously  passed  a  bill  granting  Capt. 
Moreno  the  right  to  lay  and  work  a  sub-marine  cable  across  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  already  in  operation  more  than  50,000 
miles  of  sub-marine  telegraphic  cable  in  dififerent  parts  of  the 
world'. 
"  7 — Senator  L.  M.  Morrill,  of  Maine,  took  his  seat  in  the  Cabinet  a& 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Jas.  G.  Blaine  was  appointed  Senator 
in  his  place. 
"  12 — James  M.  Tyner,  of  Ind.,  was  confirmed  Postmaster-General,  in 
place  of  Marshall  Jewell,  resigned. 

A  violent  war  is  raging  in  European  Turkey  between  that  country 
and  some  of  its  Christian  provinces  which  have  revolted.    There 
is  danger  of  its  involving  many  other  powers  in  a  general  war. 
"  26 — A.  T.  Caperton,  U.  S.  Senator  from  West  Virginia,  died. 

Aug.  1 — The  President  proclaimed  Colorado  a  State  in  the  Union  Gen. 
Belknap,  late  Secretary  of  War,  impeached  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, was  acquitted  by  the  Senate,  25  voting  for  non-conviction 
and  36  for  conviction — not  the  necessary  two-thirds. 

Aug.  19 — M.  C.  Kerr,  Speaker  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives,  died. 
"    81 — Murad  Effendi,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  was  deposed,  and  Abdul  Hamid, 
his  brother,  was  proclaimed  in  his  place.    There  hars  been  three 
Saltans  in  as  many  months. 

Sept  3 — Braxton  F.  Bragg,  ex-Confederate  General,  aged  61,  died. 

Oct  3 — State  election  in  Colorado. 
**    10— State  elections  in  Ohio,  Indiana  and  West  Virginia  indicate  t 

close  presidential  contest. 
**   17 — President  Grant  issues  a  proclamation  commanding  the  rifle  com* 
panics  in  South  Carolina  to  disperse  in  three  days. 

Kor.  7 — ^The  twenty-third  presidential  election  is  held,  and  the  result  left 
doubtful  for  many  months,  both  parties  claiming  success.    Qow. 


HISTORY   or   THE    UNITED   ffTATKS.  701 

Tilden  has,  evidently,  184  electoral  votes  — 185  being  necessary  to 
an  election.  Gov.  Hayes  has  178.  Florida,  with  four  votes,  %ni 
Louisiana,  with  eight,  are  uncertain. 
Oto.  4— The  second  session  of  the  forty-fourth  Congress  is  opened.  8.  J 
Randall  is  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  reports  the  public  debt  reduced,  between  August  Slst, 
1866,  and  June  30th,  1876,  by  $656,992,226.44.  Exports  during  the 
year  ending  June  80th,  1876,  exceeded  imports  by  $79,68  i.  tdl,  gold. 

*  6— Electoral  votes  are  cast  in  all  the  electoral  colleges.    Representative 

men  from  each  party  had  been  present  to  see  that  a  fair  count  wag 
made  at  the  canvass  of  the  returns  in  Florida  and  Louisiana  by 
returning  boards,  organized  under  the  laws  of  those  States.  Those 
boards  were  Republican,  and  discredited  some  of  the  returns  for 
alleged  violence  and  intimidation,  giving  those  States  to  Hayes, 
and  securing  his  election.  The  Democrats  maintained  that  such 
a  result  could  only  be  reached  by  fi-aud,  and  their  electors  cast  the 
votes  of  those  States  for  Tilden,  making  thus  two  returns  from 
which  Congress  must  choose. 

1877. 
Jm^  1— Queen  Victoria  is  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  at  Delhi. 
•*   18 — Most  of  the  time  and  thought  of  Congress  has  been  occupied  in 
devising  means  to  settle  the  disputed  election.    On  this  day  a  joint 
committee  reported  a  compromise  bill  for  securing  that  end. 

•  25 — The  compromise  law  is  passed  by  both  Houses  —  47  yeas  to  17 

nays  in  the  Senate,  and  191  yeas  to  86  nays  in  the  House.  The 
majority  in  the  Senate  was  Republican,  and  in  the  House  Demo- 
cratic, making  a  dead  lock  unavoidable  but  for  a  compromise 
which  was  secured  by  the  law.  It  organized  an  electoral  com- 
mission of  five  Senators,  five  Representatives,  and  five  Judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  to  which  the  contested  points  were  to  be  sub- 
mitted. Their  decision  was  to  be  final,  unless  the  two  Houses 
agreed  to  order  otherwise.  Eight  members,  when  selected,  proved 
to  be  Republicans,  and  seven  Democrats.  The  Republican  majority 
of  the  commission  decided  that  a  re-examination  of  the  State 
returns  by  federal  authorities  would  trespass  on  State  independ- 
ence ;  the  Democratic  minority  held  that  elections  of  the  Federal 
Executive  were  a  proper  subject  of  investigation  by  the  Federal 
Congress.  The  decision  was  made  by  the  commission  on  party 
lines,  and  gave  the  disputed  States  to  the  Republicans  by  eight 
votes  over  seven.  The  two  Houses  could  not  agree  to  change  that 
decision,  and,  by  the  compromise  law,  it  was  so  recorded,  to  the 
dissatisfaction  of  the  Democrats,  who  believed  that  investigation 
would  establish  the  fact  of  fraudulent  or  illegal  action  by  the 
returning  boards,  and  give  the  presidential  office  to  their  candidate. 
Returns  by  two  electoral  colleges  were  also  made  from  Oregon  ana 
South  Carolina,  on  technical  grounds,  which  were  decided  by  the 
•lectoral  tribunal  in  favor  of  the  Republican  colleges. 


702  HISTORY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

1877. 
Feb.  21 — The  President  proclaims  the  ratification  of  an  extradition  treaty 

with  Spain. 
Mar.  1 — The  statement  of  tlie  public  debt  made  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  declares  that  the  decrease  of  the  debt  since  June  30, 1876, 
had  been  $10,658,201 ;  making  the  whole  decrease  since  the  close 
of  the  war  |667.650,437. 
"    2 — ^The  count  of  the  electoral  vote  by  the  two  Houses  of  Congress  is- 
concluded.     Rutherford  B.  Hayes  is  found  elected  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  "William  A.  Wheeler  Vice-President. 
"    4 — ^The  Forty-fourth  Congress  comes  to  a  close. 

"    5 — Hayes   is  quietly   inaugurated    President    in  Washington.    Thfe 
Democratic  party  has  given  proof  of  moderation  and  putrioti-sm 
in  submitting  to  a  decision  they  deemed  inconclusive,  and  which 
deprived  them  of  victory  at  the  moment  of  seeming  success. 
"  22 — It  is  decided,  by  the  new  administration,  that  the  Southern  States 
are  now  so  fully  reconstructed  that  Federal  interference  is  no 
longer  necessary;  that  the  harmony  of  the  sections,  and  even  the 
welfare  of  the  Freedmen  will  be  promoted  by  confining  the  action 
of  the  General  Government  to  its  ordinaiy  sphere.    This  is  called 
the  President's  "  Southern  Policy."     South  Carolina  and  Louisiana 
have  each  two  Governors  claiming  legal  election ;  the  Republican 
Governors,  in  each,  being  upheld  in  nominal  authority  by  United 
States  troops.    At  a  Cabinet  meeting  this  day,  it  is  decided  to 
invite  Governors  Hampton  (Democrat)  and  Chamberlain  (Repub- 
lican), of  South  Carolina,  to  visit  and  confer  with  the  Government 
at  Washington. 
Apr.  10 — The  result  is  the  withdrawal  of  the  United  States  troops  from  the 
South  Carolina  State  House,  the  retirement  of  Chamberlain,  and 
the  recognition  of  Hampton  as  Governor  without  disturbance. 
"  20 — A  commission,  appointed  by  the  President,  arranged  the  contest 
in  Louisiana  between  two  rival  Legislatures;  the  troops  which  had 
sustained  Packard  (Republican)  were  withdrawn;  and  the  Demo- 
cratic administration,  with  Nichols  as  Governor,  was  recognized- 
"  24 — Russia  declares  war  against  Turkey. 
May  16 — Marshal  McMahon,  President  of  France,  refuses  to  permit  his 
government  to  be  controlled  in  its  policy  by  the  majority  of  the 
Representatives  of  the  nation,  and  reconstructs  his  cabinet  to  suit 
his  own  views;  a  month  later  dissolving  the  Assembly,  by  the 
consent  of  the  Senate,  and  ordering  new  elections. 
June  15 — About  this  time  an  Indian  war  commences  in  Idaho,  under  the 
leadership   of  Chief  Joseph,   by  the  massacre   of  some  twenty 
settlers.     Gen.  O.  O.  Howard  defeated  the  Indians  in  battle,  and, 
after  a  long  chase,  captured  them,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war 
(September  5th), 


HISTORY    OF   THE   UNTfED    STATES.  703 

1877. 

June  22 — President  Hayes  issues  a  circular  to  oflace-lioklers  under  the  United 
States  Government,  forbidding  them  to  take  part  in  the  manage- 
ment of  political  organizations,  or  to  make,  or  pay,  assessments  for 
political  purposes. 

The  Iowa  Republican  Convention  protests  against  the  President's 
Soutliern  policy. 

July  5 — On  the  other  hand,  proceedings  are  instituted  against  the  Louisiana 
Returning  Board,  wliich  had  secured  that  State  for  Hayes  in  the 
Presidential  election. 
"  16 — A  strike  of  railroad  employes  commences  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad,  and  soon  spreads  to  most  of  the  roads  in  the 
Northern  States ;  the  strikers  taking  energetic  measures  to  inter- 
rupt railroad  traffic  till  their  demands  should  be  complied  with. 
They  refused  to  accept  a  reduction  of  wages,  generally  determined 
on  by  most  of  the  railroad  companies. 
"  19 — ^Troops  are  called  out  to  suppress  the  unlawful  obstruction  of 
business.  Riots  in  Baltimore  and  Pittsburgh  are  especially  bloody 
and  destructive  to  property,  and  disorders  occur  at  numerous 
points,  the  destruction  of  property  being  due  to  the  criminal 
classes  rather  than  railroad  employes.  The  interruption  to  busi- 
ness lasted  nearly  two  weeks,  and  was  ended  partly  by  conciliatory 
measures  of  railroad  officers  and  partly  by  the  submission  of  the 
strikers. 

A-Ug.  29 — Brigham  Young,  the  Mormon  leader,  died  at  Salt  Lake  City,  TJtah, 
aged  seventy-six. 

Sept.  5 — The  ex-President  of  the  French  Republic,  Louis  Adolph  Thiers,  a 
wise  and  emiuenl  stiiiesuian,  died,  aged  eighty. 
"   20 — Senator  L.  V.  Bogy,  of  Missouri,  died,  aged  sixty-four. 

Oct.  15 — An  extra  session  of  the  Forty-fifth   Congress  commences     The 
special  necessity  for  it  was  to  make  appropriations  for  the  support 
of  the  army,  which  had  not  been  made  at  the  usual  time. 
The  elections  in  France,  of  the   14th,  result  against   President 
McMahon,  and  in  favor  of  parliamentary  and  popular  government. 

iq^ov.  1 — Hon.  Oliver  P.  Morton,  a  distinguished  statesman  and  United 
States  Senator  from  Indiana,  dies,  aged  fifty-four.  He  was  born 
in  Wayne  County,  Indiana,  in  1823,  graduated  at  Miami  University, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847 ;  was  elected  Circuit  Judge  in 
1852.  He  took  part  in  organizing  the  Republican  party;  became 
Lieutenant  Governor  of  Indiana  in  1860;  was  acting  Governor 
from  1861-4,  when  returned  to  the  office  by  election ;  and  repre- 
sented his  State  in  the  United  States  Senate  from  1867  to  his  death. 
He  was  a  natural  leader  of  men,  and  respected,  even  by  his 
opponents,  as  an  able  and  upright  statesman. 

Dec.  3— The  extra  session  of  the  Forty-fifth  Congress  terminates,  and  the 
first  regular  session  commences. 


TO  J:  HISTORY    OF  *!!«    UNITED    STATES. 

1877. 
Dec.  10 — The  Russians  capture  Plevna  —  an  event  decisive  of  the  war  in 
their  favor. 
"  13 — President  McMahon  submits  to  his  defeat,  and  forms  a  cabinet 
acceptable  to  the  majority  of  the  French  Assembly.    It  is  one  of 
the  most  significant  events  of   the  century,   as  indicating    the 
progress  of  popular  government  in  Europe. 
1878. 
Jan.  9 — Victor  Emanuel,  King  of  Italy,  during  whose  reign  Italian  unity 

was  effected,  dies.    His  son,  Prince  Humbert,  succeeds  him. 
Feb.  7 — Pope  Pius  IX.  dies,  aged  eighty-five ;  succeeded  February  30th  by 
Cardinal  Pecci,  styled  Leo  XIII. 
"  20 — ^An  amendment  to  a  post-office  bill  revives  the  franking  privilege 

for  members  of  Congress. 
"  28 — ^A  bill  remonetizing  silver,  making  the  old  silver  dollar  of  412)^ 
grains  a  legal  tender,  becomes  a  law  by  its  passage  over  the  veto 
of  the  President  in  both  Houses  of  Congress. 
Mar.  3 — Peace  is  signed  between  Russia  and  Turkey. 
"  18 — ^The  Louisiana  court    before  which  General  Anderson,   of  the 
Returning  Board,  was  tried,  had  sentenced  him  to  two  years  in  the 
penitentiary.    The    Supreme   Court   of   the    State  overrules  the 
decision,  and  orders  his  release. 
Apr.  1 — Since  July,  1877,  the  public  debt  has  been  reduced  more  than 
twenty  million  dollars,  in  spite  of  financial  trouble. 
The  most  noteworthy  fact  of  the  month  has  been  the  success  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  preparing  for  formal  resump- 
tion of  specie  payments  by  the  Government ;  the  nominal  differ- 
ence between  the  value  of   greenbacks  and    gold,   and  actual 
resumption  by  many  banks  and  business  houses. 
May  1 — ^The  national  debt  was  reduced  $3,015,865. 

The  International  Exposition  of  France  is  formally  opened  by 
President  McMahon,  a  vast  concourse  of  people  being  present. 
Sitting  Bull,  the  Sioux  chief,  proposes  to  make  peace. 
*    **    Congress  is  in  session  during  this  month,  and  produces  lome  im* 
portant  legislation,  among  which  is  the  repeal  of  the  Bankrupt 
law,  from  September  1st,  voting  the  payment  to  England  of  the 
Halifax  Fisheries  Award,  ($5,500,000,)  and  measures  to  prevent 
further  contraction  of  the  currency.! 
June  12 — William  Cullen  Bryant,  a  distinguished  American  poet,  dies, 
aged  83. 
"   20 — The  second  session  of  the  Forty-fifth  Congress  comes  to  a  close. 
The  first  session  commenced^  in  December,  1877 ;  the  second,  in 
March,  1878. 
July  9 — A  "  heated  term ''  of  unusual  severity  commences,  during  which 
hundreds  of  deaths  by  sunstroke  occur. 


HISTOBY    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  706 

Aug.  —The  Yellow  Fever  commences  with  great  fatality  in  Memphis,  New 
Orleans  and  other  parts  of  the  South,  mostly  near  the  Mississippi 
River,  causing  a  general  suspension  of  business  in  those  regions. 
All  parts  of  the  country,  and  especially  large  northern  cities,  sup- 
ply  the  sick  and  suflfering  with  many  hundred  thousand  dollars  in 
money. 

Great  political  activity,  and  an  attempt  to  build  up  new  political 
parties  have  characterized  the  spring  and  summer. 

Sept  3 — The  State  election  occurs  in  Vermont,  followed 
"     9— by  that  of  Maine. 

Oct  8 — Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa  and  West  Virginia  hold  State  elections. 

Not.  5 — ^Thirty-one  States  hold  elections  for  State  officers  and  Representa 
tives  to  the  Forty-sixth  Congress.  There  is  a  considerable  reaction 
in  favor  of  the  Republicans  on  the  whole,  although  the  Democrats 
will  have  a  small  majority  in  both  Houses  of  the  Forty-sixth  CJon- 
gress.  New  parties  show  less  strength  than  was  expected,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  success  of  preparations  by  the  U.  8.  (Government  to 
resume  specie  payments  in  January  coming.] 

Dec.  2 — The  third  session  of  the  Forty-fifth  Congress  commences.    The 
Public  Debt,  less  cash  in  the  Treasury,  Dec.  Ist,  was  $2,027,414,825. 
**  17 — Gold  was  sold  at  par  in  New  York  for  the  first  time  in  nearly  sev 
enteen  years. 

1879. 

Jan.  1 — Resumption  by  the  U.  S.  Treasury  becomes  an  accomplished  fact 
Railways  have  been  built  in  the  last  year  to  the  extent  of  2,688 
miles,  making  the  total  miles  in  the  U.  S.  81,896.  Iron  has  been 
produced  in  the  country  during  the  year  to  the  amount  of  4,154,000 
tons,  about  one-fourth  the  production  of  the  world.  The  mining 
of  precious  metals  for  the  year  gives  a  value  of  about  $84,000,000; 
the  crops  raised  by  the  farmers  were  the  largest  in  our  history, 
The  exports  of  merchandise  for  the  year  was  about  $100,000,000 
more  than  in  the  previous,  or  any  other  year,  in  our  history. 

Mar.  4 — The  Forty-fifth  Congress  comes  to  an  end  with  its  work  incom* 
plete.  The  President,  by  proclamation,  calls  together  the  Forty- 
sixth  Congress  in  extra  session  for  March  18th. 


■M- 


70  ()  PABLIAMENTABT    BULBS. 


CHAPTEK    XXX. 

PAELIAMENTAKY   KULES. 

We  give  in  this  chapter  the  Standing  Rules  and  Orders  for  conducting 
business  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States,  as  a  proper 
compend  of  parliamentary  rules  for  the  people  of  the  United  States.  They 
are  naturally  a  standard  of  procedure  in  all  public  bodies  in  this  country 
so  far  as  the  circumstances  are  parallel ;  they  have  been  carefully  compiled 
and  adopted  by  our  highest  popular  Legislative  Body  during  the  course  of 
more  than  three-quarters  of  a  century,  and  may  therefore  be  considered 
thoroughly  well  adapted  to  the  genius  of  our  people  and  the  character  of 
our  institutions ;  and  they  were  originally  based  on  Jefferson's  Manual, 
compiled  by  him  for  the  use,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Senate  when,  as 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  he  became  its  presiding  oflBcer,  and 
was  digested  by  him  from  the  usages  of  the  English  Parliament  and  other 
Legislative  bodies  in  Europe. 

The  value  of  this  manual  is  attested  by  its  use  continued  to  the  present 
day,  so  far  as  it  is  applicable.  The  Rules  of  the  House  are  therefore  rep- 
resentative of  the  wisdom  of  the  Old  AV'orld  on  this  point  as  well  as  of  the 
usages  of  the  New. 

They  deserve  to  be  carefully  studied  by  American  citizens  above  any 
other  body  of  parliamentary  rules  for  several  reasons  besides  those  men- 
tioned above.  Hardly  any  other  will  be  likely  to  contain  so  many  points 
of  adaptation  to  popular  use;  every  one  should  be  fairly  acquainted  with 
the  prevailing  usages  that  he  may  be  ready  to  act  his  part  well  if  called  on 
to  preside  in  any  public  meeting;  all  who  read  the  reports  of  congressional 
doings  require  such  acquaintance  with  parliamentary  usage  to  fully  appre- 
ciate many  points  in  such  reports,  and  these  Rules  are  a  fine  illustration  of 
the  spirit  of  our  government  and  the  genius  of  the  American  people. 


PARLIAMENTARY    EULE8.  707 

"We  ncQ,  in  the  most  impressive  manner,  tliat  tlie  utmost  pains  is  taken  to 
make  Legislative  work  orderly,  decorous,  and  as  rapid  as  is  consistent  with 
due  care  that  what  is  done  shall  be  well  and  carefully  done ;  that  no  pains 
are  spared,  in  regulations,  that  every  legislator  shall  have  the  means  of  know- 
ing all  that  is  his  special  business  to  know ;  and  we  discover  that  proper  care 
is  taken  to  see  that  economy  and  faithfulness  are  constantly  observed  by  all 
the  officers  of  the  government.  If  this  is  not  always  actually  the  case  there 
is,  at  least,  no  fault  in  the  arrangements,  rules  and  orders  to  that  efiect.  All 
the  people  should  know  to  what  they  may  properly  hold  their  Repre- 
sentatives accountable,  and  they  will  be  prepared  to  judge  of  the  extent 
of  obedience  or  transgression.  The  Rules  are  just  and  good.  Let  the 
people  see  that  they  are  properly  observed. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  160  Rules,  the  Senate  52,  and  the 
Joint  Rules  of  the  House  and  Senate,  regulating  their  intercourse  with 
each  other,  number  32.  Whatever  of  difference  exists  between  them  is 
unimportant  after  due  allowance  is  made  for  the  different  character  and 
constitution  of  the  two  bodies.  The  principles  on  which  they  are  founded 
are  identical. 

STANDING  RULES  AND  ORDERS  FOR  CONDUCTING  BUSINESS 

IN  THE   HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES  OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE   DUTY   OF   THE   SPEAKER. 

1.  He  shall  take  the  chair  every  day  precisely  at  the  hour  to  which  the 
House  shall  have  adjourned  on  the  preceding  day ;  shall  immediately  call 
the  members  to  order ;  and,  on  the  appearance  of  a  quorum,  shall  cause 
the  journal  of  the  preceding  day  to  be  read. 

2.  He  shall  preserve  order  and  decorum ;  may  speak  to  points  of  order 
In  preference  to  other  members,  rising  from  his  seat  for  that  purpose;  and 
shall  decide  questions  of  order,  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  House  by  any 
two  members — on  which  appeal  no  member  shall  speak  more  than  once, 
tinless  by  leave  of  the  House. 

3.  He  shall  rise  to  put  a  question,  but  may  state  it  sitting. 

4.  Questions  shall  be  distinctly  put  in  this  form,  to  wit:  "As  many  as 
are  of  opinion  that  (as  the  question  may  be)  say  Aye;''  and  aftei  the 
afflmative  voice  is  expressed,  "  As  many  as  are  of  the  contrary  opinion 
say  No."  If  the  Speaker  doubt,  or  a  division  be  called  for,  the  House 
shall  divide;  those  in  the  affirmative  of  the  question  shall  first  rise  from 
their  seats,  and  afterwards  those  in  the  negative.  If  the  Speaker  still 
doubt,  or  a  count  be  required  by  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  quorum  of  the 
members,  the  Speaker  shall  name  two  members,  one  from  each  side,  to  tell 
.the  members  in  the  affirmative  and  negative  — which  being  reported,  he 
shall  rise  and  state  the  decision  to  the  House. 

6.    The  Speaker  shall  examine  and  correct  the  journal  before  it  ia  read. 


708  PARLIAMENTAKY   RULES. 

He  shall  have  a  general  direction  of  the  hall,  and  the  unappropriated 
rooms  in  that  part  of  the  capitol  assigned  to  the  House  shall  be  subject  to 
his  order  and  disposal  until  the  further  order  of  the  House.  He  shall  have 
a  right  to  name  any  member  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  chair,  but  such 
substitution  shall  not  extend  beyond  an  adjournment. 

6.  No  person  shall  be  permitted  to  perform  divine  service  in  the  cham- 
ber occupied  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  unless  with  the  consent  of 
the  Speaker. 

7.  In  all  cases  of  ballot  by  the  House,  the  Speaker  shall  vote ;  in  other 
cases  he  shall  not  be  required  to  vote,  unless  the  House  be  equally  divided, 
or  unless  his  vote,  if  given  to  the  minority,  r/ill  make  the  division  equal ; 
and  in  case  of  such  equal  division,  the  question  shall  be  lost. 

8.  All  acts,  addresses,  and  joint  resolutions,  shall  be  signed  by  the 
Speaker ;  and  all  writs,  warrants,  and  subpoenas,  issued  by  order  of  the 
House,  shall  be  under  his  hand  and  seal,  attested  by  the  clerk. 

9.  In  case  of  any  disturbance  or  disorderly  conduct  in  the  galleries  or 
lobby,  the  Speaker  (or  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,) 
shall  have  power  to  order  the  same  to  be  cleared. 

OF   THE   CLEKK   AND    OTHER    OFFICERS. 

10.  There  shall  be  elected  at  the  commencement  of  each  Congress,  to 
continue  in  office  until  their  successors  are  appointed,  a  clerk,  sergeant-at- 
arms,  doorkeeper,  and  postmaster,  each  of  whom  shall  take  an  oath  for  the 
true  and  faithful  discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  office,  to  the  best  of  his 
knovdcdgc  and  abilities,  and  to  keep  the  secrets  of  the  House ;  and  the 
appointees  of  the  doorkeeper  and  postmaster  shall  be  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Speaker ;  and,  in  all  cases  of  election  by  the  House  of  its 
officers,  the  vote  shall  be  taken  viva  voce. 

11.  In  all  cases  where  other  than  members  of  the  House  may  be  eligi- 
ble to  an  office  by  the  election  of  the  House,  there  shall  be  a  previous 
nomination. 

13.  In  all  other  cases  of  ballot  than  for  committees,  a  majority  of  the 
votes  given  shall  be  necessary  to  an  election ;  and  where  there  shall  not  be 
such  a  majority  on  the  first  ballot,  the  ballots  shall  be  repeated  until  a 
majority  be  obtained.  And  in  all  ballotings  blanks  shall  be  rejected,  and 
not  taken  into  the  count  in  enumeration  of  the  votes,  or  reported  by  the 
tellers. 

13.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  to  make  and  cause  to  be  printed 
and  delivered  to  each  member  at  the  commencement  of  every  session  of 
Congress,  a  list  of  the  reports  which  it  is  the  duty  of  any  officer  or  depart- 
ment of  the  government  to  make  to  Congress ;  referring  to  the  act  n-  reso- 
lution and  page  of  the  volume  of  the  laws  or  journal  in  which  5+  may  be 
contained,  and  placing  under  the  name  of  each  officer  the  list  of  reports 
required  to  be  made,  and  the  time  when  the  report  nay  be  expected. 

14.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  clerk  of  the  House  at  the  end  of  each 


PARUAMENTAET   RULES. 


709 


session,  to  send  a  printed  copy  of  the  journals  thereof  to  the  Executive^ 
and  to  each  branch  of  the  Legislature  of  every  State. 

15.  All  questions  of  order  shall  be  noted  by  the  clerk,  with  the  decision, 
and  put  together  at  the  end  of  the  journal  of  every  session. 

16.  The  r'  ■•k  shall,  within  thirty  days  after  the  close  of  each  session  of 
Congress,  cause  to  be  completed  the  printing  and  primary  distribution  to 
members  and  delegates,  of  the  Journal  of  the  House,  together  with  an 
accurate  index  of  the  same. 

17.  There  shall  be  retained  in  the  library  of  the  clerk's  office,  for  the 
use  of  the  members  there,  and  not  to  be  withdrawn  therefrom,  two  copies 
of  all  the  books  and  printed  documents  deposited  in  the  library. 

18.  The  clerk  shall  have  preserved  i-  each  member  of  the  House  an 
extra  copy,  in  good  binding,  of  all  the  documents  printed  by  order  of 
either  House  .     ;ach  future  session  of  Congress. 

19.  The  clerk  shall  nv  ke  a  weekly  statement  of  the  resolutions  and 
bills  (Senate  ')ills  inclusi\>.;  upon  the  Speakc  r's  table  accompanied  with  a 
brief  reference  to  the  orders  and  proceedings  of  th^j  House  upon  each,  and 
the  (late  of  such  order  and  proceedings;  which  statement  shall  be  printed 
for  the  use  of  the  members. 

20.  The  clerk  shall  cause  an  index  to  be  prepared  to  the  acts  passed  at 
every  session  of  Congress,  and  to  be  printed  and  bound  with  the  acts. 

21.  All  contracts,  bargains,  or  agreements,  relative  to  the  furnishing 
any  matter  or  thing  or  for  the  performance  of  any  labor  for  the  House  of 
Representatives,  shall  be  made  with  the  clerk,  or  approved  by  him,  before 
any  allowances  shall  be  made  therefor  by  the  Committee  of  Accounts. 

22.  It  shall  be  the  cluty  of  the  sergeant-at-arms  to  attend  the  House  dur- 
ing its  sittings;  to  aid  in  the  enforcement  of  order  under  the  direction  of 
the  Speaker;  to  execute  the  commands  of  the  House  from  time  to  time; 
together  with  all  such  process,  issued  by  authority  thereof,  as  shall  be 
Jirected  to  him  by  the  Speaker. 

33.  The  symbol  of  his  office  (the  mace)  shall  be  borne  by  the  sergeant- 
»t-arms  when  in  the  execution  of  his  office. 

24.  The  fees  of  the  sergeant-at-arms  shall  be  for  every  arrest,  the  sum  of 
two  dollars ;  for  each  day's  custody  and  releasement,  one  dollar ;  and  for 
traveling  expenses  for  himself  or  a  special  messenger,  going  and  returning. 
»ne-tenth  of  a  dollar  for  each  mile  necessarily  and  actuality  traveled  by 
euch  officer  or  other  person  in  the  execution  of  such  precept  or  summons. 

25.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  sergeant-at-arms  to  keep  the  accounts  for 
the  pay  and  mileage  of  members,  to  prepare  checks,  and,  if  required  to  do 
so,  to  draw  the  money  on  such  checks  for  the  members,  (the  same  being 
previously  signed  by  the  Speaker,  and  endorsed  by  the  member,)  and  pay 
over  the  same  to  the  member  entitled  thereto. 

26.  The  sergeant-at-arms  shall  give  bonu,  with  surety,  to  the  United 
otates,  in  a  sum  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars,  at 
the  discretion    ""  the  Speaker,  and  with  such  surety  as  the  Speaker  may 


JIQ  PARLIAMENTARY   RULES. 

approve,  faithfully  to  account  for  the  money  coming  into  his  hands  for 
the  pay  of  members. 

27.  The  doorkeeper  shall  execute  strictly  the  134th  and  135th  rules, 
relative  to  the  privilege  of  the  hall.  And  he  shall  be  required,  at  the  com- 
mencement and  close  of  each  session  of  Congress,  to  take  an  inventory  of 
all  the  furniture,  books,  and  other  public  property  in  the  several  committee 
and  other  rooms  under  his  charge,  and  shall  report  the  same  to  the  House; 
which  report  shall  be  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Accounts,  who  shall 
determine  the  amount  for  which  he  shall  be  held  liable  for  missing  articles. 

38.  The  postmaster  shall  superintend  the  post-office  kept  in  the  capitol 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  members. 

OF   THE    MEMBERS. 

29.  No  member  shall  vote  on  any  question  in  the  event  of  which  he  is 
immediately  and  particularly  interested,  or  in  any  case  where  he  was  not 
within  the  bar  of  the  House  when  the  question  was  put.  And  when  any 
member  shall  ask  leave  to  vote,  the  Speaker  shall  propound  to  him  the 
question,  "  Were  you  within  the  bar  before  the  last  name  on  the  roll  was 
called  ?  "  and  if  he  sliall  answer  in  the  negative  the  Speaker  shall  not  fur- 
ther entertain  the  request  of  such  member  to  vote :  Provided,  however,  that 
any  member  who  was  absent  by  leave  of  the  House,  may  vote  at  any  time 
before  the  result  is  announced. 

30.  Upon  a  division  and  count  of  the  house  on  any  question,  no  mem- 
ber without  the  bar  shall  be  counted. 

31.  Every  member  who  shall  be  in  the  house  when  the  question  is  put, 
shall  give  his  vote  unless  the  House  shall  excuse  him.  All  motions  to 
excuse  a  member  from  voting,  shall  be  made  before  the  house  divides,  or 
before  the  call  of  the  yeas  and  nays  is  commenced ;  and  the  question  shall 
then  be  taken  without  debate. 

32.  The  name  of  a  member  who  presents  a  petition  or  memorial,  or  who 
offers  a  resolution  for  the  consideration  of  the  House,  shall  be  inserted  on 
the  journals. 

33.  No  member  shall  absent  himself  from  the  service  of  the  House 
unless  he  have  leave,  or  be  sick  and  unable  to  attend. 

OF   CALLS    OF    THE    HOUSE. 

34.  Any  fifteen  members  (including  the  Speaker,  if  there  be  one),  shall 
be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members. 

35.  Upon  calls  of  the  House,  or  in  taking  the  yeas  and  nays  on  any 
question,  tlie  names  of  the  members  shall  be  called  alphabetically. 

36.  Upon  the  call  of  the  House,  the  names  of  the  members  shall  be 
called  over  by  the  clerk,  and  the  absentees  noted ;  after  which  the  names 
of  the  absentees  shall  again  be  called  over;  the  doors  shall  then  be  shut, 
and  those  for  whom  no  excuse  or  insufficient  excuses  are  made  may,  by 
order  of  those  present,  if  fifteen  in  number,  be  taken  into  custody  as  they 


PAELIAMENTART   RULES.  nil 

appear,  or  may  be  sent  for  and  taken  into  custody,  wherever  to  be  found, 
by  special  messengers  to  be  appointed  for  tliat  purpose. 

37.  When  a  member  shall  be  discharged  from  custody,  and  admitted  to 
his  seat,  the  House  shall  determine  whether  such  discharge  shall  be  with 
or  without  paying  fees ;  and  in  like  manner  whether  a  delinquent  member, 
taken  into  custody  by  a  special  messenger,  shall  or  shall  not  be  liable  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  such  special  messenger. 

ON    MOTIONS,    THEIR   PRECEDENCE,    ETC. 

38.  When  a  motion  is  made  and  seconded,  it  shall  be  stated  by  the 
Speaker ;  or,  being  in  writing,  it  shall  be  handed  to  the  chair  and  read 
aloud  by  the  clerk,  before  debated. 

39.  Every  motion  shall  be  reduced  to  writing  if  the  Speaker  or  any 
member  desire  it.  Every  written  motion  made  to  the  House  shall  be 
inserted  on  the  journals,  with  the  name  of  the  member  making  it,  unless 
it  be  withdrawn  on  the  same  day  on  which  it  was  submitted. 

40.  After  a  motion  is. stated  by  the  Speaker,  or  read  by  the  clerk,  it 
shall  be  deemed  to  be  in  the  possession  of  the  House,  but  may  be  with- 
drawn at  any  time  before  a  decision  or  amendment. 

41.  When  any  motion  or  proposition  is  made,  the  question,  "Will  the 
House  now  consider  it?"  shall  not  be  put  unless  it  is  demanded  by  some 
member,  or  is  deemed  necessary  by  the  Speaker. 

42.  When  a  question  is  under  debate,  no  motion  shall  be  received  but 
to  adjourn,  to  lie  on  the  table,  for  the  previous  question,  to  postpone  to  a 
certain  day,  to  commit  or  amend,  to  postpone  indefinitely;  which  several 
motions  shall  have  precedence  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged ; 
and  no  motion  to  postpone  to  a  certain  day,  to  commit,  or  postpone  indefin- 
itely, being  decided,  shall  be  again  allowed  on  the  same  day,  and  at  the 
tiame  stage  of  the  bill  or  proposition. 

43.  When  a  resolution  shall  be  offered,  or  a  motion  made,  to  refer  any 
subject,  and  different  committees  shall  be  proposed,  the  question  shall  be 
taken  in  the  following  order: 

The  Committee  of  the  Whole  House  on  the  state  of  the  Union ;  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Whole  House;  a  Standing  Committee;  a  Select  Committee, 

44.  A  motion  to  adjourn,  and  a  motion  to  fix  the  day  to  which  the 
House  shall  adjourn,  shall  be  always  in  order;  these  motions  and  the 
motion  to  lie  on  the  table,  shall  be  decided  without  debate. 

45.  The  hour  at  which  every  motion  to  adjourn  is  made  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal. 

46.  Any  member  may  call  for  the  division  of  a  question  before  or  after 
the  main  question  is  ordered,  which  shall  be  divided  if  it  comprehend 
propositions  in  substance  so  distinct  that,  one  being  taken  away,  a  sub- 
stantive proposition  shall  remain  for  the  decision  of  the  House.  A  motion 
to  strike  out  and  insert  shall  be  deemed  indivisible ;  but  a  motion  to  strike 
out  being  lost,  shall  preclude  neither  amendment  nor  a  motion  to  strike 
out  ar  \  insert. 


712  PAEUAMENTAKY    RULES. 

47.  Motions  and  reports  may  be  committed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  House. 

48.  No  motion  or  proposition  on  a  subject  different  from  that  under 
consideration  sliall  be  admitted  under  color  of  amendment.  No  bill  or 
resolution  shall,  at  any  time,  be  amended  by  annexing  thereto,  or  incor- 
porating therewith,  any  other  bill  or  resolution  pending  before  the  House. 

49.  When  a  motion  has  been  once  made,  and  carried  in  the  afllrmative 
or  negativie,  it  shall  be  in  order  for  any  member  of  the  majority  to  move 
for  the  reconsideration  thereof,  on  the  same  or  succeeding  day ;  and  such 
motion  shall  take  precedence  of  all  other  questions,  except  a  motion  to 
adjourn,  and  shall  not  be  withdrawn  after  the  said  succeeding  day  without 
the  consent  of  the  House ;  and  thereafter  any  member  may  call  it  up  for 
consideration. 

50.  In  filling  up  blanks,  the  largest  sum  and  longest  time  shall  be  first 
put. 

ORDER    OF    BUSINESS    OF   THE    DAY. 

51.  As  soon  as  the  journal  is  read,  and  the  unfinished  business  in  which 
the  House  was  engaged  at  the  last  preceding  adjournment  has  been  dis- 
posed of,  reports  from  committees  shall  be  called  for  and  disposed  of;  in 
doing  which  the  Speaker  shall  call  upon  each  standing  committee  in  reg. 
ular  order,  and  then  upon  select  committees ;  and  if  the  Speaker  shall  not 
get  through  the  call  upon  the  committees  before  the  House  passes  to  other 
business,  he  shall  resume  the  next  call  where  he  left  off,  giving  preference 
to  the  report  last  under  consideration :  Provided,  That  whenever  any  com- 
mittee shall  have  occupied  the  morning  hour  on  two  days,  it  shall  not  be 
in  order  for  such  committee  to  report  further  until  the  other  committees 
shall  have  been  called  in  their  turn.  On  the  call  for  reports  from  commit- 
tees  on  each  alternate  Monday,  which  shall  commence  as  soon  as  the 
journal  is  read,  all  bills  reported  during  the  first  hour  after  the 
journal  is  read  shall  be  committed,  without  debate,  to  the  Committee  of 
the  Whole,  and  together  with  their  accompanying  reports,  printed ;  and 
if  during  the  hour  all  the  committees  are  not  called,  then,  on  the  next 
alternate  Monday,  the  Speaker  shall  commence  where  such  call  was  sus- 
pended :  Provided,  That  no  bill  reported  under  the  call  on  alternate  Mon. 
days,  and  committed,  shall  be  again  brought  before  the  House  by  a  motion 
to  reconsider. 

52.  Reports  from  committees  having  been  presented  and  disposed  o^ 
the  Speaker  shall  call  for  resolutions  from  the  members  of  each  State  and 
delegate  from  each  Territory,  beginning  with  Maine  and  the  Territory  last 
organized,  alternately;  and  they  shall  not  be  debated  on  the  very  day  of 
their  being  presented,  nor  on  any  day  assigned  by  the  House  for  the  receipt 
of  resolutions,  unless  where  the  House  shall  direct  otherwise,  but  shall  lie 
on  the  table,  to  be  taken  up  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  presented ;  and 
if  on  any  day  the  whole  of  the  States  and  Territories  shall  not  be  called, 
the  Speaker  shall  begin  on  the  next  day  where  he  left  off  the  previous  day: 
Provided,  That  no  member  shall  offer  more  than  one  resolution,  or  one 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES.  713 

series  of  resolutions,  all  relating  to  the  same  subject,  until  all  the  States 
and  Territories  shall  have  been  called. 

53.  A  proposition  requesting  information  from  the  I*resident  of  the 
United  States,  or  directing  it  to  be  furnished  by  the  head  of  either  of  the 
Executive  departments,  or  by  the  Postmaster  General — shall  lie  on  the 
table  one  day  for  consideration,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  House,  and  all  sucli  propositions  shall  be  taken  up 
for  consideration  in  the  order  they  were  presented,  immediately  after 
reports  are  called  for  from  select  committees,  and  when  adopted  the  clerk 
shall  cause  the  same  to  be  delivered. 

54.  Atler  one  hour  shall  have  been  devoted  to  reports  from  committees 
and  resolutions,  it  shall  be  in  order,  pending  the  consideration  or  discus- 
sion thereof,  to  entertain  a  motion  that  the  House  do  now  proceed  to  dis- 
pose of  the  business  on  the  Speaker's  table,  and  to  the  orders  of  the  day — 
which  being  decided  in  the  affirmative,  the  Speaker  shall  dispose  of  the 
business  on  his  table  in  the  following  order,  viz. : 

1st.  Messages  and  other  Executive  communications. 

2d.   Messages  from  the  Senate,  and  amendments  proposed  by  the  Senate  to 

bills  of  the  House. 
Sd.  Bills  and  resolutions  from  the  Senate  on  their  first  and  second  reading, 
that  they  be  referred  to  committees  and  put  under  way ;  but  if,  on  being 
read  a  second  time,  no  motion  being  made  to  commit,  they  are  to  be 
ordered  to  their  third  reading  unless  objection  be  made :  in  which  case, 
if  not  otherwise  ordered  by  a  majority  of  the  House,  they  are  to  be 
laid  on  the  table  in  general  file  of  bills  on  the  Speaker's  table,  to  be 
taken  up  in  their  turn. 
4th.  Engrossed  bills  and  bills  from  the  Senate  on  their  third  reading. 
5th.  Bills  of  the  House  and  from  the  Senate  on  the  Speaker's  table,  on  their 
engrossment,  or  on  being  ordered  to  a  third  reading,  to  be  taken  up 
and  considered  in  the  order  of  time  in  which  they  passed  to  a  second 
reading. 
The  messages,  communications  and  bills  on  his  table  having  been  dis- 
posed of,  the  Speaker  shall  then  proceed  to  call  the  orders  of  the  day. 

55.  The  business  specified  in  the  54th  and  130th  rules  shall  be  done  at 
no  other  part  of  the  day,  except  by  permission  of  the  House. 

56.  The  consideration  of  the  unfinished  business  in  which  the  House 
may  be  engaged  at  an  adjournment  shall  be  resumed  as  soon  as  the  jour- 
nal of  the  next  day  is  read,  and  at  the  same  time  each  day  thereafter  until 
disposed  of;  and  if,  from  any  cause,  other  business  shall  intervene,  it  shall 
be  resumed  as  soon  as  such  other  business  is  disposed  of  And  the  consid- 
eration of  all  other  unfinished  business  shall  be  resumed  whenever  the 
class  of  business  to  which  it  belongs  shall  be  in  order  under  the  rules. 

OF    DECORUM    AND   DEBATE. 

67.    When  any  member  is  about  to  speak  in  debate,  or  deliver  any  matter 


714  PAEUAMENTAEY   EULE8. 

to  the  House,  he  shall  rise  from  his  seat  and  respectfully  address  himself 
to  "  Mr.  Speaker  "  —  and  shall  confine  himself  to  the  question  under  debate, 
and  avoid  personality. 

58.  Members  may  address  the  House  or  committee  from  the  clerk's  desk, 
or  from  a  place  near  the  Speaker's  chair. 

59.  When  two  or  more  members  happen  to  rise  at  (Jnce,  the  Speaker 
shall  name  the  member  who  is  first  to  speak. 

60.  No  member  shall  occupy  more  than  one  hour  in  debate  on  any 
question  in  the  House,  or  in  committee ;  but  a  member  reporting  the 
measure  under  consideration  from  a  committee  may  open  and  close  the 
debate,  provided  that  when  debate  is  closed  by  order  of  the  House,  any 
member  shall  be  allowed,  in  committee,  five  minutes  to  explain  any 
amendment  he  may  ofier,  after  which  any  member  who  shall  first  obtain 
the  floor  shall  be  allowed  to  speak  five  minutes  in  opposition  to  it,  and 
there  shall  be  no  further  debate  on  the  amendment ;  but  the  same  privilege 
of  debate  shall  be  allowed  in  favor  of  and  against  any  amendment  that 
maybe  oftered  to  the  amendment;  and  neither  the  amendment  nor  an 
amendment  to  the  amendment  shall  be  withdrawn  by  the  mover  thereof, 
unless  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  committee.  Provided  further,  that 
the  House  may,  by  the  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  members  present,  at  any 
time  after  the  five  minutes'  debate  has  taken  place  upon  proposed  amend- 
ments to  any  section  or  paragraph  of  a  bill,  close  all  debate  upon  such 
section  or  paragraph,  or  at  their  election  upon  the  pending  amendments 
only. 

61.  If  any  member  in  speaking  or  otherwise,  transgress  the  rules  of  the 
House,  the  Speaker  shall,  or  any  member  may  call  him  to  order;  in  which 
case  the  member  so  called  to  order  shall  immediately  sit  down,  unless  per- 
mitted to  explain ;  and  the  House  shall,  if  appealed  to,  decide  on  the  case, 
but  without  debate ;  if  there  be  no  appeal  the  decision  of  the  chair  shall 
be  submitted  to.  If  the  decision  be  in  favor  of  the  member  called  to  order/ 
he  shall  be  at  liberty  to  proceed ;  if  otherwise,  he  shall  not  be  permitted  to 
proceed,  in  case  any  member  object,  without  leave  of  the  House;  and  if 
the  case  require  it,  he  shall  be  liable  to  the  censure  of  the  House. 

62.  If  any  member  be  called  to  order  for  words  spoken  in  debate,  the 
person  calling  him  to  order  shall  repeat  the  words  excepted  to,  and  they 
shall  be  taken  down  in  writing  at  the  clerk's  table ;  and  no  member  shall 
be  held  to  answer,  or  be  subject  to  the  censure  of  the  House,  for  words 
spoken  in  debate,  if  any  other  member  has  spoken,  or  other  business  has 
intervened,  after  the  words  spoken,  and  before  exception  to  them  shall 
have  been  taken. 

63.  No  member  shall  speak  more  than  once  to  the  same  question  with- 
out leave  of  tlie  House,  imless  he  be  the  mover,  proposer  or  introducer  of 
the  matter  pending;  in  which  case  he  shall  be  permitted  to  speak  in  reply, 
but  not  until  every  member  choosing  to  speak  shall  have  spoken. 

64.  If  a  question  depending  be  lost  by  adjournment  of  the  House,  and 


PARLIAMENTARY    RULES.  715 

revived  on  the  succeeding  day,  no  member  wlio  shall  have  spoken  on  the 
preceding  day  shall  be  permitted  again  to  speak  without  leave. 

65.  While  the  Speaker  is  putting  any  question,  or  addressing  the  House, 
none  shall  walk  out  of  or  across  the  House ;  nor  in  such  case,  or  when  a 
member  is  speaking,  shall  entertain  private  discourse ;  nor  while  a  member 
is  speaking,  shall  pass  between  him  and  the  chair.  Every  member  shall 
remain  uncovered  during  the  session  of  the  House.  No  member  or  other 
person  shall  visit  or  remain  by  the  clerk's  table  while  the  ayes  and  noes 
are  calling,  or  ballots  are  counting. 

66.  All  questions  relating  to  the  priority  of  business  to  be  acted  on  shall 
be  decided  without  debate. 

OF   COMMITTEES. 

67.  All  committees  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Speaker,  unless  otherwise 
specially  directed  by  the  House,  in  which  case  they  shall  be  appointed  by 
ballot ;  and  if  upon  such  ballot  the  number  required  shall  not  be  elected 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  given,  the  House  shall  proceed  to  a  second 
ballot,  in  which  a  plurality  of  votes  shall  prevail ;  and  in  case  a  greater 
number  tiian  is  required  to  compose  or  complete  a  committee  shall  have 
an  equal  number  of  votes,  the  House  shall  proceed  to  a  further  ballot  or 
ballots. 

68.  The  first  named  member  of  any  committee  shall  be  the  chairman ; 
and  in  his  absence,  or  being  excused  by  the  House,  the  next  named  mem- 
ber, and  so  on,  as  often  as  the  case  shall  happen,  unless  the  committee,  bj 
a  majority  of  their  number,  elect  a  chairman. 

69.  Any  member  may  excuse  himself  from  serving  on  any  committee 
at  the  time  of  his  appointment,  if  he  is  then  a  member  of  two  other  com- 
mittees. 

70.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  a  committee  to  meet  on  the  call  of  any  two 
of  its  members,  if  the  chairman  be  absent,  or  decline  to  appoint  such 
meeting. 

71.  The  several  standing  committees  of  the  House  shall  have  leave  to 
report  by  bill  or  otherwise. 

72.  No  committee  shall  sit  during  the  sitting  of  tlie  House  without 
special  leave. 

73.  No  committee  shall  be  permitted  to  employ  a  clerk  at  the  public 
expense,  without  first  obtaining  leave  of  the  House  for  that  purpose. 

74.  Thirty-one  standing  committees  shall  be  appointed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  each  Congress,  viz. : 

TO   CONSIST   OF   NINE   MEMBERS   EACH. 
A  Committee  of  Elections.— Nov.  13,  1789. 
A  Committee  of  "Ways  and  Means.— Jan.  1802. 
A  Committee  on  Appropriations,— March  2,  1865. 
A  Committee  on  Banking  apd  Currency.— March  2,  1865. 
A  Committee  on  the  Pacific  Railroad.— March  2,  1865. 


716  PAELIAJVIENTARY   KULE8. 

A  Committee  on  Claims.— Nov.  13, 1794. 

A  Committee  on  Commerce. — Dec.  14,  1795. 

A  Committee  on  Public  Lands. — Dec.  17, 1805. 

A  Committee  on  the  Poet  Office  and  Post  Itoads.— Nov.  9. 180B, 

A  Committee  for  tlie  District  of  Columbia.— Jan.  27, 1808. 

A  Committee  on  the  Judiciary. — June  3, 1813. 

A  Committee  on  Revolutionary  Claims. — Dec.  22, 1813. 

A  Committee  on  Public  Expenditures. — Feb.  26, 1814. 

A  Committee  on  Private  Land  Claims. — April  29,  1816. 

A  Committee  on  Manufactures. — Dec.  8, 1819. 

A  Committee  on  Agriculture. — May  3,  1820. 

A  Committee  on  Indian  Affairs.— Dec.  18, 1821. 

A  Committee  on  Military  Affairs.— March  13, 1822. 

A  Committee  on  Militia. — Dec.  10,  1835. 

A  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs.- March  13, 1822. 

A  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs.— March  13, 1822. 

A  Committee  on  the  Territories. — Dec.  13,  1825. 

A  Committee  on  lievolutionary  Pensions. — Dec.  9,  1825. 

A  Committee  on  Invalid  Pensions. — Jan.  10,  1831. 

A  Committee  on  Railways  and  Canals. — Dec.  15,  1831;  AprU  9, 1889. 

A  Committee  on  Mines  and  Mining. — Dec.  19, 1865. 

A  Committee  on  Freedmen's  Affairs.- Dec.  4,  1866. 

A  Committee.on  Education  and  Labor.— March  21,  1867. 

A  Committee  on  Revision  of  the  Laws.— July  25,  1868. 

TO  CONSIST  OP  FIVE  MEMBERS   EACH. 

A  Committee  on  Patents.— Sept.  15,  1837. 

A  Committee  on  Public  Buildings  and  Grounds. — Sept.  15,  1837. 

A  Committee  of  Revisal  and  Unflnished  Business. — ^Dec.  14,  1796. 

A  Committee  on  Accounts. — Nov.  7, 1804. 

A  Committee  on  Mileage. — Sept.  15,  18.37. 

TO  CONSIST   OF   SEVEN   MEMBERS. 

A  Committee  on  Coinage,  Weights  and  Measures. — Jan.  21, 1864:  March  2, 1867. 

75.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  of  Elections  to  examine  and 
report  upon  the  certificates  of  election,  or  other  credentials,  of  the  mem- 
bers returned  to  serve  in  this  House,  and  to  take  into  their  consideration 
all  such  petitions  and  other  matters  touching  elections  and  returns  as  shall 
or  may  be  presented  or  come  into  question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by  the 
House. 

76.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Appropriations  to  take 
into  consideration  all  Executive  communications  and  such  other  proposi- 
tions in  regard  to  carrying  on  the  several  departments  of  the  government 
as  may  be  presented  and  referred  to  them  by  the  House. 

In  preparing  bills  of  appropriations  for  other  objects,  the  Committee  on 
Appropriations  shall  not  include  appropriations  for  carrying  into  eflfect 
treaties  made  by  the  United  States ;  and  where  an  appropriation  bill  shall 
be  referred  to  them  for  their  consideration,  which  contains  appropriations 
for  carrying  a  treaty  into  effect,  and  for  other  objects,  they  shall  propose 
such  amendments  as  shall  prevent  appropriations  for  carrying  a  treaty 
into  effect  being  included  in  the  same  bill  with  appropriations  for  other 
objects. 


PAELIAMENTABY   RULES.  717 

77.  It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Appropriations,  within 
thirtj  days  after  their  appointment,  at  every  session  of  Congress,  commenc- 
ing on  the  first  Monday  of  December,  to  report  the  general  appropriation, 
bills  for  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  expenses;  for  sundry  civil 
expenses;  for  consular  and  diplomatic  expenses;  for  the  army;  for  the 
navy;  for  the  expenses  of  the  Indian  Department;  for  the  payment  of 
invalid  and  other  pensions ;  for  the  support  of  the  Military  Academy ;  for 
fortifications ;  for  the  service  of  the  Postofllce  Department,  and  for  mail 
transportation  by  ocean  steamers ;  or,  in  failure  thereof,  the  reasons  of  such 
failure.  And  said  committee  shall  have  leave  to  report  said  bills  (for  ref- 
erence only)  at  any  time. 

78.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  of  Claims  to  take  into  consid- 
eration all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  touching  claims  and 
demands  on  the  United  States  as  shall  be  presented,  or  shall  or  may  come 
in  question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House ;  and  to  report  their  opin- 
ion thereupon,  together  vpith  such  propositions  for  relief  therein  as  to  them 
shall  seem  expedient. 

79.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Commerce  to  take  into 
consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  touching  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  as  shall  be  presented,  or  shall  or  may  come  into 
question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House ;  and  to  report,  from  time 
to  time,  their  opinion  thereon. 

80.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Public  Lands  to  take 
into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  respecting  the 
lands  of  the  United  States  as  shall  be  presented,  or  shall  or  may  come  in 
question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House ;  and  to  report  their  opin- 
ion thereon,  together  with  such  propositions  for  relief  therein  as  to  them 
shall  seem  expedient. 

81.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Post-Oflace  and  Post- 
Roads  to  take  into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things 
touching  the  post-office  and  post-roads  as  shall  be  presented,  or  shall  come 
in  question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House ;  and  to  report  their 
opinion  thereon,  together  with  such  propositions  relative  thereto  as  to  them 
shall  seem  expedient. 

82.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  for  the  District  of  Columbia 
to  take  into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  touching 
the  said  District  as  shall  be  presented  or  shall  come  in  question,  and  be 
referred  to  them  by  the  House;  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereon, 
together  with  such  propositions  relative  thereto  as  to  them  shall  seem 
expedient. 

83.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  to  take  into 
consideration  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  touching  judicial  pro- 
ceedings as  shall  be  presented  or  may  come  in  question,  and  be  referred  to 
them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereon,  together  with  such 
propositions  relative  thereto  as  to  them  shall  seem  expedient 


718  PARLIAMENTARY    RULES. 

84.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Revolutionary  Claims  to 
take  into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  touchinjj 
claims  and  demands  originating  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  or  arisir.ff  there- 
from, as  shall  be  presented,  or  shall  or  may  come  in  question  and  be 
referred  to  them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  their  opirloi  chereupon, 
together  with  such  propositions  for  relief  therein  as  to  chem  shall  seem 
expedient. 

85.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Expenditures  to 
examine  into  the  state  of  the  several  public  departments,  and  particularly 
into  laws  making  appropriations  of  money,  and  to  report  whether  the 
moneys  have  been  disbursed  conformably  with  such  laws;  and  also  to 
report  from  time  to  time  such  provisions  and  arrangements  as  may  be  nec- 
essary to  add  to  the  economy  of  the  departments,  and  the  accountability  of 
their  officers. 

86.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Private  Land  Claims  to 
take  into  consideration  all  claims  to  land  which  may  be  referred  to  them, 
or  shall  or  may  come  in  question;  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereupon, 
together  with  such  propositions  for  relief  therein  as  to  them  shall  seem 
expedient. 

87.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Military  Affairs  to  take 
into  consideration  all  subjects  relating  to  the  military  establishment  and 
public  defense  which  may  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House,  and  to  report 
their  opinion  thereupon ;  and  also  to  report,  from  time  to  time,  such  meas- 
ures as  may  contribute  to  economy  and  accountability  in  the  said  estab- 
lishment. 

88.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Militia  to  take  into 
consideration  and  report  on  all  subjects  connected  with  the  organizing, 
arming  and  disciplining  the  militia  of  the  United  States. 

89.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs  to  take  into 
consideration  all  matters  which  concern  the  naval  establishment,  and 
which  shall  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  their  opinion 
thereupon ;  and  also  to  report,  from  time  to  time,  such  measures  as  may 
contribute  to  economy  and  accountability  in  the  said  establishment. 

90.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  to  take 
into  consideration  all  matters  which  concern  the  relations  of  the  United 
States  with  foreign  nations,  and  which  shall  be  referred  to  them  by  the 
House,  and  to  report  their  opinion  on  the  same. 

91.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Territories  to  examine 
into  the  legislative,  civil  and  criminal  proceedings  of  the  Territories,  and 
to  devise  and  report  to  the  House  such  means  as  in  their  opinion  may  be 
necessary  to  secure  the  rights  and  privileges  of  residents  and  non-residents. 

92.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Revolutionary  Pensions  to 
take  into  consideration  all  such  matters  respecting  pensions  for  services 
in  the  Revolutionary  war,  other  than  invalid  pensions,  as  shall  be  referred 
to  them  by  the  House. 


PARLIAMENTARY   RULES."  719 

93.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  th  Oo  amittee  on  Invalid  Pensions  to  take 
mto  consider. .tion  all  such  matters  respecting  invalid  pensions  as  shall  be 
referred  to  them  by  the  House. 

94.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Roads  and  Canals  to  take 
into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  relating  to 
roads  and  canals,  and  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  Rivers,  as 
shall  be  presented  or  may  come  in  question,  and  be  referred  to  them  by 
the  House,  and  to  report  thereupon,  together  with  such  propositions  rela- 
tive thereto  as  to  them  shall  seem  expedient. 

95.  It  shall  be  the  duty  the  Committee  on  Patents  to  consider  all 
subjects  relating  to  patents  which  may  be  referred  them;  .'.nd  report  their 
opinions  thereon,  together  with  such  propositions  relative  thereto  iis  may 
seem  to  them  expedient. 

96.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Buildings  and 
Grounds  to  consider  all  subjects  relating  to  the  public  edifices  and  grounds 
within  the  city  of  Washington  which  may  be  referred  to  them ;  and  report 
their  opinion  thereon,  together  with  such  propositions  relating  thereto  as 
may  seem  to  them  expedient. 

97.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  of  Revisal  and  Unfinished 
Business  to  examine  and  report  what  laws  have  expired,  or  are  near  expir- 
ing, and  require  to  be  revived  or  further  continued;  also  to  examine  and 
report,  from  the  journal  of  last  session,  all  such  matters  as  were  then 
depending  and  undetermined. 

98.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  of  Accounts  to  superintend 
And  control  the  expenditures  of  the  contingent  fund  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives ;  also  to  audit  and  settle  all  accounts  which  may  be  charged 
thereon. 

99.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Mileage  to  ascertain  and 
report  the  distance  to  the  sergeant-at-arms  for  which  each  member  shall 
receive  pay.  ' 

100.  There  shall  be  referred  by  the  clerk  to  the  members  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Printing  on  the  part  of  the  House,  all  drawings,  maps,  charts,  or 
other  papers  which  may  at  any  time  come  before  the  House  for  engraving, 
lithographing,  or  publishing  in  anyway;  which  committee  ■■  11  report 
to  the  House  whether  the  same  ought,  in  their  opinion,  to  be  published ; 

I  and  if  the  House  order  the  publication  of  the  same,  that  said  committee 
shall  direct  the  size  and  manner  of  execution  of  all  such  maps,  charts, 
drawings,  or  other  papers,  and  contract  by  agreement,  in  writing,  for  all 
such  engraving,  lithographing,  printing,  drawing,  and  coloring,  as  may  be 
ordered  by  the  House ;  which  agreement,  in  writing,  shall  be  furnished  by 
said  committee  to  the  Committee  of  Accounts,  to  govern  said  committee 
in  all  allowances  for  such  works,  and  it  shall  be  in  order  for  said  commit- 
tee to  report  at  all  times. 

101.  It  shall  be  in  order  for  the  Committee  on  Enrolled  Bills  and  the 
Committee  on  Printing  to  report  at  any  time. 


720  PAELIAMENTARY   RULES. 

103.  Seven  additional  standing  committees  sliall  be  appointed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  first  session  in  each  Congress,  whose  duties  shall 
continue  until  the  first  session  of  the  ensuing  Congress. 

COMMITTEES,  TO  CONSIST  OF  FIVE  MEMBERS  EACH. 

1.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Department  of  State ; 

2.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Treasury  Department ; 

3.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Department  of  War ; 

4.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Department  of  the  Navy ; 

5.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Post  Office ; 

6.  A  committee  on  so  mucli  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Public  Buildings ;  and 

7.  A  committee  on  so  much  of  the  public  accounts  and  expenditures  as 
relates  to  the  Interior  Department. 

103.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  committees  to  examine  into  the 
state  of  the  accounts  and  expenditures  respectively  submitted  to  them,  and 
to  inquire  and  to  report  particularly — 

Whether  the  expenditures  of  the  respective  departments  are  justified  by 
law; 

Whether  the  claims  from  time  to  time  satisfied  and  discharged  by  the 
respective  departments  are  supported  by  sufficient  vouchers,  establishing 
vheir  justness  Loth  as  to  their  character  and  amount. 

Whether  such  claims  have  been  discharged  out  of  funds  appropriated 
therefor,  and  whether  all  moneys  have  been  disbursed  in  conformity  with 
appropriation  laws ;  and 

Whether  any,  and  what,  provisions  are  necessary  to  be  adopted,  to  pro. 
vide  more  perfectly  for  the  proper  application  of  the  public  moneys,  and 
to  secure  the  government  from  demands  unjust  in  their  character  or  extrav- 
agant in  their  amount. 

And  it  shall  be,  moreover,  the  duty  of  the  said  committees  to  report,  from 
time  to  time,  whether  any,  and  what,  retrenchment  can  be  made  in  the 
expenditures  of  the  several  departments,  without  detriment  to  the  public 
service ;  whether  any,  and  what,  abuses  at  any  time  exist  in  the  failure  to 
enforce  the  payment  of  moneys  which  may  be  due  to  the  United  States 
from  public  defaulters  or  others ;  and  to  report,  from  time  to  time,  such 
provisions  and  arrangements  as  may  be  necessary  to  add  to  the  economy 
of  the  sevp.ral  dejDartments  and  the  accountability  of  their  officers. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  several  committees  on  public  expenditures  to 
inquire  whether  any  officers  belonging  to  the  branches  or  departments, 
respectively,  concerning  whose  expenditures  it  is  tlieir  duty  to  inquire, 
have  become  useless  or  unnecessary ;  and  to  report  from  time  to  time,  on 


PAELIAMENTAET   EULES.  721 

the  expediency  of  modifying  or  abolishing  the  same ;  also  to  examine  into' 
the-pay  and  emoluments  of  all  officers  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States;, 
and  to  report  from  time  to  time  such  a  reduction  or  increase  thereof  as  a 
just  economy  and  the  public  service  may  require. 

OF    COMMITTEES    OF    THE   WHOLE. 

104.  The  House  may  at  any  time,  by  a  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers  present,  suspend  the  rules  and  orders  for  the  purpose  of  going  into 
the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House  on  the  State  of  the  Union;  and  also- 
for  providing  for  the  discharge  of  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,  and 
the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House  on  the  State  of  the  Union,  from  the 
further  consideration  of  any  bill  referred  to  it,  after  acting  without  debate 
on  all  amendments  pending  and  that  may  be  offered. 

105.  In  forming  a  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,  the  Speaker  shall 
leave  his  chair,  and  a  chairman  to  preside  in  committee  shall  be  appointed' 
by  the  Speaker. 

106.  Whenever  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  on  the  State  of  the  Union, 
or  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,  finds  itself  without  a  quorum, 
the  chairman  shall  cause  the  roll  of  the  House  to  be  called,  and  there- 
upon the  committee  shall  rise,  and  the  chairman  sliall  report  the  names 
of  the  absentees  to  the  House,  which  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

107.  Upon  bills  committed  to  a  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,  the 
bi\l  shall  be  first  read  throughout  by  the  clerk,  and  then  again  read  and 
ftebated  by  clauses,  leaving  the  preamble  to  be  last  considered;  the  body 
oK  the  bill  shall  not  be  defaced  or  interlined ;  but  all  amendments,  noting; 
the  page  and  line,  shall  be  duly  entered  by  the  clerk  on  a  separate  paper, 
as  the  same  shall  be  agreed  to  by  the  committee,  and  so  reported  to  the- 
House.  After  report,  the  bill  shall  again  be  subject  to  be  debated  and' 
rnended  by  clauses,  before  a  question  to  engross  it  be  taken. 

108.  All  amendments  made  to  an  original  motion  in  committee  shall  be 
ncorporated  with  the  motion,  and  so  reported. 

%09.  All  amendments  made  to  a  report  committed  to  a  Committee  of 
the  Whole  House  shall  be  noted  and  reported,  as  in  the  case  of  bills. 

110.  No  motion  or  proposition  for  a  tax  or  charge  upon  the  people  shair 
be  discussed  the  day  on  which  it  is  made  or  ottered,  and  every  such  propo- 
sition shall  receive  its  first  discussion  in  a  Committee  of  the  Whole  House. 

111.  No  sum  or  quantum  of  tax  or  duty,  voted  by  a  Committee  of  the- 
Whole  House,  shall  be  increased  in  the  House  until  the  motion  or  propo- 
sition for  such  increase  shall  be  first  discussed  and  voted  in  a  Committee 
of  the  Whole  House ;  and  so  in  respect  to  the  time  of  its  continuance 

112.  All  proceedings  touching  appropriations  of  money  shall  be  first- 
discussed  in  a  Committee  of  the  Whole  House. 

113.  The  rules  of  proceedings  in  the  House  shall  be  observed  in  a  Com- 
mittee of  the  Whole  House,  so  far  as  they  may  be  applicable,  except  the 
rule  limiting  the  times  of  speaking;  but  no  member  shall  speak  twice  to 
any  question  until  every  member  choosing  to  speak  shall  have  spoken. 


722  PABUAMENTABT    5ULES. 

114.  In  Committee  of  the  Whole  on  the  State  of  the  Union,  the  bills 
'shall  be  taken  up  ana  ai&posed  of  in  their  order  on  the  calendar ;  but  when 
»bjection^is  made  to  the  consideration  of  a  bill,  a  majority  of  the  commit- 
tee shall  decide,  without  debate,  whether  it  shall  be  taken  up  and  disposed 
'of,  or  laid  aside ;  provided,  that  general  appropriation  bills,  and,  in  time 
'Of  war,  bills  for  raising  men  or  money,  and  bills  concerning  a  treaty  of 
peace,  shall  be  preferred  to  all  other  bills  at  the  discretion  of  the  commit, 
tee ;  and  when  demanded  by  any  member,  the  question  shall  first  be  put  in 
regard  to  them ;  and  all  debate  on  special  orders  shall  be  confined  strictly 
to  the  measure  under  consideration. 

OF   BILLS, 

115.  Every  bill  shall  be  introduced  on  the  report  of  a  committee,  or  by 
motion  for  leave.  In  the  latter  case,  at  least  one  day's  notice  shall  be  given 
of  the  motion  in  the  House,  or  by  filing  a  memorandum  thereof  with  the 
clerk,  and  having  it  entered  on  the  journal ;  and  the  motion  shall  be  made, 
and  the  bill  introduced,  if  leave  is  given,  when  resolutions  are  called  for ; 
«uch  motion,  or  the  bill  when  introduced,  may  be  committed. 

116.  Every  bill  shall  receive  three  several  readings  in  the  House  pre- 
vious to  its  passage ;  and  the  bills  shall  be  dispatched  in  order  as  they 
"were  introduced,  unless  where  the  House  shall  direct  otherwise ;  but  no 
ibill  shall  be  twice  read  on  the  same  day,  without  special  order  of  the 
House. 

117.  The  first  reading  of  a  bill  shall  be  for  information,  and  if  opposi 
-tion  be  made  to  it,  the  question  shall  be,  "Shall  this  bill  be  rejected?"  If 
mo  opposition  be  made,  or  if  the  question  to  reject  be  negatived,  the  bill 
•shall  go  to  its  second  reading  without  a  question. 

118.  Upon  the  second  reading  of  a  bill,  the  Speaker  shall  state  it  as 
ready  for  commitment  or  engrossment ;  and  if  committed,  then  a  question 
«hall  be,  whether  to  a  select  or  standing  committee,  or  to  a  Committee  of 
the  Whole  House ;  if  to  a  Committee  of  the  Whole  House,  the  House  shall 
•determine  on  what  day ;  if  no  motion  be  made  to  commit,  the  question 
«hall  be  stated  on  its  engrossment ;  and  if  it  be  not  ordered  to  be  engrossed 
on  the  day  of  its  being  reported,  it  shall  be  placed  on  the  general  file  on 
the  Speaker's  table,  to  be  taken  up  in  order.  But  if  the  bill  be  ordered  to 
be  engrossed,  the  House  shall  appoint  the  day  when  it  shall  be  read  the 
third  time. 

119.  General  appropriation  bills  shall  be  in  order  in  preference  to  any 
other  bill  of  a  public  nature  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  a  majority  of  the 
House. 

And  the  House  may,  at  any  time,  by  a  vote  of  the  majority  of  the 
members  present,  make  any  of  the  general  appropriation  bills  a  special 
order, 

120.  No  appropriation  shall  be  reported  in  such  general  appropria- 
tion bills,  or  be  in  order  as  an  amendment  thereto,  for  any  expenditure  not 
previously  authorized  by  law,  unless  in  continuation  of  appropriations  for 


PARLIAMEXTAEY    RULES.  723 

such  public  works  and  objects  as  are  already  in  progress,  and  for  the 
contingencies  for  carrying  on  the  several  departments  of  the  government. 

121.  Upon  the  engrossment  of  any  bill  making  appropriations  of  money 
for  works  of  internal  improvement  of  any  kind  or  description,  it  shall  be 
in  the  power  of  any  member  to  call  for  a  division  of  the  question,  so  as  to 
take  a  separate  vote  of  the  House  upon  each  item  of  improvement  or 
appropriation  contained  in  said  bill,  or  upon  such  items  separately,  and 
others  collectively,  as  the  members  making  the  call  may  specify ;  and,  if 
one-fifth  of  the  members  present  second  said  call,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  Speaker  to  make  such  divisions  of  the  question,  and  put  them  to  vote 
-accordingly. 

122.  The  bills  from  the  Court  of  Claims  shall,  on  being  laid  before  the 
House,  be  read  a  first  and  second  time,  committed  to  a  Committee  of  the 
Whole  House,  and,  together  with  the  accompanying  reports,  printed. 

123.  A  motion  to  strike  out  the  enacting  words  of  a  bill  shall  have  pre- 
oedence  of  a  motion  to  amend;  and,  if  carried,  shall  be  considered  equiv- 
alent to  its  rejection.  "Whenever  a  bill  is  reported  from  a  Committee  of 
the  Whole,  with  a  recommendation  to  strike  out  the  enacting  words,  and 
such  recommendation  is  disagreed  to  by  the  House,  the  bill  shall  stand 
recommitted  to  the  said  committees  without  further  action  by  the  House. 

124.  After  commitment  and  report  thereof  to  the  House,  or  at  any  time 
before  its  passage,  a  bill  may  be  recommitted ;  and  should  such  recommit- 
ment take  place  after  its  engrossment,  and  an  amendment  be  reported  and 
agreed  to  by  the  House,  the  question  shall  be  again  put  on  the  engrossment 
of  the  bill. 

125.  All  bills  ordered  to  be  engrossed  shall  be  executed  in  a  fair  round 
hand. 

126.  No  amendment  by  way  of  rider  shall  be  received  to  any  bill  on  its 
third  reading. 

127.  When  a  bill  shall  pass,  it  shall  be  certified  by  the  clerk,  noting  the 
day  of  its  passage  at  the  foot  thereof. 

LOCAL    OK   PRIVATE   BUSINESS. 

128.  Friday  and  Saturday  of  every  week  shall  be  set  apart  for  the  .con- 
sideration of  private  bills  and  private  business,  in  preference  to  any  other, 
unless  otherwise  determined  by  a  majority  of  the  House. 

129.  On  the  first  and  fourth  Friday  and  Saturday  of  each  month  the 
calendar  of  private  bills  shall  be  called  over  (the  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mitee  of  the  Whole  House  commencing  the  call  where  he  left  off"  the 
previous  day,)  and  the  bills  to  the  passage  of  which  no  objection  shall 
then  be  made  shall  be  first  considered  and  disposed  of.  But  when  a  bill  is 
again  reached,  after  having  been  once  objected  to,  the  committee  shall  con. 
sider  and  dispose  of  the  same,  unless  it  shall  again  be  objected  to  by  at 
least  five  members. 

OF   BILLS   ON   LEAVE   AND    RESOLUTIONS. 

130.  All  the  States  and  Territories  shall  be  called  for  bills  on  leave  and 


724  PAKLIAMENTAEY   KULES. 

resolutions  on  each  alternate  Monday  during  each  session  of  Congress; 
and,  if  necessary  to  secure  the  object  on  said  days,  all  resolutions  which 
shall  give  rise  to  debate  shall  lie  over  for  discussion,  under  the  rules  of  the 
House  already  establislied;  and  tlie  whole  of  said  days  shall  be  appropri- 
ated to  bills  on  leave  and  resolutions,  until  all  the  States  and  Territories^ 
are  called  through.  And  the  Speaker  shall  first  call  tlie  States  and  Terri- 
tories for  bills  on  leave ;  and  all  bills  so  introduced  during  the  first  hour 
after  the  journal  is  read  shall  be  referred,  without  debate,  to  their  appro- 
priate committees;  provided,  however,  that  a  bill  so  introduced  and 
referred  shall  not  be  brought  back  into  the  House  upon  a  motion  ta 
reconsider. 

OF   PETITIONS   AND    MEMORIALS. 

131.  Members  having  petitions  and  memorials  to  present,  may  hand 
them  to  the  clerk,  indorsing  the  same  with  their  names,  and  the  reference 
or  disposition  to  be  made  thereof;  and  such  petitions  and  memorials  shall 
be  entered  on  the  journal,  subject  to  the  control  and  direction  of  the 
Speaker;  and  if  any  petition  or  memorial  be  so  handed  in,  which,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Speaker,  is  excluded  by  the  rules,  the  same  shall  be 
returned  to  the  member  from  whom  it  was  received. 

OF    THE    PREVIOUS   QUESTION. 

132.  The  previous  question  shall  be  in  this  form :  "  Shall  the  main 
question  be  now  put  ?"  It  shall  only  be  admitted  when  demanded  by  a 
majority  of  the  members  present;  and  its  effect  shall  be  to  put  an  end  to 
all  debate,  and  to  bring  the  House  to  a  direct  vote  upon  a  motion  to  commit 
if  such  motion  shall  have  been  made ;  and  if  this  motion  does  not  prevail, 
then  upon  amendments  reported  by  a  committee,  if  any ;  then  upon  pend- 
ing amendments,  and  then  upon  the  main  question.  But  its  only  effect,  if 
a  motion  to  postpone  is  pending,  shall  be  to  bring  the  House  to  a  vote 
upon  such  motion.  Whenever  the  House  shall  refuse  to  order  the  mala 
question,  the  consideration  of  tlie  subject  shall  be  resumed  as  though  no 
motion  for  the  previous  question  had  been  made.  The  House  may  also,  aft 
any  time,  on  motion  seconded  by  a  majority  of  the  members  present,  close 
all  debate  upon  a  pending  amendment,  or  an  amendment  thereto,  and  cause 
the  question  to  be  put  thereon ;  and  this  shall  not  preclude  any  further 
amendment  or  debate  upon  the  bill.  A  call  of  the  House  shall  not  be  in 
order  after  the  previous  question  is  seconded,  unless  it  shall  appear,  upon 
an  actual  count  by  the  Speaker,  that  no  quorum  is  present. 

133.  On  a  previous  question  there  shall  be  no  debate.  All  incidental 
questions  of  order  arising  after  a  motion  is  made  for  the  previous  question 
and  pending  such  motion,  shall  be  decided,  whether  on  appeal  or  other- 
wise, without  debate. 

OF    ADMISSION"    ON    THE    FLOOR. 

134.  No  person  except  members  of  the  Senate,  their  secretary,  heads  of 
departments,  the  President's  private  secretary,  foreign  ministers,  the  Gov 


PAELIAMENTABY   RULES.  725 

ernor  for  the  time  being  of  any  State,  Senators  and  Representatives  elect, 
and  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  Court 
of  Claims,  shall  be  admitted  within  the  liall  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, or  any  of  the  rooms  upon  the  same  floor  or  leading  into  the  same. 

OF   REPORTERS, 

135.  Stenographers  and  reporters,  other  than  the  official  reporters  of 
the  House,  wishing  to  take  down  the  debates,  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Speaker  to  the  reporters'  gallery  over  the  Speaker's  chair,  but  not  on  the 
floor  of  the  House ;  but  no  person  shall  be  allowed  the  privilege  of  said 
gallery  under  the  character  of  stenographer  or  reporter  without  a  written 
permission  of  the  Speaker,  specifying  the  part  of  said  gallery  assigned  to 
him;  nor  shall  said  stenographer  or  reporter  be  admitted  to  said  gallery 
xmless  he  shall  state  in  writing  for  what  paper  or  papers  he  is  employed  to 
report;  nor  shall  he  be  so  admitted,  or,  if  admitted,  be  sufl["ered  to  retain 
his  seat,  if  he  shall  become  an  agent  to  prosecute  any  claim  pending 
before  Congress;  and  the  Speaker  shall  give  his  written  permission  with 
this  condition. 

UNFINISHED   BUSINESS   OF   THE   SESSION. 

136.  After  six  days  from  the  commencement  of  a  second  or  subsequent 
session  of  any  Congress,  all  bills,  resolutions,  and  reports  which  origin- 
ated in  the  House,  and  at  the  close  of  the  next  preceding  session  remained 
undetermined,  shall  be  resumed  and  acted  on  in  the  same  manner  as  if  an 
adjournment  had  not  taken  place.  And  all  business  before  committees  of 
the  House  at  the  end  of  one  session  shall  be  resumed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  next  session  of  the  same  Congress  as  if  no  adjournment  had 
taken  place. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

137.  Whenever  confidential  communications  are  received  from  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  the  House  shall  be  cleared  of  all  persons, 
except  the  members,  clerk,  sergeant^at-arms,  and  doorkeeper,  and  so  con- 
tinue during  the  reading  of  such  communications,  and  (unless  otherwise 
directed  by  the  House)  during  all  debates  and  proceedings  to  be  had 
^hereon.  And  when  the  Speaker,  or  any  other  member,  shall  inform  the 
House  that  he  has  communications  to  make  which  he  conceives  ought  to 
he  kept  secret,  the  House  shall,  in  like  manner,  be  cleared  till  the  commu- 
nication be  made;  the  House  shall  then  determine  whether  the  matter 
communicated  requires  secrecy  or  not,  and  take  order  accordingly. 

138.  The  rule  for  paying  witnesses  summoned  to  appear  before  this 
House,  or  either  of  its  committees,  shall  be  as  follows:  for  each  day  a  wit- 
ness shall  attend,  the  sum  of  two  dollars ;  for  each  mile  he  shall  travel  in 
coming  to  or  going  from  the  place  of  examination,  the  sum  of  ten  cents 
each  way;  but  nothing  shall  be  paid  for  traveling  home  when  the  witness 
Has  been  summoned  at  the  place  of  trial 


726  PAELIAMENTAEY   RULES. 

139.  Maps  accompanying  documents  shall  not  be  printed,  under  the 
general  order  to  print,  without  the  special  direction  of  the  House. 

140.  No  extra  compensation  shall  be  allowed  to  any  officer  or  messen- 
ger, page,  laborer,  or  other  person  in  the  service  of  the  House,  or  engaged 
in  or  about  the  public  grounds  or  buildings ;  and  no  person  shall  be  aa 
officer  of  the  House,  or  continue  in  its  employment,  who  shall  be  an  agent 
for  the  prosecution  of  any  claim  against  the  government,  or  be  interested 
in  such  claim  otherwise  than  an  original  claimant ;  and  it  shall  be  the- 
duty  of  the  Committee  of  Accounts  to  inquire  into  and  report  to  the  House; 
any  violation  of  this  rule. 

141.  When  the  reading  of  a  paper  is  called  for,  and  the  same  is  objected? 
to  by  any  member,  it  shall  be  determined  by  a  vote  of  the  House. 

142.  When  a  question  is  postponed  indefinitely,  the  same  shall  not  be 
acted  upon  again  during  the  session. 

143.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the* 
Senate  shall  be  necessary,  shall  be  read  to  the  House,  and  laid  on  the- 
table,  on  a  day  preceding  that  in  which  the  same  shall  be  moved,  unless, 
the  House  shall  otherwise  expressly  allow. 

144.  The  rules  of  parliamentary  practice,  comprised  in  Jefferson's 
Manual,  shall  govern  the  House  in  all  cases  to  which  they  are  applicable,, 
and  in  which  they  are  not  inconsistent  with  the  standing  rules  and  orders- 
of  the  House,  and  joint  rules  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Eepresentaiives. 

145.  No  standing  rule  or  order  of  the  House  shall  be  rescinded  or 
changed  without  one  day's  notice  being  given  of  the  motion  therefor ;  nor 
shall  any  rule  be  suspended,  except  oy  a  vote  of  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
members  present;  nor  shall  the  order  of  business,  as  established  by  the 
rules,  be  postponed  or  changed,  except  by  a  vote  of  at  least  two-thirds  of 
the  members  present;  nor  shall  the  Speaker  entertain  a  motion  to  suspend 
the  rules,  except  during  the  last  ten  days  of  the  session,  and  on  Monday 
of  every  week  at  the  expiration  of  an  hour  after  the  journal  is  read,  unless 
the' call  of  the  States  and  Territories  for  bills  on  leave  and  resolutions  has 
been  earlier  concluded,  when  the  Speaker  may  entertain  a  motion  to  sus- 
pend the  rules. 

146.  All  election  of  officers  of  the  House,  including  the  Speaker,  shall 
be  conducted  in  accordance  with  these  rules,  so  far  as  the  same  are  appli- 
cable; and  pending  the  election  of  a  Speaker,  the  clerk  shall  preserve 
order  and  decorum,  and  shall  decide  all  questions  of  order  that  may  arise^ 
subject  to  appeal  to  the  House. 

147.  These  rules  shall  be  the  rules  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of 
the  present  and  succeeding  Congresses  unless  otherwise  ordered. 

148.  An  additional  standing  committee  shall  be  appointed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  Congress,  whose  duties  ^hall  continue  until  the  first 
session  of  the  ensuing  Congress,  to  consist  of  five  members,  to  be  entitled  a 
" Committee  on  a  Uniforn  System  of  Coinage,  Weights,  and  Measures;^ 


PAELIAMENTAEY    RULES.  727 

juid  to  this  committee  shall  be  referred  all  bills,  resolu:io?i8,  and  commimi- 
cations  to  the  House  upon  that  subject. 

149.  The  names  of  members  not  voting  on  any  call  of  the  ayes  and  noes 
shall  be  recorded  in  the  journal  immediately  after  those  voting  in  the 
affirmative  and  negative,  and  the  same  record  shall  be  made  in  the  Con- 
gressional Globe. 

150.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  the  Pacific  Railroad  to 
take  into  consideration  all  such  petitions  and  matters  or  things  relative  ta 
railroads  or  telegraph  lines  between  the  Mississippi  valley  and  the  Paciflt 
coast,  as  shall  be  presented  or  shall  come  in  question,  and  be  referred  to 
them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereon,  together  with  such 
propositions  relative  thereto  as  to  them  shall  seem  expedient. 

151.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  to  take- 
into  consideration  all  reports  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  such  other 
propositions  relative  to  raising  revenue  and  providing  ways  and  means  for 
the  support  of  the  government  as  shall  be  presented  or  shall  come  in  ques- 
tion, and  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  their  opinion 
thereon  by  bill  or  otherwise,  as  to  them  shall  seem  expedient;  and  said 
committee  shall  have  leave  to  report  for  commitment  at  any  time. 

152.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Banking  and  Bank  Cur- 
rency to  take  into  consideration  all  propositions  relative  to  banking  and 
the  currency  as  shall  be  presented  or  shall  come  in  question,  and  be 
referred  to  them  by  the  House,  and  to  report  thereon  by  bill  or  otherwise. 

153.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Committee  on  Mines  and  Mining  to  con- 
sider all  subjects  relating  to  mines  and  mining  that  may  be  referred  to 
•them,  and  to  report  their  opinion  thereon,  together  with  such  propositiona 
relative  thereto  as  may  seem  to  them  expedient. 

154.  The  allowance  of  stationery  to  each  member  and  delegate  shall  be 
of  the  value  of  seventy-five  dollars  for  a  long  session,  and  forty-five  dollars 
for  a  short  session  of  Congress. 

155.  The  hall  of  the  House  shall  not  be  used  for  anj'^  other  purpose  than 
the  legitimate  business  of  the  House,  nor  shall  the  Speaker  entertain  any 
proposition  to  use  it  for  any  other  purpose,  or  for  the  suspension  of  thi» 
rule:  Provided,  That  this  shall  not  interfere  with  the  performance  of 
divine  service  therein,  under  the  direction  of  the  Speaker,  or  with  the  use 
of  the  same  for  caucus  meetings  oi  the  members,  or  upon  occasions  wkere 
the  House  may,  by  resolution,  agree  to  take  part  in  any  ceremonies  to  be 
observed  therein. 

156.  There  shall  be  appointed  at  the  commencement  of  each  Congress 
a  standing  Committee  on  Freedmen's  Aflairs,  to  consist  of  nine  members, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  take  charge  of  all  matters  concerning  freedmen,. 
which  shall  be  referred  to  them  by  the  House. 

157.  When  an  act  has  been  approved  by  the  President,  the  usual  num- 
ber of  copies  shall  be  printed  for  the  use  of  the  House. 

158.  Messages  from  the  Senate  and  the  Preai\slsnt  of  the  United  States* 


r28  PAELIAMENTAKY   EULE8. 

giving  notice  of  bills  passed  or  approved,  shall  be  reported  forthwith  from 
the  clerk's  desk. 

159.  Estimates  of  appropriations,  and  all  other  communications  from 
the  executive  departments,  intended  for  the  consideration  of  any  of  the 
committees  of  the  House,  shall  be  addressed  to  the  Speaker  and  by  him 
submitted  to  the  House  for  reference. 

160.  There  shall  be  appointed  to  each  Congress  a  Committee  on  Educa- 
tion and  Labor,  to  consist  of  nine  members,  to  whom  shall  be  referred  all 
petitions,  bills,  reports,  and  resolutions  on  those  subjects,  and  who  shall 
from  time  to  time  report  thereon. 

161.  Pending  a  motion  to  suspend  the  rules  the  Speaker  may  entertain 
one  motion  that  the  House  do  now  adjourn;  but  after  the  result  thereon 
is  announced,  he  shall  not  entertain  any  other  dilatory  motion  till  the  vote 
is  taken  on  suspension. 

162.  Whenever  a  question  is  pending  before  the  House,  the  Speaker 
shall  not  entertain  any  motion  of  a  dilatory  character  except  one  motion 
to  adjourn  and  one  motion  to  fix  the  day  to  which  the  House  shall  ad- 
journ ;  but  the  previous  question  on  the  engrossment  and  third  reading  of 
any  bill  or  joint  resolution  shall  not  be  ordered  during  the  first  day  of  its 
consideration,  unless  two  thirds  of  the  members  present  shall  second  the 
demand:  provided,  that  this  rule  shall  not  apply  to  House  resolutions 
oflfered  in  the  morning  hour  of  Monday :  and  provided  further,  that  it 
shall  not  apply  to  any  proposition  to  appropriate  the  money,  the  credit, 
or  other  property  of  the  United  States,  except  the  regular  annual  appro- 
priation bills. 


STATISTICS   OF   THE   WOELD. 


729 


CHAPTEK    XXXI. 
THE  STATISTICS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


COUNTKT. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 

Arctic  Region 

Bermuda ,... 

Columbia  (Brit.) 

Costa  Rica 

Greenland 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Honduras  (Brit.) 

Mexico 

Mosquito 

New  Britain 

New  Brunswick 

Newfoundland 

Nicaragua .. 

Nova  Scotia 

Ontario 

Prince  Edward  Island 

Quebec 

San  Salvador 

St.  Pierre 

United  States 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentine  Confederacy.. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Cayenne 

Chili  

Colombia 

Demarara,  etc , 

Ecuador 

Falkland  Islands , 

Paraguay 

Patagonia 

Peru 

Surinam 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS. 

Antigua 

Bahamas 


Population. 


12,000 

54,600 

150,000 

10,000 

1,180,000 

500,000 

25,635 

8,743,614 

16,000 

200,000 

285,777 

146,536 

400,000 

387,800 

1,630,842 

93,3?8 

1,190,505 

750,000 

2,250 

40,000,000 


1,800,000 

1,987,352 

11,780,000 

27,560 

2,084,945 

2,794,470 

148,900 

1,040,371 

686 

1,337,431 

120,000 

3,374,000 

64,270 

387,421 

1,565,000 


Square  miles. 


600,000 

46 

230,000 

16,250 

380,000 

44.778 

47,092 

13,500 

773,144 

26,000 

1,800,000 

27,720 

40,200 

58,169 

19,650 

180,000 

2,173 

210,000 

7,230 

120 

3,578,392 


826,828 

535,760 

3,231,047 

30,000 
139,3:35 
357,179 

76,000 
218,984 
7,600 
126,352 
315,000 
510,107 

38,500 

66,716 
426,713 


Title  of  Ruler 


36,412 
85,387 


188 
3,021 


Governor . 
Governor . 
President. 
Inspector. 
President. 
President. 
Lt.  Gov... 
President. 
King 


Capital. 


Lt.  Gov 

Governor.. 
President.. 

Lt.  Gov 

Lt.  Gov 

Lt.  Gov 

Lt.  Gov.... 
President.. 

Com 

President.. 


President. 
President. 
Emperor.. 
Governor  . 
President. 
President. 
Governor  . 
President. 
Governor . 
President. 


President. 
Governor . 
President. 
President. 


Grovemor . 
Govemor . 


None. 

Hamilton. 

N.  Westminster, 

jSan  Jose. 

Lichtenfels. 

Guatemala. 

Coinayagna. 

Belize. 

Mexico. 

Blewflelds. 

York  Factory, 

Fredericton. 

St.  John's. 

Managua. 

Halifax. 

Toronto. 

Charlotte  town, 

Quebec. 

San  Salvador. 

St.  Pierre. 

Washington. 


Buenos  Ayres. 

Chuquuaca. 

Rio  Janeiro. 

Cayenne. 

Santiago. 

S.  Fe  de  Bogota. 

Georgetown. 

Quito. 

Port  Louia. 

Asuncion. 

None. 

Lima. 

Parimaraibo. 

Monte  Video. 

Caracas. 


SI.  John'i. 
Nassau. 


730 


rfTATISTICS   OF    THE   WOELD. 


COUTITIIY. 


Barbadoes 

Burniudas 

Curacoa 

Cuba 

Dominica 

Grenada 

Gaadaloupe,  etc 

Hayti 

Jamaica   

Martinique 

Montserrat 

Nevis 

Porto  Rico 

St.  Bartholomew's 

St.  Cliristopher,  etc 

St.  John's 

St.  Lucia 

St.  Martin's  (S.) 

St.  Thomas 

St.  Vincent 

San  Domingo 

Santa  Cruz,  etc 

Tobago 

Trinidad 

Turiv's  Island 

Virgin  Islands 

EUROPE. 

Andorra 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Faroe  and  Iceland 

France 

Germany 

Northern  Confederation. 

Anhalt 

Bremen 

Brunswick 

Hamburg 

Hesse  Darmstadt  (N.)  .. 

Lippe  Detmold 

Lippe  Schaumbnrg 

Lubeck 

Mecklenburg  Schwerin. 

Mecklenburg  Strelitz... 

Oldenburg 

Prussia , 

Reuss  Greiz , 

Reuss  Schleiz , 

Saxe  Altenburg 

Saxe  Cobnrg  (fotha 

Saxe  Meiningen 

Saxe  Weimar 

Saxony 

Schwarzb.  Rudolstadt.. 

Swarzb.  Sondcrshausen 

Waldeck 

Southern  Confederation. 

Baden  

Bavaria 

Hesse  Darmstadt  (8.) 

Lichtenstein 

Wurtemberg 

Great  Britain 

Gibraltar 

Heligoland 

Malta...: 

Greece 


Population. 


152,127 

11,796 

30,000 

1,500,000 

26,882 

36,672 

134,544 

572,000 

441,255 

121,145 

7,645 

9,822 

620,000 

10,000 

26,940 

3,000 

29,519 

3,500 

13,463 

31,755 

136,500 

35,000 

15,410 

84,438 

4,372 

6,051 


12,000 

35,677,455 

4,984,451 

1,608,362 

75,909 

38,192,064 


197,041 

109,572 

302,f92 

305,196 

257,479 

111,352 

31,186 

48,538 

560,618 

98,770 

315,622 

34,039,668 

43,889 

88,097 

141,426 

168,851 

180,-335 

282,928 

2,423,401 

75,116 

;67,533 

56,807 

1,434,970 

4,824,431 

565,659 

8,320 

1,778,396 

31,817,108 

34,175 

2,300 

148,003 

1,096,810 


Square  miles.  Title  of  Ruler 


166 


580 

43,383 

290 

133 

634 

11,718 

6,400 

322 

47 

50 

3,895 

25 

103 

72 

250 

11 

37 

131 

18,000 

81 

97 

1,754 

450 

57 


149 

240,381 

11,373 

14,734 

40,258 

209,428 


1,026 

74 

1,425 

156 

1,280 

438 

171 

107 

5,190 

1,052 

2,469 

136,806 

145 

320 

510 

760 

956 

1,404 

5,779 

374 

332 

433 


5,912 

29,373 

1,690 

62 

7,532 

120,769 

2 

115 
18.347 


Governor.. 
Governor .. 


Capt.  Gen. 
Lt.  Gov.... 
Lt.Gov.... 


President.. 
Capt.   Gen 


President.. 
Adminis... 
Capt.    Gen 


Lt.  Gov. 


AdminlB.. 


Lt.  Gov... 
President. 


Lt.  Gov... 
Governor  . 
President. 
President. 


Rep 

Emperor... 

King 

King 

President.. 


Duke 

Burgoin 

Duke 

Burgom 

G.Duke.... 

Prince 

Prince 

Burgom 

G.Duke.... 
G.Duke.... 
G.Duke..-- 

King 

Prince 

Prince 

Duke 

Duke 

Duke 

G.Duke.... 

King 

Prince 

Prince 

Prince 

G.Duke.... 

King 

G.Duke.... 

Prince 

King 

Queen  

Governor .. 
Governor .. 
Governor . . 
King 


Capital. 


Bridgetown. 

Hamilton. 

Wiliiamstadt. 

Havana. 

Rosseau. 

St.  George. 

Basse  Terre. 

Port  au  Prince. 

Spanish  Town. 

Port  Royal. 

Plymouth. 

Charlestown. 

San  Juan. 

Gustavia. 

Basse  Terre. 

Castries. 


Kingston. 
San  Domingo. 
Christianstadt- 
Scarboro. 
Port  Espana. 
Grand  Turk. 
Road  Town. 


Andorra. 
Vienna. 
Brussels. 
Copenhagen. 


Paris. 


Dessau. 

Bremen. 

Brunswick. 

Hamburg. 

Darmstadt. 

Detmold. 

Buckburg. 

Lubeck. 

Schwerin. 

New  Strelitz- 

Oldenburg. 

Berlin. 

Greiz. 

Schleiz. 

Altenburg. 

Coburg. 

Meiningen. 

Weimar. 

Dresden. 

Rudolstadt. 

Sonderhausen, 

Corbach. 


Carlsruhe. 

Munich. 

Darmstadt. 

Lichtenstein. 

Stuttgardt. 

London. 

Gibraltar. 

Heligolanil. 

Malta. 

Athens. 


STATISTICS   OF   THE   WORLD. 


731 


Countries. 


Ionian  iBlands 

Italy 

Monaco 

Netherlands 

Luxemburg , 

Portugal , 

Azores  and  Madeira. 

RuBsid 

San  Marino... 

Spain 

Sweden 

Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey , 

Montenegro 

Rouraania 

Servia 

ASIA. 

Anam  (C.  CUna) 

Arabia - 

Borneo 

Britisli  India 

Burmah 

Ceylon 

China 

Japan 

Java 

Persia 

Siam 

Tartary 

Turkey  in  Asia 

AFBICA. 

Abyssinia 

Algeria 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.. 

Bgypt 

Gambia 

Gold  Coast 

Lagos 

Liberia 

Madagascar 

Morocco 

Natal 

Sierra  Leone 

St.  Helena 

Tripoli ,... 

Tunis 

Zanzibar 

AUSTRALIA, 

New  South  Wales 

Queensland 

South  Australia 

Tasmania 

Victoria 

Western  Australia 

POLYNESIA. 

Peejee  Islands 

New  Guinea 

New  Zealand 

Philippine  Islands... 

Sandwich  Islands 

Society  Islands 


Population. 


251,712 
766,217 

1,887 
652,070 
199,958 
829,618 
363,658 
,400,000 

5,770 
,302,625 
,158,757 
,712,628 
,510,494 
,510,000 
196,238 
,864,848 
,078,281 


9,000,000 

4,000,000 

25,000,000 

192,012,1.37 

4,000,000 

2,061,395 

477,500,000 

35,000,000 

14,168,416 

11,000,000 

6,298,990 

7,870,000 

16,463,000 


3,000,000 
2,921,846 

566,158 

7,465,000 

6,939 

262,000 

110,000 

717,500 
5,000,000 
2,750,000 

193,103 

41,497 

6,444 

750,000 
2,000,000 

380,000 


447,620 
109,897 
176,298 

98,455 
70:J,817 

21,065 


200,000 

1,000,000 

220,092 

2,250,000 

62.959 

15,000 


Square  miles.  Title  of  Ruler        Capital. 


1,006 

114,389 

15 

12,685 

991 

36,494 

1,483 

7,862,568 

22 

195,607 

128,776 

120,295 

15,722 

131,295 

1,709 

46,710 

21,218 


198,043 

1,026,040 

300,000 

1,545,336 

190,517 

24,454 

4,695,-334 

149,399 

51,336 

562,:J44 

309,024 

640,516 

660,870 


148,392 
259,313 
200,610 
659,081 
21 
6,000 

9,567 

232,315 

6?i,:J00 

16,150 

468 

47 

61,760 

50,000 

1,600 


323,437 
678,600 
383,328 
28,215 
86,831 
978,000 


8,033 

275,518 

106,261 

56.000 

7,633 

700 


King 

Prince 

King 

King 

Czar 

Repub 

Repub 

King 

President.. 

Sultan 

Prince 

Prince 

Prince 


Emperor... 


Gov.  Gen.. 

Comm 

Governor  .. 
Emperor... 

Mikado 

Gov.  Gen.. 

Schah 

King 


Emperor.. 
Gov.  Gen. 
Governor . 
Viceroy... 
Adminis.. 
Adminis.. 

President. 

Queen 

Sultan 

Lt.  Gov... 
Governor  . 
Governor  . 

Bey 

Bev 

Sultan 

Governor . 
Capt.  Gen. 
Governor  . 
Governor . 
Capt.  Gen. 
Governor . 


King 

Governor 

King 

Queen  ... 


Rome. 

Hague. 

Lisbon. 

St.  Petersburgh» 
San  Marino. 
Madrid. 
Stockholm. 

Berne. 

Constantinople. 

Cettinge. 

Bucharest. 

Belgrade. 


Hue. 
Muscat. 

Calcutta. 

Ava. 

Colombo. 

Pekin. 

Yeddo. 

Batavia. 

Teheran. 

Bangkok. 

Bokhara. 


Gondar. 

-\lgiers. 

Cape  Town. 

Cairo. 

Bathurst. 

Cape  C'st  Castle. 

Lagos. 

Monrovia. 

Antinarivo. 

Fez. 

Port  Natal. 

Freetown. 

James  Town. 

Tripoli. 

Tunis. 

Zanzibar. 

Sydney. 
Port  Denison. 
Adelaide. 
Hobart  Town. 
Melbourne. 


Auckland. 
Manilla. 
HoBoluln. 
Tahiti. 


732  CREEDS   OF    THE   WORLD. 


STATISTICS    OF   THE   EACE. 

The  earth  i8  inhabited  by  about  1,380,000,000  of  inhabitants,  namely: 
380,000,000  of  the  Caucasian  race,  200,000,000  of  the  Ethiopian, 

580,000,000  of  the  Mongolian,  220,000,000  of  the  Malay  races,  and 

1,000,000  of  the  American  Indian. 

All  these  respectively  speak  3064  languages,  and  possess  1,000  different  religions. 

The  amount  of  deaths  per  annum  is  3:^,333,333,  or  91,954  per  day,  3730  per  hour,  60  per 
minute,  or  one  per  second.    This  loss  is  compensated  by  an  equal  number  of  births. 

The  average  duration  of  life  throughout  the  globe  is  thirty-three  years.  One-fourth  of 
its  population  dies  before  the  seventh  year,  and  one-half  before  the  seventeenth.  Out  of 
10,000  persons  only  one  reaches  his  hundredth  year;  only  one  in  500  his  eightieth ;  and 
only  one  in     100  his  sixty-fifth. 

Married  people  live  longer  than  unmarried  ones,  and  a  tall  man  is  likely  to  live  longer 
than  a  short  one.  Until  the  fiftieth  year  women  have  a  better  chance  of  life  than  men ; 
but  beyond  that  period  the  chances  are  equal. 

Sixty-five  persons  out  of  one  thousand  marry.  The  months  of  June  and  December  ore 
those  in  which  marriages  are  most  frequent. 

Children  born  in  spring  are  generally  stronger  than  those  born  in  other  seasons. 

Births  and  deaths  chiefly  occur  at  night. 

The  number  of  men  able  to  bear  arms  is  but  one-eighth  of  the  population. 

AFRICANS   IN   AMERICA. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  some  14,580,000  persons  of  African  descent  on  this  conti- 
nent. In  the  United  States  they  number  4,880,000;  Brazil  4,200,000;  Cuba  a«d  Porto  Kico 
1,500,000;  South  and  Central  American  Rupublics  1,100,000;  Hay ti  1,350,000;  British.  Pos- 
eessions  800,000;  French,  250,000;  Dutch  and  Mexican  400,000. 

CREEDS   OF    THE   WORLD. 

The  population  of  the  world  is  religiously  distributed  very  nearly  in  the  following 
proportions : 

Christians 388,600,000  Pagans 200,000,000 

Buddhists 360,000,000  Mohammedans 165,000,000 

Other  Asiatic  religions...  260,000,000  Jews 7,000,000 

In  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and  many  of  the  Polynesian  Islands,  Christianity  ia 
the  prevailing  creed  of  every  State.  In  Africa  the  only  independent  Christian  States  are 
Abyssinia  and  Liberia,  while  Christianity  prevails  in  several  European  colonies.  The 
largest  empire  of  Asia — Russia — is  also  a  Christian  country.  India,  the  third  country  in 
point  of  extent,  is  under  the  rule  of  a  Christian  government,  and  so  is  a  large  portion  of 
Farther  India. 

The  Mohammedan  countries  in  Asia  are  Turkey,  Persia,  Affghanistan,  and  the  Khan- 
ates of  Central  Asia;  in  Africa  — Morocco,  the  dependencies  of  Turkey  (Egypt,  Tunis, 
Tripoli)  and  a  number  of  interior  States. 

Buddhism  "prey&Ws  in  India,  Farther  India,  in  many  parts  of  China,  and  in  Japan.  The 
governments  of  Burmah  and  Siam  are  Buddhist;  the  government  of  China  adheres  to  the 
religion  of  Confucius;  the  religion  of  Japan  is  Sintooism. 

Judaism  is  represented  throughout  the  civilized  world.  The  Handbuch  der  Vergleich- 
enden  Statistik  of  G.  Von  Kolb  (Leipzig,  1868)  gives  the  following  as  the  number  of  Jews 
in  the  countries  named  :  Germany,  478,500  ;  Austria,  1,124,000  ;  Great  Britain,  40,000  ; 
France,  80,000  ;  European  Russia,  2,277,000  ;  Italy,  20,200  ;  Switzerland,  4,200  ;  Belgium 
1,500:  Netherlands,  64,000;  Luxemburg,  1,500;  Denmark,  4,200  ;  Sweden,  1,000;  Greece, 
t500;  European  Turkey,  70,000.  The  Jews  in  Portugal  are  estimated  at  3,000;  in  Syria  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  52,000  ;  in  Morocco  and  North  Africa,  610,000  ;  in  Eastern  Asia,  500,800; 
in  America,  500,000. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


BY   JUDG^E   J.    C.   r>0^\^ER 

OF  THE  FIBST  DISTRICT  OF  IOWA. 


LEG^L    FOIl]Nd:S. 


FORM  OP  WILL. 

In  the  name  of  God,  Amen. 

I,  (give  name  of  testator)  of  (residence),  being  of  sound 
wiind  and  memory,  do  hereby  make,  publish,  and  declare  this 
to  be  my  last  Will  and  Testament,  hereby  revoking  and  making 
void  all  former  "Wills  by  me  at  any  time  heretofore  made. 

First — I  order  and  direct  my  Executors,  as  soon  after  my 
decease  as  practicable,  to  pay  off  and  discharge  all  the  debts, 
dues,  and  liabilities  that  may  exist  against  me  at  the  time  of 
my  decease. 

Second — I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  wife  (name).  (Here 
state  property  bequeathed.) 

Third — I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  son  (name).  (Here 
state  property  bequeathed.) 

Same  form  for  each  legacy. 

Fourth — I  hereby  nominate  and  appoint.  (Here  give  name 
of  person  or  persons  selected  as  Executors.) 

In  Witness  Whereof  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name 

this— day  of ^A.  D. 

Name. 

The  above  and  foregoing  instrument  was  at  the  date  thereof 

(733) 


734  LEGAL   F0RM8- 

fiigned,  sealed,  published,  and  declared,  by  the  said  (name  of 
testator),  as  and  for  his  last  Will  and  Testament,  in  presence 
of  us,  who,  at  his  request,  and  in  his  presence,  and  in  the 
presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names  as  witnesses. 

Name. Eesidence. 

!N^ame. Residence. 

Note. — Must  be  signed  by  the  testator  before  acknowledged 
by  him  to  be  his  will — and  must  be  signed  by  testator  in  pres- 
ence of  witnesses  —  or  acknowledged  by  him  in  presence  of 
witnesses.     Two  witnesses  are  necessary. 


ARTICLES  OP  CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

This  agreement,  made  and  entered  into  this day 

of ,  187 — ,  by  and  between 

of ,  and • ,  of 

Witnesseth  :  that  the  said  parties  hereby  agrco  to  become 

partners  in  the  business  of at . 

for  the  term  of ^years  from  the  date  hereof,  under  the 

firm  name  of . 


Said  parties  have  each  contributed  the  sum  of — — 

dollars  as  the  capital  stock  of  said  firm. 

Both  parties  are  to  devote  their  entire  time  and  skill  for  the 
common  benefit. 

All  expenses  of  the  business  and  all  losses  are  to  be  borne  in 
common,  and  the  profits  are  to  be  equally  divided. 

Books  of  account  are  to  be  kept,  in  which  shall  be  entered 
all  money  received  or  paid,  all  purchases  and  sales  of  goods, 
and  all  matters  of  account  relating  to  the  business  of  the  firm, 
which  shall  at  all  times  be  accessible  to  both. 

No  money  or  other  property  shall  be  withdrawn  by  either 
partner,  or  applied  to  his  own  use,  except  with  the  written 
consent  of  the  other  partner;  and  in  every  such  case  the  same 
shall  be  charged,  and  his  share  of  the  profits  shall  be  reduced 
in  proTX)rtion  to  the  amount  withdrawn. 


LEGAL   FORMS.  735 

Once  in  each  year  a  correct  account  shall  be  taken  and  stated 
on  tlie  ledger  of  all  stock  property  and  assets  of  the  firm,  and 
of  all  debts  and  liabilities. 

At  the  close  of  the  partnership  a  like  account  shall  be  taken 
and  stated,  and  the  stock  and  property,  and  the  debts,  shall  be 
equally  divided  after  payment  of  the  liabilities  of  the  firm. 

JN^o  debt  or  claim  of  the  firm  shall  be  released  or  settled  with- 
out payment  in  full,  unless  by  consent  of  both  partners. 

Neither  partner  shall  have  power  to  bind  the  firm  as  surety 
Jn  any  case;  and  neither  partner  shall  become  surety  for  another 
without  the  written  consent  of  the  other  partner. 

Witness  our  hands  and  seals  this,  the  day  and  date  above 
•vntten. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


AGREEMENT  TO  CONTINUE  A  CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

As  the  partnership  existing  between  the  undersigned  will 

expire  on  the day  of ,  187 — ,  it  is  hereby 

agreed  that  said  co-partnership  shall  continue  upon  the  same 
terms  and  conditions  as  provided  in  the  original  articles  of 

co-partnership  for  the  further  term  of from  the 

date  of  the  expiration  of  said  co-partnership  as  fixed  by  the 
said  articles. 

Witness  our  hands  (as  in  articles,  giving  date). 


AGREEMENT  for  DISSOLUTION  of  CO-PARTNERSHIP. 

The  undersigned  hereby  agree  that  the  co-partnership  exist- 
ing between  them,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  Articles  of  Co-part- 
nership signed  by  us,  be,  and  the  same  is  hereby,  dissolved, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  final  settlement  of  the  business 

thereof,  which  may  be  settled  by .     And  upon  such 

settlement,  then  said  co-partnership  shall  be  wholly  dissolved. 

Witness,  etc.  (as  above). 


'36  _  LEGAL    FORMS. 

POWER  OP  ATTORNEY. 
Enow  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I- 


of 5  hereby  make,  constitute,  and  appoint 

of ,  my  true  and  lawful  Attorney,  for  me,  and  in 

my  name,  place,  and  stead,  to  (here  state  duty  of  Attorney) 
granting  unto  my  said  Attorney  full  power  and  authority  to  do- 
and  perform  each  and  every  thing  necessary  and  proper  to  be 
done  in  the  performance  of  his  duty,  as  fully  as  I  might  or 
could  do  if  personally  present,  hereby  ratifying  and  confirming 
all  the  lawful  acts  of  my  said  Attorney,  done  under  and  by 
virtue  hereof. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this day  of 

A.  D.  187—. 

Name [seal.] 

Note. — To  be  signed  and  acknowledged  as  a  deed  for  th& 
conveyance  of  real  estate 


FORM  OP  SUBMISSION  TO  ARBITRATION. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  whereas  a  controversy 
is  now  existing  between  (name),  of  (residence),  and  (name), 
of  (residence),  touching  (here  state  nature  of  controversy): 

Now,  therefore,  we,  the  said  (here  give  names  of  parties),  do 
hereby  submit  said  controversy  to  the  decision  and  arbitration 
of  (here  give  names  of  three  persons  selected  as  arbitrators),. 
of  (here  state  residences),  and  do  covenant  each  with  the  other 
that  we  will  faithfully  keep  and  abide  by  the  decision  and  award 
that  they,  or  any  two  of  them,  may  make  in  writing — said 
award  to  be  made  and  signed  on  or  before  (here  give  date). 

And  it  is  agreed  by  the  parties  hereto,  that  the  party  that 
shall  fail  to  abide  by  and  observe  said  award,  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  foregoing  submission,  shall  forfeit  and  pay  to 
the  other  the  sum  of  (here  insert  amount). 

Witness  our  hands  this day  of A.  D. , 


-Name. 
-Name. 


LEGAL   FORMS.  737 

AWARD   OF    ARBITRATORS. 

The  undersigned  to  whose  arbitration  was  submitted  the 
matters  in  controversy  between  (here  give  names  of  parties)  as 
more  fullj  appears  by  their  written  subrai^ion  hereto  attached, 

Report  that  on  the  day  of A.  D.  18 — ,  after  having 

been  duly  sworn  according  to  law,  and  having  given  both 

parties day's  notice  in  writing  of  the  tirtie  and  place  of 

oui'  meeting  to  consider  said  matter,  we  proceeded  to  the  dis- 
cliarge  of  our  duty;  said  (name  of  party)  appearing  in  person 
(if  by  Att'y  also  so  state,)  and  said  (name  of  party)  appearing 
in  person  (if  by  Att'y  also  so  state.)  And  having  heard  the 
allegations  and  proofs  of  said  parties,  and  the  witnesses  intro- 
duced by  them,  and  having  examined  the  matter  in  contro- 
versy submitted  by  them,  do  make  and  declare  this  as  and  for 
our  award. 

Here  state  findings  of  Arbitrators. 

Witness  our  hands  this day  of A.  D. . 

— Name. 

Name. 


-Name. 


GENERAL  FORM  FOR  AGREEMENT. 

This  Agreement  made  this day  of 187 — , 

oy  and  between of and 

of .    Witnesseth:  That  the  said for 

the  consideration  of  (here  state  nature  of  consideration)  to  be 
(if  money  paid,)  (if  work  or  labor  or  delivery  of  property)  to 
be  performed  or  delivered  as  hereafter  provided,  hereby  agrees 
that  (state  agreement  of  this  party  fully.) 

And  for  the  consideration  above  mentioned  the  said 

hereby  agrees,  that  (state  agreement  of  this  party  fully.) 

In  witness  whereof,  we  hereto  subscribe  our  names  and  aflSx 
OUT  seal  this  day  and  date  first  above  written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


I'dS  LEGAL   FORMS. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  SALE  OP  PERSONAL  PROPERTY. 

This  Agreement,  made  this day  of 187 — , 

between of and of . 

Witnesseth :    That  tlie  said in  consideration  of  the 

agreements  on  the  part  of hereafter  named,  agrees 

to  and  with  the  said that  on  or  before  the — 

day  of ,  187 — ,  he  will  deliver  to  the  said 

at  (state  place  of  delivery,)  the  following  property  (state  kind 
of  property). 

And  the  said in  consideration  of    the  aforesaid 

agreements  and  promises  on  the  part  of  the  said , 

hereby  promises  and  agrees  to  and  with  the  said , 

thathe  will  pay  to  him  (state  price  to  be  paid)  said  payments 
to  be  made  as  follows  (state  how  and  when.) 

In  witness  whereof,  we  hereto  subscribe  our  names  and  affiy 
our  seals  this  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  SALE  OP  REAL  ESTATE. 

This  Agreement,  made  this day  of 187 — , 

by  and  between of and of 

.     Witnesseth:     That  for  and  in  consideration  of 

the  sum  of dollars,  to  be  paid  by  the  said 


to  the  said as  follows  (state  manner  of  payment),  the 

Bald ^hereby  promises  and  agrees  to  convey  by  (state 

nature  of  conveyance,  whether  warranty  or  quit  claim),  the 

following  described  real  estate  situate  in county.  State 

of .  (Give  description  of  land.)    And  the  said 

hereby  promises  to  pay  said the  sum  of 

dollars  as  above  provided. 

And  upon  the  payment  in  full  of  said  amount,  then  said 
•onveyance  is  to  be  executed  and  delivered. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  hereunto  subscribe  our  names  and 
aflSx  our  seals  this  the  day  and  date  above  written. 

Name -[seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


LEGAL   FORMS.  739 

Note. — To  be  executed  and  acknowledged  as  a  deed  for  real 
estate. 

FORM  OF  LEASE. 

Agreement  of  Lease,  made  this day  of- 


between of-  and of ,      Wit- 

nesseth :     That  the  said —agrees  to  pay  to , 

dollars  per for  the  rent  of  the  house  and  prem- 


ises on  (description  of  land.) 

The  said agrees  to  use  said  premises  for  no  other 

purpose  than ,   and  not  underlet  the  same  without  the 

written  consent  of — .     This  lease  to  commence  on  the 

day  of 187 — ,  and  continue  until  the 

day  of 187 — .     The  rent  to  be  paid  {state  how)  to  the 

said at .     A  failure  to  pay  the  rent  as 

agreed,  or  to  comply  with  any  of  the  stipulations  of  their 
lease  by ,  shall  authorize  the  said to  con- 
sider the  same  forfeited;  and  he  may  take  possession  of  the 
premises  without  notice  and  without  process  of  law,  or  he  may 
bring  his  action  as  allowed  by  law  to  recover  possession. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  hereunto  subscribe  our  names  and 
affix  our  seals  this  the  day  and  date  first  above  written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


FORM  OF  DEED. 

This  Deed,  made  this day  of 187—,     Wit- 

nesseth:     That  for  the  consideration  of dollars,  we 

■ of county,  State  of ,  hereby 

sell  and  convey  unto of county.  State  of 

,  all  the  following  described  real  estate,  situate  in 

connty.  State  of  Iowa.     (Here  give  a  description  of 

the  land)  together  with  all  the  estate,  title,  and  interest,  dower, 
and  right  of  dower  of  the  said  grantors,  or  either  of  them. 

And  we  hereby  warrant  the  title  to  said  premises  against  all 
persons  whomsoever  (or  if  quit  claim  say),  and  we  hereby  quit 
claim  all  our  right,  title  and  interest  in  and  to  said  premises  to 
the  grantees  herein. 


740  LEGAL    FORMS. 

"Witness  our  hands  and  seals  this  the  day  and  date  above 
written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 

The  State  of i 

County.       (  ®^- 


Be  it  Remembered,  That  on  this day  of- 


187 — ,  belbre  me  a within  and  for  said  county  and 

State,  personally  appeared ,  who     personally  knowL 

to  me  to  be  the  identical  person  whose  name affixed  to  the 

foregoing  deed  as  grantor,  and  she    acknowledged  the  same 

to  be  her  voluntary  act  and  deed,  and  the  said ,  having 

been  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  hereof,  and  the  nature 
of  the  above  instrument  having  been  fully  explained  to  her, 
and  having  been  examined  by  me  separate  and  apart  from  her 
husband,  acknowledged  that  she  signed  and  executed  the  said 
deed  freely  and  voluntarily,  and  without  compulsion,  and  that 
she  does  not  desire  to  retract  the  same. 

In  witness  whereofj  I  hereto  set  my  hand  and seal 

this  the  day  and  date  last  above  written. 

Name [seal.] 

Note. — It  is  better  in  all  cases  to  have  two  witnesses  to  the 
signatures,  as  the  fact  that  such  signatures  are  witnessed  will 
never  invalidate  the  conveyance;  and  in  some  States  the 
instrument  is  void  without  such  witnesses. 


MORTGAGE  DEED. 

This  Deed,  made  this day  of ,  187 — ,  Wit- 

nesseth:    That  for  the  consideration  of dollars,  we 

of county,  State  of ,  hereby 

sell  and  convey  unto of all  the  following 

described  real  estate,  situate  in county.  State  of 

— ^ to- wit:     (Here  describe  real  estate.) 

And  we  hereby  warrant  the  title  to  said  premises  against  all 
persons  whomsoever. 

This  deed  to  be  void,  however,  on  condition pay.    (State 

nature  of  indebtedness,  time  and  manner  of  payment.) 


LEGAL  FOEMS.  74  j 

(It  homestead  say),  and  the  property  conv^ed  being  our 
homestead,  we  hereby  expressly  waive  all  benefit  of  the  home- 
stead and  exemption  laws,  and  consent  that  said  property  shall 
be  liable  for  the  payment  of  said  indebtedness.  Otherwise  of 
force  and  virtue. 

Witness  our  hands  and  seals  this  the  day  and  date  above 
"written. 

Name [seal.] 

Name [seal.] 


NEGOTIABLE  NOTE. 

$200  Chicago,  111.,  May  Ist,  1873. 

One  year  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Felix 
Welty,  two  hundred  dollars,  with  ten  per  cent,  interest  from 
date,  for  value  received.  Name 


NON-NEGOTIABLE  NOTE. 

$200  CmcAGo,  111.,  May  1st.,  1873. 

One  year  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  Felix  Welty,  two  hun- 
dred dollars,  with  ten  per  cent,  interest  from  date,  for  value 
received.  Name 


NOTE  TRANSFERABLE  BY  DELIVERY. 

$200  Chicago,  May  1st,  1873. 

One  year  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  Felix  Welty  or  bearer, 
two  hundred  dollars,  with  ten  per  cent.  Interest  from  date,  for 
value  received. 

Note. — If  joint  note  say  "  we."  If  joint  and  several  say 
^  we  or  either  of  us." 

Name 


DUE  BILL. 

Due  Felix  Welty,  two  hundred  dollars,  value  received. 
May  Ist,  1873.  Name 


RECEIPT. 

Chicago,  111.,  May  Ist,  1873. 
Received  of  Willis  Moran  one  hundred  dollars,  in  full  of  all 


742  LEGAIi   FACTS. 

claims  or  demands,  of  each  and  every  kind  held  by  me  against 
him.  Name . 

Note. — If  in  satisfaction  or  payment  of  any  particular  daij«Vj 
to  state. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 
oa  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are : 


^i!»;!S2^ 


f?tC  D  LD 


i  ».c-v-* 


LD  21A-50m-8,'61 
(Cl795sl0)476B 


WAR  is  196? 


TjTT^F 


n  LP 


DCCl8'6r9ftM 


General  Library 
University  of  California 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


